Chemical and Electro-Chemical Energy Based Processes 4.

UNIT IV

CHEMICAL AND
ELECTRO-CHEMICAL ENERGY
BASED PROCESSES

Regulation 2008

Chemical machining and Electro-Chemical machining

(CHM and ECM)-Etchants – Maskant - techniques of applying
maskants - Process Parameters – Surface finish and
MRR-Applications. Principles of ECM- equipments-Surface
Roughness and MRR Electrical circuit-Process Parameters-ECG and
ECH - Applications.

Regulation 2013

Chemical machining and Electro-Chemical machining

(CHM and ECM)-Etchants – Maskant - techniques of applying
maskants - Process Parameters – Surface finish and
MRR-Applications. Principles of ECM- equipments-Surface
Roughness and MRR Electrical circuit-Process Parameters-ECG and
ECH - Applications.

4.1 CHEMICAL MACHINING

 Chemical machining process may be the well
known oldest nontraditional machining method
which was used to shape copper with citric acid
in Ancient Egypt in 2300 BC.
 The process is defined as “the controlled
chemical dissolution of the machined workpiece
material in contact with a strong acidic or
alkaline chemical reagent”.
4.2 Unconventional Machining Processes

 During machining special coatings called

maskants are applied to protect areas from
where the metal is not to be removed.
 The main industrial application of chemical
machining developed after the Second World
War.
 In 1953, North American Aviation Inc.
(California USA) used the process for aluminium
components for rockets.
There are several factors contributing to the
popularity of chemical machining process

(a) Chemical machining process is mature and well

established.
(b) It is simple to implement.
(c) There is no additional cleaning step needed.
(d) Cheaper machining process.

4.1.1 Steps involved in chemical machining

In chemical machining technique the following steps
are followed to machine the work piece.

1. Cleaning the Work piece.

2. Coating with masking material
3. Scribing of the maskant
4. Etching of required portion
5. Cleaning masking material

1. Cleaning the Work piece

 In the beginning of the chemical machining
process the workpiece material has to be
cleaned.
 Chemical and Electro-Chemical Energy Based Processes 4.3

 The cleaning process is carried out to remove

the oil, grease, dust, rust or any substance from
the surface of material.
 There are two methods of cleaning
 Chemical method
 Mechanical method
 The most widely used cleaning process is
chemical method as less damages occur when
compared to mechanical method.

2. Coating with masking material

 After cleaning the workpiece, it should be coated
with the maskant material.
 Generally maskant protects the workpiece from
etching.
 The selected masking material should be a
readily strippable mask, which is chemically
impregnable and adherent enough to stand
chemical abrasion during etching.
 The selection of mask depends on the size of the
workpiece material, the number of parts to be
produced and the desired detail geometry.
 Silk-screen masks are preferred for shallow cuts
requiring close dimensional tolerances.

3. Scribing of the maskant

 In this step, maskant is removed from the
portion where the material needs to be removed
to get the desired shape and profile.
4.4 Unconventional Machining Processes

 For simple profiles knife can be used. To

produce complicated profiles, computer controlled
systems are used.
4. Etching of required portion
 This step is the most important stage to produce
the required component from the sheet material.
 The workpiece material is immersed into selected
etchant and the uncovered areas are machined.
 This process is generally carried out in elevated
temperatures which are depended on the etched
material.
 This stage is carried out by immerse type
etching machine shown in the figure.

W ork P ie ce H anger
Stirrer
M ask U nder C ut

H eating
C hem ical R eage nt
C ooling

Fig. 4.1 Chemical machining

5. Cleaning masking material

 The final step of the chemical machining process
is to remove the maskant from the workpiece.
 Chemical and Electro-Chemical Energy Based Processes 4.5

 After removing, the workpiece is cleaned and

inspected for the dimensions and surface quality
of the component produced.
Maskant
 Masking material which is called maskant is
used to protect workpiece surface from chemical
etchant.
 Polymer or rubber based materials are generally
used for masking purpose.
 Multiple maskant coatings are used to provide
a higher etchant resistance.
 The selected maskant material should have the
following properties,
1. It should be tough enough to withstand handling.
2. Maskant should be well adhering to the work
piece surface.
3. It should be easy for scribing.
4. Material should be able to withstand the heat
used during chemical machining.
Possible maskant materials for different work piece
materials are given in Table
Table 1. Masking materials for various chemical
machined materials

Workpiece material Masking material

Aluminium and alloys Polymer, Butyl rubber neoprene
From based alloys Polymer, Polyvinyl chloride,
Polyethylene butyl rubber.
Nickel Neoprene
4.6 Unconventional Machining Processes

Workpiece material Masking material

Magnesium Polymer
Copper and alloys Polymer
Titanium Polymer
Silicon Polymer

4.1.2 Methods of applying the maskants

Generally the maskants can be applied by any one
of the following methods.
 Cut and peel method
 Photographic resist method
 Screen resist method.
Etchants
 Etchant is the chemical solution filled in the
tank which induces the chemical reaction to
remove the material.
 Etchants are the most influential factor in the
chemical machining of any material.
 The best etchant should have the following
properties
(a) It should have high etch rate.
(b) It must produce good surface finish.

(c) It must produce minimum undercut.

(d) It must be compatible to commonly used

maskants.

(e) Easy control of process should be ensured.

(f) Etchants used should not affect the machine
components and ensure the personal safety.
 Chemical and Electro-Chemical Energy Based Processes 4.7

 Ferric chloride (FeCl3) is the most widely used

etchant in chemical machining.
 Cupric chloride (CuCl2) is generally applied for
copper and copper based alloys in electronics
industry because various regeneration systems
are available for the waste etchant.
 Alkaline etchants are introduced to the
fabrication of electronic components such as
printed circuit board.
Some of the commonly used enchants in the
industries are listed in the table.
Table 2. Commonly used etchants

Material Chemical etchant

Aluminium and alloys FeCl2

Copper and alloys FeCl2

CuCl2

Alkaline etchants
Steel FeCl2

Nickel FeCl2

Titanium HJF
Magnesium HNO 2

Glass HF
HF  HNO 2

Silicon HNO 2  H F  H 2O
4.8 Unconventional Machining Processes

4.1.3 Process parameters

The performance of the chemical machining can be
normally measured in terms of

 Etch factor (d/t)

 Tolerance produced
 Surface finish obtained
 Machining rate.
These output responses can be controlled by
properly controlling the following process parameters.

 The type of chemical solution used.

 Concentration of the chemical solution
 Operating temperature
 Type of maskant used
4.1.4 Advantages of chemical machining
1. Any material irrespective of the it’s mechanical
properties can be machined.
2. Low tooling cost.
3. Simultaneous material removal can be possible
from different surfaces of the work piece.
4. No burr formation during operation.
5. No stress is induced in the work piece.
6. Possible to change the design easily and quickly.
7. Less skilled operator is sufficient to control the
process.
8. It is possible to get good surface quality
9. Low scrap rates (3%).
4.1.5 Disadvantages of chemical machining
1. In this process it is difficult to get sharp corner.
 Chemical and Electro-Chemical Energy Based Processes 4.9

2. Difficult to chemically machine thick material

(limit is depended on work piece but the thickness
should be around maximum 10 mm)
3. Scribing accuracy is very limited, causes less
dimensional accuracy
4. Chemical etchants are very dangerous for
operators.
5. Disposal of etchant are very expensive.
6. Time consuming process.

