CHAPTER - II

Developaent of Shura During the Period

of Pour Caliphs
 - 29 -

Next to the precepts and p r a c t i c e (Sunnah) of

Mohairmad ( SAAW) the Pour Guided Caliphs are deemed to be t h e
modelB of r e c t i t u d e and worthy to be followed by the faithful.
I t i s because t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e Quran and the Hadith
by the companions of the Prophet (SAAW) and the importance
attached to these by the f i r s t Pour Caliphs are considered to be
t r u s t w o r t h y and authentic "by Muslinie,. Any course of a c t i o n adopted
by t h e s e Caliphs i s unfailingly looked upon by the devout as
r i g h t f u l , while measures r e j e c t e d by them a r e considered to be
wrong.

The extent to which the R>ur Caliphs followed t h e

I s l a m i c system of ghura. i f studied i n the l i g h t of a u t h e n t i c
t e x t s , would lead one to the conclusion t h a t not only did t h e s e
Caliphs follow t h e Sunnah, but t h t y a l s o gave i t a c o n c r e t e shape.

Waimun bin Mehran says t h a t "wher eny i s s u e was brought

before Abu Bakr, hp f i r s t sought i t s solution i n the Quran. I f he
got i t in t h e Holy Book he decided the case according to i t . In
case he did not get any guidance in the Quran end he himself knew
any Hadith throwing l i g h t on the m s t t e r , he gave h i s judgement
in accordance with i t . b a i l i n g t h i s , he enquired from the Sahabah
(Companions of the Prophet) whether in t h e i r knowledge t h e
Prophet (SAAW) had pronounced any judgement r e l e v a n t to the c a s e .
Frequently some jSahabi cited a Baciith, at which Abu Bakr expressed
h i e happiness thanking Allah t h a t there s t i l l l i v e d some who could
r e c a l l the P r o p h e t ' s t r a d i t i o n s . However, in cape t h i e method
f a i l e d , the f i r e t Caliph convened an aspembly of the r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s
 - 30 -

of the people (Shura)and gave his decision according to the

eonsensue evolved a t i t . Caliph Umar, too, followed a s i m i l a r
p r a c t i c e . When he failed to get any guidance from the Quran or
the t r a d i t i o n of the Prophet i n any matter he t r i e d to find i f
there was any pronouncement of Abu Bakr p e r t a i n i n g to the i s s u e
in hand, i f he cairp to know of any siich decision of h i s predecessor,
he gave h i s judgement accordirg to i t . Failing t h i s , he c a l l e d
a meeting of scholars, and if they cnne to an agreed conclusion,
he gave hi-? rlecision according t o i t . " ' Leaders and r e p r e s e n t -
a t i v e s of the Umaah vho vere conpulted by t h e Guided Caliphs,
and c o n s t i t u t e d the Shur^ and Ibrmed a d e f i n i t e group known to
tho people, A Caliph could twt a r M t r a r i J y decide whcic to c a l l
and consult in order to decide an i s s u e . .Mlama Rashid Raza M i s r i
has w r i t t e n that the Guided Caliphs knev who a r e the l e a d e r s of
Che Uiuisah. They aere persons >rith a deep understanding of r e l i g i o u s
matt ens and were the Ulul ^jcr (people at t r 3 ht^lm of affairs)
who x^ere called >/henevor nocaosity a r o s e . ^ '<pjae.'3 of some of
these l e a d e r s of th-s poople and r e l i g i o u s s c h o l a r s a r e s t i l l
known and hence i t i s possible to doto.rrrlne th? p o l i t i c a l status
of those c o n s t l t u t i r g tho Bhara, Allaira C:dsiffi lays t h a t when
Abu Eakr had to deal with an Important iacue which required
c o n s u l t a t i o n s v i t h those v«»ll-versed in Piqh and those who were
endowed with deep i n s i g h t , he i n v i t e d selected Jj^eople from among
the yuha.jirg and the 4Egax« ^"^ consulted people l i k e Umar,
Uthirar, All *bdur Rahtran bin Auf, Wuaz bin J a b a l , Ubai bin Kaab
and Zaid bin Thabit. Such were thf) pf.cple who, according t o
Oasis, were deeiped by /bu Bakr tc bp vorthy f>-^ b e i n g cc'nsulted
 - 31 -

to r e s o l v e different problems during hie c a l i p h a t e . Umar, too

followed the san-e nsethod,^( 3)'

According to Ibn Khaldun the p o s i t i o n t h a t wno held

by Abu Bakr during the l i f e - t i m e of t h e Prophet ( SAAV) was l a t e r
enjoyed by Umar under the c a l i p h a t e of Abu Bakr, and, during
the term of Uwar, Ali and Uthrcan held the aame p o s i t i o n , ^ '