4.1.6 Applications
 The process can be used to remove the recast
layer from the parts machined by EDM.
 Any shape and size of the components can be
easily machined.
 All the common materials Al, Cu, Zn, steel,
nickel can be machined.
 Exotic materials such as titanium, molybdenum,
zirconium can also machined.
 The process can also machine the non metallic
materials.

4.2 ELECTRO CHEMICAL MACHINING

 The process of metal removal by electro chemical
dissolution was started long back in 1780 AD.
 The first significant development occurred in
1950s, when the process was investigated as a
method for shaping high strength alloys.
 The process is also known as contactless
electro chemical forming process.
4.10 Unconventional Machining Processes

 Electro chemical machining is the reverse of

electroplating process, where the metal can be
depleted from the anode and plated on the
cathode.
 The process works on the basis of electrolysis
principle.
 The noteworthy feature of the electrolysis is that
electrical energy is used to produce a chemical
reaction, therefore the machining process based
on this principle is known as Electro Chemical
machining.
 Electro Chemical Machining is described as “the
controlled removal of material by anodic
dissolution of the workpiece in an electrolytic
cell in which the workpiece acts as an anode
and the tool acts as a cathode.
4.2.1 Electrolysis
 Electrolysis is a chemical process, which occurs
when an electric current is passed between the
two conductors, dipped into a liquid solution
named as electrolyte.
 The conductor connected to the positive terminal
is referred as anode and one connected to the
negative terminal is referred as cathode.
 The system of electrodes and electrolyte is
referred as electrolytic cell.
 The chemical reactions which occur at the
electrodes are called as anodic reaction and
cathodic reaction.
 Chemical and Electro-Chemical Energy Based Processes 4.11

Faraday’s law of electrolysis

 Michael Faraday discovered and established the
basic laws of electrolysis in 1833.
 The results of electrolysis are embodied in
Faraday’s two laws of electrolysis as below,
1. The amount of any substance dissolved (or)
deposited is directly proportional to the
amount of electricity which has flowed.
2. The amount of different substances
deposited or dissolved by the same quantity
of electricity are proportional to their
chemical equivalent weights.
 The two laws may be combined to give the
equation,
M  AIt/ZF

M – Mass dissolved from or deposited upon

A – Atomic weight
I – Current
t – Time
Z – Valency, A/Z is the chemical equivalent
F. – Faraday’s constant

 Faraday’s constant is the amount of electrical

charge necessary to liberate one gram equivalent
(A/Z) of an ion in electrolysis and is equal to
96500 Coloumbs.

Functions of Electrolysis
 For completing the electric circuit between the
tool and the work piece and to allow the reaction
to proceed efficiently.
4.12 Unconventional Machining Processes

 To remove the products of machining from the

cutting region.
 To carry away the heat generated during the
chemical reaction.
 To avoid ion concentration at the work piece-
tool gap.
4.2.2 Elements of Electro chemical machining
The Electro Chemical Machining system has the
following major elements.

Fu m e Extractor
Po w er
Su pp ly
En closure
Vo ltm e ter

-ve Filte r

Am m eter Too l

W ork
Piece
Insu latio n
Fixture
+ve
Ba se

Electrolyte Pu m p
Electrolyte Filtration R ese rvoir

Fig. 4.2 Electro chemical machining

1. Power Supply

2. Electrolyte supply and cleaning system

3. Tool and tool feed system

 Chemical and Electro-Chemical Energy Based Processes 4.13

4. Work piece and work handling system.

1. Power supply
 During machining, across the Inter Electrode
Gap (IEG) a high value of direct current around
40000 A and a low value of electric potential in
the range of 5 – 25 V are desirable.
 Rectifier and transformer is used to convert
three phase AC into low voltage, high current
DC.
 Normally Silicon Controlled Rectifiers (SCRs)
are used, because of their rapid response to the
process load change and compactness.
 Electrical circuit detects the sparking between
the tool and work, and power supply is cut off
using the device SCRs, within 10 microseconds
to prevent damage to the electrode and work.
 Sparking may occur due to poor process control,
equipment failure, and operators error, etc.,

2. Electrolyte supply and filtering system

 This system includes pump, filter, piping, control
valves, pressure gauges and a storage tank.
 The main purpose is to ensure the smooth flow
of electrolyte to the machining zone.
 Generally Inter Electrode Gap (IEG) in range of
0.05 – 0.7 mm should be maintained for
achieving higher MRR, higher accuracy and
better surface finish.
 Normally electrolyte flows through the IEG at a
velocity of 30 – 60 m/s.
4.14 Unconventional Machining Processes

 Purity of the electrolyte is maintained with the

help of filter, which is normally made of
anti-corrosive materials.

Electrolyte:
The main functions of electrolyte used in ECM are,

 Carrying away the heat generated during

the process.
 Completing the electric circuit between tool
and work piece.
 Removing the products of machining from
the machine zone.
The electrolyte should possess the following
properties

 It should possess high electrical conductivity.

 It should have low viscosity to ensure the
easy flow.
 It must have high specific heat.
 It should be non corrosive and non toxic in
nature.
 It should be chemically stable.

3. Tool and Tool feed system

 Dimensional accuracy and surface finish of the
tool will directly affect the work piece accuracy
and surface finish. Because the shape of the tool
is same (mirror image) as work piece to be
produced.
 The tool feed system ensures the constant IEG.
For that, as the machining proceeds, the cathode
 Chemical and Electro-Chemical Energy Based Processes 4.15

is moved towards the anode at the rate of 0.02

mm/s.
 The tool materials should have the following
properties,
 The tool material should be a good conductor
of electricity.
 It should be rigid enough to take loads.
 It should be chemically inert to the
electrolyte.
 It should be easily machinable.
 The following are the commonly used tool
materials
Copper, brass, titanium, Copper tungsten, Stainless
steel, Aluminum, graphite, bronze, platinum, tungsten
carbide.

4. Workpiece and work handling system

 The chemical properties of the workpiece
(Anode) material largely affect the MRR.
 Only electrically conductive materials can be
machined by this method.
 Work holding system is usually made of
electrically non conductive material.
4.2.3 Working principle
 The workpiece and tool are connected to positive
and negative terminal of the power supply and
made as anode and cathode respectively.
 A suitable electrolyte is chosen, so that the
shape of the cathode remains unchanged during
electrolysis process.
4.16 Unconventional Machining Processes

 Direct current around 40000 A and a potential

difference in the range of 5 – 25 V is applied.
 Electrolyte is pumped through the gap between
the electrodes at the rate of 3 – 30 m/s.
 Through electrolyte the circuit gets closed and
induces a chemical reaction which results in
material removal from the anode.
 This flow of electrolyte removes the products of
machining and unwanted chemical effects from
the working zone.
 As the machining proceeds, the cathode is moved
towards the anode at the rate of 0.02 mm/s to
maintain the constant Inter Electrode Gap.
 In ECM, the rate of metal removal from the
anode is approximately in inverse proportion to
the distance between the electrodes.

4.2.7 Process parameters

 The performance of the Electro Chemical
machining depends upon the proper control of
the process parameters.
 The following are the different process
parameters that need to be controlled.
 Power supply

 Type of power supply – AC / DC

 Voltage – 30 V
 Current – 40000 A
 Current Density – 500 A/cm2

 Electrolyte
 Chemical and Electro-Chemical Energy Based Processes 4.17

 Type of electrolyte

 Temperature (25  50C ) and velocity of

electrolyte (3 – 30 m/sec)
 Flow rate (16 LPM – 20 LPM)
 Inter Electrode Gap (IEG) – (0.075 – 0.75mm)
 Electrode material

4.2.5 Metal Removal Rate

 Metal Removal Rate in ECM depends on current
density. Current density depends on the
following factors.
 Conductance of electrolyte
 Volume across the electrodes
 Shape of the electrodes
 Distance between the electrodes normally
measured as IEG.
 If the IEG is too small, there is danger of
sludge bridging the gap between the tool
and the work piece which leads to short
circuit.
 If gap is too large, then current density
reduces which leads to poor surface finish
and reduced MRR.

4.2.6 Process capabilities

 The process has the capacity to produce
components with the tolerance range of 0.025
mm by controlling the process parameters
properly.
4.18 Unconventional Machining Processes

 Capable of achieving high accuracy and

repeatability of 0.1mm for position of holes and
5% for the hole diameter.
 It is possible to machine both conductive as well
as non conductive materials.
4.2.7 Advantages
 The process has been widely used in the
manufacturing of semi conductor devices.
 Materials irrespective of their mechanical
properties can be easily machined.
 Honeycomb structures (Thin Structures) can be
easily produced.
 Better surface finish can be obtained.
 Components made by ECM have good corrosion,
friction, and wear resistant properties.
 Disposal of chips is not a problem as in the case
of conventional machining.
 Used to produce holes in wire drawing die,
cooling holes in turbine blades, holes in the
nozzles etc.,
4.2.8 Disadvantages
 Cost of the equipment is comparatively high.
 Specific power consumption is high. (Specific
power consumption is the ratio of power
consumed to volume MRR).
 Tooling cost is high.
 Design and manufacturing of tool electrode is
very difficult.
 Sharp corners cannot be produced.
 Chemical and Electro-Chemical Energy Based Processes 4.19

4.2.9 Comparison of EDM and ECM

Table 3. Comparison of EDM and ECM

Electrical Electro
Characteristics Discharge Chemical
machining Machining
Process basis Thermal based Electro Chemical
process based process
Mechanism of Melting and Controlled anodic
Material Removal Vaporization dissolution
Medium Dielectric fluid Deionized water
Current Density 6-8 A/Cm2 10 – 500 A/Cm2
Tool Wear Tool wear occurs No tool wear
based on process
parameters
selected.
Voltage DC 80 V to 200 V DC 4 V to 20 V
Post process Post processing is Cleaning and
requirement not necessary corrosion
protection
treatment is
necessary.
Tool Design Tool design is Tool is design is
easier difficult.

4.3 ELECTRO CHEMICAL HONING (ECH)

 Electro Chemical Honing is an electrochemical
(EC)-based hybrid machining process.
 It combines the faster material removal
capability of electrochemical machining (ECM)
4.20 Unconventional Machining Processes

process and controlled functional surface

generating capability of conventional honing in
a single action.
4.3.1 Elements of Electro Chemical Honing
 Electro Chemical Honing of the spur gear is
taken for understanding the concept of working
and elements of the system and this is proposed
by Chen et al.
 The elements of ECH consists of five major sub
systems
 Power supply system
 Electrolyte supply system
 Tooling system
 Tool-motion system
 Machining chamber
 Power supply unit

 The positive terminal of the power supply is

connected with anode or workpiece and the
negative terminal is connected to cathode.
 Power supply system of ECH consists of a
voltage (0 V–110 V) and DC (up to 100A)
supplying unit.
 For pulse-ECH, a voltage (0V–110V) and
pulsating DC (up to 100 A) supplying unit
with provision of changing pulse-off and
pulse-on time is used.
 Electrolyte supply system:

Electrolyte supply system consists of

 Chemical and Electro-Chemical Energy Based Processes 4.21

 Electrolyte reservoir,
 settling tank,
 pump,
 Flow-meter,
 Flow valves.
 Tooling system

 It consists of three types of gears: workpiece

gear, cathode gear and honing gear.
 The workpiece gear meshes with the honing gear
on one side and the cathode gear on the other side.
 A simultaneous rotational and reciprocating
motion is supplied to the axle of the work piece
gear by using a DC induction motor and a
programmable stepper motor, respectively.

P o w er
S u pply
C o pper
C o nnector

nd
C o ntrol 2 S tage
Valve Filter
E lectro lyte
Inlet
Pum p

W ork P ie ce
C a tho de
G ear
G ear
H o ning
G ear
S e ttling
E lectro lyte st
1 Stage Tank
S torage Filter
Tank

Fig. 4.3 Arrangement of ECH

4.22 Unconventional Machining Processes

 Machining chamber
 The machining chamber also has provisions for
supply of fresh electrolyte, for removal of used
electrolyte, and for escape of gases generated
during the ECH process.
4.3.2 Working Principle
 The workpiece gear, simultaneously rotating and
reciprocating as indicated by the arrow heads is
meshed with the abrasive-bonded honing gear
and specially shaped cathode gear.
 A proper electrolyte is flooded in between the
positive workpiece which acts as an anode and
negative cathode gear.
 A gap is provided between the work piece and
cathode gear as inter electrode gap (IEG) to
prevent short circuit.

H oning G ea r
W ork P iece Insulating
G ear Inte r
Electrode
G ap

C onducting

Insulating
C ross
Axis

Electroolyte
C athode
G ear
Fig. 4.4 Closeup view of gear arrangement
 Chemical and Electro-Chemical Energy Based Processes 4.23

 As DC supply is applied across the gap, the

metal is gradually removed from workpiece due
to Electro Chemical dissolution.
 The electrolyte forms a protective film on the
tooth surface, due to electrolyte passivation
during the process of metal removal from the
flank, which protects the surface from being
further removed.
 When this metal oxide microfilm–protected tooth
profile comes into contact with the honing tool,
the latter scrubs the protective film from the
high spots and produces fresh metal for further
EC dissolution.
 The honing gear is mounted on a floating stock
to ensure dual flank contact of hone and gear.
4.3.3 Process parameters
 ECH is a hybrid machining process of ECM and
conventional honing process and hence, its
parameters include
 The parameters related to ECM
 The parameters related to conventional
honing
 Some parameters related to work piece and
tooling.
 The process parameters of ECH can be broadly
classified into four groups and they listed below.
4.24 Unconventional Machining Processes

Table 4. Process parameter of ECH

Process Parameters Typical range

Power supply related parameters
Current 0-30 A
Voltage 0.35 V
Pulse-off time 1-9 ms
Pulse-on time 1000-2000 s
Duty cycle 0%-10%
Electrolyte-related parameters
Electrolyte The electrolyte selection depends
composition on anode-cathode combination.
This is a critical task. For iron
and iron base alloys NaCl,
mixture of NaCl and N aN O2 in
different ratios, etc. are
generally used.
Electrolyte Upto 10%
concentration
Electrolyte 20-40C
temperature
Electrolyte pressure 0.5-1 MPa
Electrolyte flow rate 20-90 l/min
Honing-related parameters
Type of abrasive Al 2O 3, SiO 2, sponge rubber
abrasives, etc.
Grit size 120-400
Bond Vitrified, resinoid
Honing pressure 0.5-3 MPs
 Chemical and Electro-Chemical Energy Based Processes 4.25

Process Parameters Typical range

Workpiece-related parameters
Workpiece material Any conducting material
Mechanical properties ECH overcomes the hardness
limitation shortcoming of other
gear finishing processes as, in
ECH of gears, most of the
material removal occurs due to
ECM action.
Rotating speed of 50-80 rpm
workpiece
IEG 1-2.5 mm

4.3.4 Advantages of ECH

1. The process is cost-effective and time-saving.
2. The material removal is not a limiting factor for
the process.
3. The work piece is free of thermal stresses as very
little amount heat is built up and very low
temperature is involved with the process.
4. The process leaves no significant residual stresses.
5. The process improves the surface finish as well as
fatigue life of gears and reduces the running noise.
4.4 ELECTRO CHEMICAL GRINDING (ECG)
 Electro Chemical Grinding is the hybrid
machining process in which, problems associated
with conventional grinding such as excessive
burrs, large Heat Affected Zone (AFZ) and
thermal residual stresses can be eliminated.
4.26 Unconventional Machining Processes

 During the process 10 % of material is removed

by mechanical abrasive action and 90% of
material is removed by electrochemical
dissolution.
 In ECG, a metal bonded grinding wheel is used
to make the electrically conductive wheel.
 Diamond particles (Good Insulator) are normally
used as an abrasive in the grinding wheel which
is embedded in copper matrix.
 The diamond abrasive particles protruding from
the surface of the grinding wheel will act as
insulating spacer between cathode and anode
which maintains the constant Inter Electrode
Gap (IEG).

B ru sh W he el (C ath od e)

-
C olle ctor
R ing
DC
pow er
supply E lectro lyte (S u pp ly)

Insu lated
spindle

W orkpie ce (A n od e)
+

Trough

D ra in to E lectrolyte Tan k

Fig. 4.5 Electro chemical Grinding

 Chemical and Electro-Chemical Energy Based Processes 4.27

 Normally work piece is connected to anode and

the grinding wheel is connected to cathode.
 A thin film of electrolyte is passed through the
IEG between the wheel and the work piece.
 Commonly used electrolytes are sodium chloride
(NaCl), Sodium Nitrate (NaNO3) which are same
as one used in the Electro Chemical machining.
 A D.C voltage of about 5 – 15 V is applied
between the work piece and grinding wheel
through the electrolyte which causes the
chemical reaction.
 The fast moving diamond abrasive provide
certain amount of mechanical grinding action
depending upon the contact pressure between
work piece and grinding wheel.
 During the grinding action it removes the
passive metal oxide layer from the work surface
and produces the good surface finish.
 The process also named as Electrolytic
grinding (or) Electrolytically assisted
grinding because, the grinding action takes
place in the presence of electrolyte.

4.4.1 Elements of Electro chemical Grinding

The important elements of Electro chemical grinding
process are ,

 Electrolyte
 Grinding wheel.
 Power supply
4.28 Unconventional Machining Processes

Electrolyte
 It serves both as electrolyte and as a coolant to
cool the wheel and the work piece.
 Of the total, 90% of the metal removal is done
by electrolytic action.
 Commonly used electrolytes are sodium chloride
(NaCl), Sodium Nitrade (NaNO3).

Grinding Wheel
 Grinding wheel used in this process is usually
metal bonded one, so that it can conduct current
during the process.
 Grinding wheel is usually connected with
cathode.
 Bronze, copper, silver or nickel is used as
bonding material which offers mechanically
strong and electrically conductive bond.
 Copper bond is commonly used.

Power Supply
 A D.C voltage of about 5 – 15 V is applied
between the work piece and grinding wheel
which induces the chemical reaction to remove
the material.

4.4.2 Metal Removal Rate in ECG

 The total metal removal in ECG = ( Volume of
Metal removed by Chemical action) + (Volume
of Metal removed by grinding action)
 In normal contact pressure (6 Kg/Cm2), 90% of
material is removed by chemical action and 10%
of material is removed by mechanical action.
 Chemical and Electro-Chemical Energy Based Processes 4.29

 Metal removal rate can be varied by varying the

contact pressure. For higher MRR, higher
contact pressure is used and vice versa.
 In other words, in one setting just by changing
the contact pressure, the same grinding wheel
is used for both finishing and roughing
operations. This is a unique feature of this
setup.
4.4.3 Process parameters
The following are the important process parameters
in Electro Chemical Grinding.
1. Contact Pressure
2. Grinding Wheel Speed
3. D.C Potential
4. Abrasive grain size.
1. Contact Pressure
 The contact
MRR

pressure plays a
crucial role in
material removal
rate.
 Generally higher C o nta ct P re ssure
Fig. 4.6
contact pressure
results in higher material removal rate.
2. Grinding Wheel Speed
 As the wheel speed is increased, MRR as well
as current density increases.
4.30 Unconventional Machining Processes

 Higher the
grinding wheel
speed, higher the

MRR
flow of electrolyte
and therefore
decreasing the W h e el S p ee d
effect of heat and Fig. 4.7
gas formation.

3. D.C Potential
 Only marginal increase in MRR due to increase
in D.C potential can be achieved.
 For example, in machining HSS, the increase in
MRR is proportional up to 10 V and then
decreases.

4. Abrasive grain size

 When wheel of smaller grains are used, the gap
formed between the sharp cutting edges are less,
and hence MRR will be high.

4.4.4 Process capabilities

 MRR achieved during the process may be as
high as 10 times compared to conventional
grinding.
 Process can able to produce the tolerance of
0.0025mm.
 Depending on the material, the process can
produce the surface finish from 0.2 m to 0.3 m

4.4.5 Advantages
 ECG is considered as a cold process, thus
prevents structural and grinding damage.
 Chemical and Electro-Chemical Energy Based Processes 4.31

 Harder materials can be easily machined.

 20 – 40 % reduction in cost of grinding can be
achieved.
 The total life of the grinding wheel is improved.
 During the process, no metallurgical damage to
the surface due to heat.
 Almost any conductive material can be
machined.
 Reduced heating of the work piece and therefore
less risk of thermal damage.
 Requires less frequent wheel dressing.

4.4.6 Disadvantages
 Initial investment needed for the equipment is
more than conventional grinding.
 Non conductive materials cannot be machined.
 Minimum accuracy can be possible when
machining inside corners.
 Skilled labor is required.
 Specimens show relatively poor fatigue strength.

4.4.7 Applications
 Process is used to produce tungsten carbide
tools.
 ECG is useful in the grinding of fragile parts
such as hypodermic needles and thin walled
tubes.
4.32 Unconventional Machining Processes

4.5 OTHER RELATED PROCESSES

Other related processes
1. Electro Stream Drilling (ESD)
2. Electro Chemical Debarring (ECD)
4.5.1 Electro Stream Drilling (ESD)
 This process uses a hollow metal tube as cathode
through which electrolyte flows at high velocity.
 This tube moves in the produced holes as the
drilling progresses.
 This process was employed for drilling
thousands of small cooling holes in nickel and
cobalt super alloys.
 In ESD, dilute solution of H 2SO 4 (or) HCl is
used as electrolyte.
 This process can be done in two ways.
 The first type is with zero feed rate and the
process is named as dwell drilling.
 The second type is with finite feed to the nozzle
and the process is known as penetration drilling.
 The process can be used to drill holes having
large depth and small diameter (higher aspect
ratio).
 In some special cases, 96 holes have been
simultaneously drilled in a turbine blade in a
period of just 1.5 min.
 Chemical and Electro-Chemical Energy Based Processes 4.33

4.5.2 Electro Chemical Deburring (ECD)

 This process involves the use of flowing
electrolyte for conduction of electric current for
electro chemical reaction to take place.
 The electrolyte commonly used is either sodium
chloride (or) sodium nitrate.

4.6. POINTS TO REMEMBER

Chemical Machining (CHM)
Steps in chemical machining
 Cleaning the workpiece material.
 Coating with maskant.
 Scribing the maskant.
 Etching the required portion.
 Cleaning the finished product.
Methods of applying maskants
 Cut and peel method.
 Photographic resist method.
 Screen resist method.
Process parameters
 Type of chemical solution.
 Concentration.
 Operating temperature.
 Type of maskant.
Electro Chemical Machining (ECM)
Elements
 Power supply.
4.34 Unconventional Machining Processes

 Electrolyte supply system.

 Tool & Tool feed system.
 Workpiece & work handling system.

Process parameters
 Power supply type.
 Electrolyte characteristics.
 Inter electrode gap.
 Electrode material.

Process capabilities
 Accuracy can be high with 0.1 mm repeatability.
 Tolerance of 0.025 mm.

Electro Chemical Honing (ECH)

Elements
 Power supply system
 Electrolyte supply system
 Tooling system
 Tool - motion system
 Machining chamber

Process parameters
 Type of power supply.
 Electrolyte composition.
 Electrolyte concentration.
 Type of abrasives.
 Honing pressure, etc.,
 Chemical and Electro-Chemical Energy Based Processes 4.35

Electro Chemical Grinding (ECG)

Elements of ECG
 Electrolyte and electrolyte supply system.
 Grinding wheel.
 Power supply.
Process parameters
 Contact pressure.
 Grinding wheel speed.
 D.C potential.
 Abrasive grain size.
Process capabilities
 May be 10 times higher than conventional
grinding.
 Maintains tolerance of 0.0025 mm.
 Surface finish may be from 0.2 to 0.3.

4.7 REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. What are the main functions of electrolysis in
the Electro Chemical Machining (ECM).
[May/ June 2014]
(i) For completing the electric circuit between the tool
and the work piece and to allow the reaction to
proceed efficiently.
(ii) To remove the products of machining from the
cutting region.
(iii) To carry away the heat generated during the
chemical reaction.
(iv) To avoid ion concentration at the work piece- tool
gap.
4.36 Unconventional Machining Processes

2. What are the parameters that affect the

material removal rate in Electro Chemical
grinding [May/ June 2014]
The following are the important process parameters
in Electro Chemical Grinding.

 Contact Pressure
 Grinding Wheel Speed
 D.C Potential
 Abrasive grain size
3. Why there is no need to have short circuit
protection device in ECG system?
[May/ June 2012]
 Always the abrasive particles in the grinding
wheel maintain the minimum distance required
to avoid short circuit. So in ECG machine we
do not want specific short circuit protection
system.
4. Name various parameters that influence the
performance of Chemical Machining Process.
 Type of power supply
 Voltage
 Current
 Current Density
 Type of electrolyte
 Temperature (25  50C ) and velocity of
electrolyte (3 – 30 m/sec)
 Flow rate ( 16 LPM – 20 LPM)
 Inter Electrode Gap (IEG) – ( 0.075 – 0.75mm)
 Chemical and Electro-Chemical Energy Based Processes 4.37

 Electrode material
5. What are maskants in chemical machining
process
(a) Masking material which is called maskant is used
to protect work piece surface from chemical
etchant.
(b) Polymer or rubber based materials are generally
used for masking purpose.
6. Write the formula for finding the MRR in ECM
process
IA
MRR 
FV

I  Current

  Density of the material

F  Faraday’s constant 96500 V coulombs

A  Atomic weight

V  Voltage

7. Write the difference between chemical

machining and Electro chemical machining.

S. Electro Chemical
Chemical Machining
No Machining
1. Electrolyte is stored in Electrolyte is
tank continuously flowing at
certain velocity.
2. Material removal rate is Material removal rate is
very slow. comparatively low.
4.38 Unconventional Machining Processes

8. Why the life of the Electro Chemical Grinding

wheel is much higher than conventional
grinding wheel?
Life of the Electro Chemical Grinding wheel is much
higher than conventional grinding wheel because during
the process only 10 % of material is removed by
mechanical abrasive action of the grinding wheel and
remaining 90% of Material is removed by electrochemical
dissolution.
9. How the current densities affect the MRR?
Current density is controlled not only by the amount
of current but also by the size of the gap between the
tool and the work piece. A small gap results in high
current density, which in turn produces more material
removal.
10. What are the factors that influence oxidation in
ECM?
(i) Nature of work piece. (ii) Type of electrolyte.
(iii) Current density. (iv) Temperature of the electrolyte
11. What do you understand by “Etch Factor”?
 In chemical machining process, during
machining, all the exposed surfaces to the
etching medium are subjected to undesired
under cut which is known as etch factor. The
etch factor restricts size of the mask. It also
affects the accuracy when machining to the
larger depths.
 Chemical and Electro-Chemical Energy Based Processes 4.39

12. What are the properties expected from the

electrolysis used in the ECM?
 It should posses high electrical conductivity
 It should have low viscosity to ensure easy flow.
 It must have high specific heat.
 It should be non corrosive and non toxic in
nature.
 It should be chemically stable.
13. Distinguish between electrochemical machining
and electroplating process.

S. Electrochemical
Electroplating Process
No. machining
1. The metal can be The metal can be
depleted from the anode depleted from the
and plated on the cathode and plated on
cathode. (Reverse of anode.
Electro plating)
2. Primary attention is paid Primary attention is paid
to the reactions taking to the reactions taking
place at the anode. place at the cathode..

14. What are the various process parameters for

which the effectiveness of electrochemical
grinding process depend upon?
The following are the important process parameters
in Electro Chemical Grinding.

 Contact Pressure
 Grinding Wheel Speed
 D.C Potential
4.40 Unconventional Machining Processes

 Abrasive grain size.

15. Mention the specific application of Electro
Chemical Grinding.
 Process is used to produce tungsten carbide
tools.
 ECG is useful in the grinding of fragile parts
such as hypodermic needles and thin walled
tubes.
16. What are the methods generally used to filter
the electrolyte?
 Running the system until it is contaminated
completely and replace it.
 Centrifugal separation.
 Sedimentation.
17. What are the important functions of abrasive
particles used in ECG?
 It acts as insulator to maintain a small gap
between the wheel and work piece.
 To cut chips if the wheel should contact the
work piece particularly in the event of power
failure.
18. What is Electro Chemical Honing?
(a) Electro Chemical Honing is an electrochemical
(EC)-based hybrid machining process.
(b) It combines the faster material removal capability
of electrochemical machining (ECM) process and
controlled functional surface generating capability
of conventional honing in a single action.
 Chemical and Electro-Chemical Energy Based Processes 4.41

19. Explain different techniques of applying the

maskant.

Cut and Peel method

 This technique uses a thick material, which is
scribed & removed to create a selective exposure
to the etchant.
 These coatings are applied to the thickness
range of from 0.025 to 0.13 mm.
 Using this technique the workpieces can be
etched as deep as 13 mm.
 Parts which are large & requires etch depths
deeper than 1.5 mm/side, can be best suited for
cut & peel type.

Screen printing
 Screen printing is an maskant application
technique that uses the conventional silk screen
printing technology.
 In this technique the screen is passed against
the surface of the workpiece and the maskant is
rolled on.
 When the screen is removed, the maskant
remains on the part on the desired pattern.
 This technique is suitable for high volume
production when accuracy is not important.
 This technique applies the maskant to the
thickness of 0.05 mm.

Photoresists Maskant
 This technique is an excellent technique for
complex work piece.
4.42 Unconventional Machining Processes

 The masker photographic negative is prepared

and placed over the dried photoresist coated
surface of the workpiece & exposed to ultraviolet
light, which hardens the exposed area.
 Then the workpiece is immersed in to the tank
which contains an organic solvent.
 Finally the workpiece is dipped into the etching
solution.
 During etching the unwanted metal is removed
from the workpiece and the final product is
cleaned completely to eliminate the chemical
reactions.
20. What is self adjusting feature in ECM.

Self adjusting feature in ECM

In a constant feed rate ECM system, the machining
process is inherently self regulated since the metal
removal rate tend to approach the feed rate.

To maintain the equilibrium the ECM adjusts itself

and gap remains constant.

21. What are difference between Chemical

machining and Electro chemical?

Chemical Electrochemical

Material is removed from Material is removed by ion

the workpiece through a displacement of the
controlled etching of the workpiece material in
workpiece material. contact with the chemical
solution.
 Chemical and Electro-Chemical Energy Based Processes 4.43

22. Differenciate between Paint resists and

photographic resists.

Paint resists Photographic

1. Paint is applied to the Photographic resist

entire surface of the materials is applied to the
workpiece. workpiece only at required
place
2. Not suitable for higher Higher Accuracy can be
accuracy products. maintained.

23. Why surface finish obtained in Chemical

Machining is poor?
 MRR is fast with certain elements.
 It generates more heat during the process.
www.airwalkpublications.com - Thermal Based Energy Process 5.1

UNIT V

THERMAL BASED
ENERGY PROCESS

Regulation 2008

Laser Beam machining and drilling (LBM), plasma Arc

machining (PAM) and Electron Beam Machining (EBM).
Principles – Equipment –Types - Beam control techniques –
Applications

Regulation 2013

Laser Beam machining and drilling (LBM), plasma Arc

machining (PAM) and Electron Beam Machining (EBM).
Principles – Equipment –Types - Beam control techniques –
Applications.

5.1 LASER BEAM MACHINING (LBM)

 The word LASER is an acronym of Light
Amplification by Stimulated Emission of
Radiation.
 Laser beam is a light source having unique
properties like,
 High monochromaticity.
 High degree of coherence
 High brightness
 High peak power
 High energy / pulse.
 The concept of Laser was first put forward by
Albert Einstein in 1917, though the first
5.2 Unconventional Machining Processes

industrial laser for experimentation was

developed around 1960’s.
 Einstein predicted and hypothesized that, under
appropriate conditions light energy of a
particular frequency can be used to stimulate
the electrons in an atom to emit additional light
with exactly the same characteristics as the
original stimulated light source.
 Towns and Shawlow in 1957 produced the first
laser known as Ruby laser.

5.1.1 Lasing Process

 Lasing process explains the basic concept of
production of laser. i.e., generation of coherent
beam of light by “light amplification” using
“stimulated emission”.
 In the typical model of atom, negatively charged
electrons rotate around the positively charged
nucleus in some specified orbital paths.
 The geometry and radii of such orbital paths
depend on a variety of parameters like number
of electrons, presence of neighboring atoms, and
their electron structure, presence of
electromagnetic field, etc.,
 Each of the orbital electrons is associated with
unique energy level.
 At absolute zero temperature, an atom is
considered to be at its ground level.
 The Electrons at ground state can be excited to
higher energy level when light of right frequency
act upon them.
www.airwalkpublications.com - Thermal Based Energy Process 5.3

 This phenomenon of the movement of an atom

from the lower energy level to higher energy
level by absorbing photons of incident light is
known as absorption.
 On the other hand, transition of an atom from
the higher energy level to lower energy is known
as emission.
 The emission could be one of the two kinds as
shown in the Fig. 5.1.
(i) Spontaneous emission (Independent of light
intensity)
(ii) Stimulated emission (Influenced by the
intensity of light)

(i) Spontaneous Emission

 On reaching the higher energy level, by
absorbing the photon, the electron reaches an
unstable energy band and it comes back to its
ground state within a very small time period by
releasing the photon. This phenomenon is called
spontaneous emission.
 The spontaneously emitted photon would have
the same frequency as that of the exciting
photon.
 Sometimes electrons reach to the metastable
energy band. Instead of coming back to its
ground state immediately, it stays at the
elevated energy state for micro to milliseconds.
 In a material, if more no of electrons are present
in metastable energy state, as compared to
5.4 Unconventional Machining Processes

number of electrons as ground state, then it is

called Population Inversion.

Ab so rption Sp on taneous Em ission Stim ulate d Em issio n

E2 E2 Hv E2

hv hv hv
hv

E1 E1 E1

E1 : L ow er E nergy S tate, E2: H igher Energ y S tate

Fig. 5.1 Lasing Process

(ii) Stimulated Emission

 Electrons at higher energy metastable state can
return to the ground state in the form of an
avalanche provided they are stimulated by a
photon of suitable energy (or) suitable frequency.
This phenomenon is called stimulated emission.
 If it is stimulated by a photon of suitable energy
then the electron will come down to the lower
energy state and in turn one original photon will
be produced. This is the basic concept behind
the product of coherent laser beam.

5.1.2 Types of laser

(i) Based on lasing medium

(a) Solid state laser – The lasing materials are

distributed in a solid matrix such as ruby (or)
Neodymium – Yittrium aluminium garnet YAG
laser.
(b) Gas Laser – Helium and Helium Neon (HeNe).
www.airwalkpublications.com - Thermal Based Energy Process 5.5

(c) Excimer Laser – Uses the reactive gases such as

Chlorine and Fluorine mixed with inert gases such
as Argon, Krypton or Xenon. The name is derived
from the term exciter and dimmers.
(d) Semi Conductor laser – also called as diode laser
is not solid state laser.
Lasers may be classified according to several
criteria,
 Whether the medium is gas, liquid, (or) solid.
 Fixed frequency or tuneable.
 Emission range (UV or IR)
 Excitation source
 Continuous wave (CW) or Pulsed
 Laser Power.
 The most popular is a group of solid state laser.
 The original solid laser is ruby laser. However
it is not used anymore due to low efficiency.
 Nd:YAG is particularly popular due to its
reasonable purchase and running cost and wide
range of possible applications such as laser
drilling, milling, cleaning, marking, etc.,
 Excimer lasers are generally not as powerful as
powerful as Nd:YAG laser. However they are
commonly used in laser cold cutting, vapour
ablation, micro fabrication and laser lithography.
 Liquid lasers are based on the use of organic
molecules as an active lasing medium. Liquid
lasers work at various wave lengths at different
frequencies.
5.6 Unconventional Machining Processes

 Liquid lasers are at present used in

photochemical experiments.
5.1.3 Process principle
 The arrangement and working principle of Laser
beam machining is shown in Fig. 5.2.
 Laser beam machining is a thermal process in
which laser beam is focused for melting and
vaporizing the unwanted material from the
parent workpiece material.

Fo cal
Length
Elipitica l
R efle cting Flash Lam p W ork P ie ce
C avity
Laser
Be am Vaporization
Tota l
R efle cting
M irro r Lasing M aterial

Pro tective
Pa rtial Lens
Tap e
Flash lam p M irro r

M on ochrom ic Fixture
C oherent
C ooling Po w er Light
System Su pp ly Tab le CNC
C ontrol

Fig. 5.2 Arrangement of LBM

 Any laser production system consists of four

important elements.
 Lasing Medium or laser material
 Energy source or flash lamp system,
 Optical feedback system
 Work table setup.
www.airwalkpublications.com - Thermal Based Energy Process 5.7

 Lasing material is kept in between the two flash

lamp.
 When electric current passes, it provides the
sufficient energy to stimulate the atom or
molecules of the material.
 Optical feedback system consists of two parallel
mirrors which are kept at the end of the lasing
material.
 One of the mirror is fully reflective and the
other one is partially reflective and partially
transparent.
 The partially transparent mirror provides the
output of the laser.
 When high energy density laser beam is focused
on work surface, the thermal energy is absorbed,
which heats and transforms the work volume
into a molten, vaporized and/or chemically
changed state.
 The mechanism of material removal during laser
beam machining includes different stages such
as melting, vaporization, and chemical
degradation.
 The effectiveness of the process depends on
thermal properties, optical properties, rather
than the mechanical properties of the material
to be machined.
 Materials with high hardness, brittleness and
those having low thermal diffusivity and
conductivity are most suitable for machining.
5.8 Unconventional Machining Processes

5.14 Process parameters

 The performance of the Laser Beam machining
mainly depends on
 Laser Parameters
 Laser power
 Wave length
 Mode of operation
 Material Parameters
 Type of Material
 Thickness of Material
 Machine process parameters
 Feed rate
 Focal plane position
 Frequency
 Pulse duration
 Assisted gas type
 Energy and pressure.
5.1.5 Process Capabilities
 Process can be used to produce the holes as
small as 0.005mm (0.0002 in) with hole depth
to diameter ratio 50:1.
 Process can cut steel plates as thick as 32 mm.
 Process can be easily automated.
 Micro sized holes can be easily machined.
5.1.6 Applications of Laser Beam Machining
 Laser beam machining has wide range of
applications in the field of automobile, air craft,
www.airwalkpublications.com - Thermal Based Energy Process 5.9

electronic, civil structures, nuclear sector, and

home appliances.
 Advanced high strength steels (AHSS) machined
by laser beam have applications in car industry
and boiler works.
 Aluminum alloys used in aeronautics are one of
the most promising materials to be machined by
laser beam machining.
 It is the most suitable and widely used process
to machine nickel based super alloys which is
an important aerospace material.
 Short pulsed Nd:YAG lasers are successfully
used in electronic industry to cut QFN (Quad -
Flat No lead) packages.

5.1.7 Laser Beam Drilling

 A hole making technique that utilizes a focused
laser beam at power densities sufficient to melt
and vaporize the material.
 In laser beam drilling, the work piece is placed
at or near to the focal point of the laser beam.
 When the laser beam strikes the material, it
heats, melts and vaporizes the material.
 The process is also known as percussion laser
hole drilling.

5.1.8 Advantages
 The diametric repeatability of the process is
above 0.025mm.
 Capability to drill micro holes of less than 1mm
diameter
5.10 Unconventional Machining Processes

 Non contact and therefore wear free drilling

process
 Better possibilities for automation.
5.1.9 Disadvantages
 Large sized holes cannot be drilled.
 Holes produced are found to have a taper rough
surface.
 Holes produced by this process may have a low
degree of roundness.
5.1.10 Applications
 Used to drill the materials like steel, ceramic,
semi conductor and composite materials
 Used in electronics, computer, and
communication products.
 Used to drill miniature holes in diamond dies
for wire drawing.
 Used in inkjet nozzle and surgical toolings.
5.2 ELECTRON BEAM MACHINING
 An electron is the lightest known particle.
 The use of an electron beam as a heat source
was recognized as early as 1900. But not utilized
properly because of absence of high vacuum
technology.
 Steigerwald designed a prototype machine in
1947 which utilizes the electron beam to remove
the material.
 Since 1960’s this process has been used in
various industries such as nuclear and aerospace
industry.
www.airwalkpublications.com Thermal
- Based Energy Process 5.11

 The EBM process uses a high energy electron

beam which is focused on small area (say 0.003
Diameter). The kinetic energy of the beam is
converted to heat energy upon striking the
workpiece which raises the temperature locally
above the melting point and vaporizes the
material.
 High degree of vacuum is need in the machining
chamber for successful working of machine.
 Electron beam can be used for both machining
and welding.
 EBM can be classified in two types. They are i)
thermal type, ii) Non thermal type.
 In thermal type electron beam is used to melt
and vaporize the work piece.
 In non thermal type electron beam is used to
cause the chemical reaction.

5.2.1 Elements of Electron Beam Machining

The three important elements of the EBM are,

1. Electron beam gun

2. Vacuum system

3. Power supply.

1. Electron Beam Gun

 Electron beam gun is used to produce the
electron beam of the desired shape.
 Electron gun is a triode consisting of the
following three elements
 Cathode (Tungsten filament)
5.12 Unconventional Machining Processes

 Grid cup (Negatively connected with

cathode)
 Anode (ground)
 In order to emit the electrons, tungsten filament
is heated to the range of 2500 C to 3000 C .
 Due to force of repulsion and high voltage
applied between the anode and cathode, the
electrons are accelerated.
 The accelerated electrons are then focused by
the grid cup and move towards the anode.
 The electron beam is focused towards the work
piece, controlled by means of magnetic and
electrostatic lens system.
 Different magnetic lenses are used in the
machine. The main function of the magnetic
lenses are
 To pin point the location of the beam
 To deflect the beam and make it round to
produce circular holes.
 To reduce the diameter of the beam so as
to produce small and fine holes.

2. Vacuum system
 Entire process like electron beam generation,
travel of the beam, and machining takes place
in a vacuum chamber.

Need of Vacuum
The whole arrangement is kept in vacuum chamber
which maintains the vacuum in the range of 10-4 to 10-5
www.airwalkpublications.com Thermal
- Based Energy Process 5.13

torr. The purpose of maintaining the vacuum is given

below.
 If vacuum is not maintained, electrons will
collide with air molecules and lose energy.
 The emitter could rapidly get oxidized when it
is incandescent.
The success of the process depends on the amount
of vacuum that is maintained in the chamber.

3. Power supply
 The voltage as high as 150 KV is applied to
accelerate the electrons and electron gun
operates at 12 KW.
 Melting and vaporization of the work material
is possible because the power density at the
work piece surface is very high.
 Generally magnitude of the emission current
varies between 20 – 100 MA and corresponding
current densities are 5-15 Acm-2.
H igh Voltage C athode

C athode G rid
E lectro n - B e am G um
A n ode

O ptical Valve
V ie w ing
S ystem Vacuum
cham ber E lectro n B ea m
M ag netic Lens to F ocus B eam
D eflection C oils
V ie w ing H igh
P o rt Vacuum
Vacuum C ham ber
W ork P ie ce Pum p
W ork Table

Fig. 5.3 Arrangement of EBM

5.14 Unconventional Machining Processes

5.2.2 Working principle

 In order to emit the electrons, tungsten filament
is heated to the range of 2500 C to 3000 C by
supplying high voltage to the electron gun.
 Since high voltage is applied between the anode
and cathode, the electrons are accelerated
towards the workpiece.
 The accelerated electron beam is then focused
towards the workpiece with the help of magnetic
lenses.
 Focusing lens is also used to focus the electron
beam until they strike the workpiece over a
small area, typically 0.025 mm in diameter.
 The electron beam maintains the velocity of
228  10 3 km/sec until they strike the workpiece
material.
 The whole arrangement is kept in vacuum
chamber which maintains the vacuum in the
range of 10-4 to 10-5 torr, otherwise electrons
will collide with air molecules and lose energy.
 The kinetic energy of the electron beam is
rapidly converted into heat energy upon striking
the workpiece and raises the temperature above
its melting point.
 Workpiece surface is melted by the combination
of electron pressure and surface tension.
 The melted liquid workpiece is rapidly ejected
and vaporized causing the MRR of about 10
mm3/min.
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- Based Energy Process 5.15

 In the process Optical viewing system is

provided to allow the operator to see the work.
 The arrangement of EBM set up is shown in the
Fig. 5.3.

5.2.3 Process parameters

The following are the important process parameters
in Electron Beam Machining.

1. Beam Current

2. Duration of pulses

3. Number of pluses

4. Lens current.

1. Beam Current
 Beam current is directly related to number of
electrons emitted by cathode.
 Energy supplied to the work piece per pulse can
be controlled by beam current.
 Generally beam current varies from 200 A to
1 A.
 Normally holes can be rapidly drilled using
higher energy per pulse.

2. Duration of pulses
 During the process, heat affected zone and
thickness of the recast layer can be directly
affected by pulse duration.
 Pulse duration may vary in the range of 50 s
to 10 s and it will be selected based on the
size of the hole to be drilled.
5.16 Unconventional Machining Processes

3. Number of pulses required

 The machining rate is usually evaluated in
terms of the “number of pulses required to
evaporate the particular amount of material”.
 The number of pulses required to produce the
given hole depth usually decreases with an
increase in the accelerating voltage.
 The number of pulses required increases
hyperbolically after certain depth has been
reached.

4. Lens current
 Normally the working distance and the diameter
of the focused beam are determined by the
magnitude of the lens current.

5.2.4 Process capabilities

 The process can produce small diameter holes
(say 0.1 mm to 1.4 mm) to large depth (say 10
mm).
 Inclined holes can be easily machined by the
process.
 During drilling the process is claimed to be 100
times faster than EDM.
 Parameters can be easily changed during the
process. (Especially drilling).

5.2.5 Advantages
 The process can machine both electrically
conductive as well as non conductive materials.
 Accurate and precise holes can be drilled with
small diameter.
www.airwalkpublications.com Thermal
- Based Energy Process 5.17

 Since no mechanical tool is used any material

can be cut irrespective of their mechanical
properties.

 Process can be easily automated.

 Very close tolerance can be machined.

 Input energy can be precisely controlled so that
workpiece distortion can be reduced to
minimum.

 No physical or metallurgical damage to surface.

 Fast operation. One hole can be produced in one

second.

5.2.6 Disadvantages
 Work piece size is limited due to the need of a
vacuum chamber.

 Equipment cost is high.

 Process is applicable to machine thin parts (0.25

– 6 mm).

 Demands high operator skills.

5.3 PLASMA ARC MACHINING (PAM) /

PLASMA ARC CUTTING (PAC)
 Machining or cutting by plasma was adopted in
the early 1950’s as an alternate to oxy acetylene
cutting.

 Plasma cutting is a process that is used to cut

steel and other metals (or sometimes other
advanced materials) using a plasma gas through
plasma torch.
5.18 Unconventional Machining Processes

5.3.1 Plasma
 There are four states in which physical matter
may be found solid, liquid, gas and plasma.
 Plasma is described as fourth state of matter
which is the mixture of neutral atoms, free
electrons that are dissociated from the gas atoms
and positively charged gas ions.
 Changes from one physical state to another
occur, by either supplying or removing the
energy, in the form of heat.
p lasm a

stea m

w a ter

ice

H e at
E n erg y

Fig. Four stages of water

 Water can be used as an example to elaborate

these four states of matter.
 In the solid state, it is ice at a temperature of
0 degrees Celsius or less than that.
 With the addition of heat the ice melts and
changes to water, the liquid state.
 The addition of more heat to a temperature of
212 degrees F. (100 degrees C.) or hotter
converts this liquid to its gaseous state, steam.
www.airwalkpublications.com Thermal
- Based Energy Process 5.19

 When the more heat is added to the steam then

it reaches the unique fourth state named
plasma. These four stages of water is shown in
the Fig. 5.4.
 The fourth state of matter, plasma, looks and
behaves like a high temperature gas, but with
an important difference-it conducts electricity.
 The temperature obtainable in the plasma zone
ranges from 20000 F to 50000 F . (11000 C to
28000 C ).
 Due to high temperature of the plasma, the
workpiece material melts and vaporizes and is
finally cut into pieces.

5.3.2 Types of plasma arc production

Generally the plasma arc is produced in two
different methods which are shown in the Fig. 5.5.
- O rifice -
E lectro de G as E lectrode

C o nstricting
N o zzle

S heilding
G as

S heilding
G as N o zzle

P lasm a P lasm a
A rc W ork A rc

Transferred Nontransferred

Fig. 5.5 Types of plasma arc production

5.20 Unconventional Machining Processes

(i) Non Transferred type

(ii) Transferred type.
(i) Non transferred type
 In Non transferred type of arc production,
electrode which is normally made of tungsten is
connected with negative terminal and nozzle is
connected with positive terminal.
 In this method arc is developed between the
central electrode and nozzle body.
 This method is suitable to machine only
electrically non conductive material.
 Thermal efficiency of this type is low (65–75%)
(ii) Transferred type:
 In transferred type of arc production, electrode
is connected with negative terminal and work
piece is connected with positive terminal.
 In this method, arc is developed between the
central electrode and work piece.
 Conductive work piece materials can be
machined effectively.
 Provides higher Thermal efficiency in the range
of 85 – 90%.
5.3.3 Elements of Plasma Arc cutting:
 The important elements of Plasma Arc Cutting
system are,
1. Power supply system
2. Gas supply system
3. Cooling water system
4. Plasma torch
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- Based Energy Process 5.21

1. Power supply system:

 The main function of the power supply is to
provide the correct energy to maintain the
plasma arc after ionization.
 The output current of the power supply
determines the speed and cut thickness
capability of the system.
 The power supply is a constant current DC
power source.
 The power supply system usually supplies the
DC voltage in the range of 240 to 400 V.

2. Gas supply system

 Gas supply system supplies the required type of
gas correctly with correct pressure and flow rate.
 The following gases may be used as plasma gas.
(i) Air plasma

(ii) Nitrogen plasma

(iii) Argon/Hydrogen plasma

(iv) Oxygen plasma

(i) Air plasma

 Only uncontaminated clean and dry air is
recommended to be used as plasma gas.
 If any moisture is present in the air supply,
it will lead to reduction in the life of the
torch parts.
 Air plasma is mostly used for ferrous and
carbon based materials.