Ibn Saad has c i t e d Saeed bin al I^osayyib to t h e effect

t h a t Umar h e s i t a t e d to decide t h e complicated i s e u e s without
c o n s u l t i n g All and Uthman.^^'

Abbas, uncle of the Prophet Mohammad (SAAW) enjoyed

a very high p r e s t i g e duidng his l i f e and a f t e r h i s d e a t h . This
i s c l e a r fron; the fact t h a t Dmar always gave h i s f i n a l v e r d i c t
only a f t e r consulting Abbas. Whenever the second c a l i p h was
confronted with a complicated problem he would say t o Abbas,
"only you have the right to r e s o l v e such problems."^ •'

Ibn Hajar says that Umar consulted the eminent Quranic

Scholar
Ubai bin Kaab on d i f f e r e n t i s s u e s and decided m a t t e r according
to h i s a d v i c e . (8)

Malik bin Aus Hadthan Basri says t h a t he himself was

Are^f i . e . the leader of h i s communily, during the c a l i p h a t e
of Umar.^^^

Ibn Taimiyahwrites t h a t on i s s u e s regarding which

no c l e a r guidance could be obtained from the Quran or t h e Sunnah,
Dmar held extensive consultation.^ •'

Mohammad Huesain Haikal, a modern Egyptian h i s t o r i a n

says t h a t Umar bas^^his s t a t e p o l i t i c s on the ghura.
 - 32 -

Imani Shobi w r i t e s : "Anyone wishiiSfT t o arrive at

authoritative judgement to r e s o l v e p r o b l e m B o u g h t t o a d o p t the

p r o c e d u r e a d o p t e d by Ilmar, vbo g a v e h i s j u d g e m e n t s i n consultation

w i t h t h e S a h a b a h / '^^

Conimenting on t h e p e r i o d o f t h e Guided Calipha,

Syed Amir A l i w r i t e s t h a t t h e y p u t t h e a f f a i r s of the s t a t e before

t h e assembly of s t a t e o f f i c i a l s , prominent Sahabah and tribal

c h i e f s w h i c h was h e l d i n t h e M a s j i d N a b a v i and d i d n o t t a k e a n y
d e c i s i o n w i t h o u t c o n s u l t i n g s u c h a n a s s e m b l y . Thus, a c c o r d i n g , t o

him t h e I s l a r c l c s y s t e m o f g o v e r n m e n t d u r i n g t h e f i r s t thirty
( 1 "5)
y e a r s was n e a r e r t o t h e d e m o c r a t i c s y s t e m o f t h e p r e s e n t times. '

A f t e r t h e a g e o f t h e Guided C a l i p h s t h e M u s l i m state

became d e s p o t i c i n n a t u r e . However, a f t e r h a l f a c e n t u r y Umar

I b n Abdul A z i z r e s t o r e d t h e p r i s t i n e I s l a i n i c s y s t e m o f government.

Mughirah says t h a t t h e C a l i p h had a number of c o u n s e l l o r s before

whom h e Bsed t o p u t t h e i s s u e s r a i s e d by t h e p e o p l e i n search

( 14)
of solution.

Like other democratic systems, in the Islamic system

o f g o v e r n m e n t , p r o c e d u r e o f e l e c t i o n o f t h e head o f s t a t e i s of

p r i m a r y i m p o r t a n c e s i n c e t h i s g i v e s a c l u e to t h e t r u e nature

o f t h e s t a t e . This h e l p s one t o d e c i d e whether t h e s y s t e m is

d e s p o t i c o r w h e t h e r t h e w i l l of t h e p e o p l e i s t h e d e c i s i v e factor

in i t . I f i n a s y s t e m t h e head o f the s t a t e is elected by the

common p e o p l e o f t h e i r r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s , it is a democratic

s y s t e m i n which t h e p e o p l e e n j o y freedom and l i b e r t y a n d the

real power i s v e s t e d i r t h e p e o p l e who e l e c t a s t h e i r r u l e r a

 - 33 -

person whorr they regard as t h e i r v e l l - w i e h e r and who, in t h e i r

opinion, can f u l f i l t h e i r expectations and a s p i r a t i o n s . They can
d i v e s t t h e i r head of s t a t e of h i s powers the day they a r e s u r e
t h a t he has proves himself unworthy of the f a i t h they had reposed
i n him. But i f a s t a t e makes a person head of s t a t e without
taking into consideration the will of the people and i f the w i l l
of an individual in i t has the force of law, i t can t r i i l y be
said t h a t democracy has been banished from i t .

Ibn Khaldun gives the following d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e

system of election of the head of s t a t e , according to t h e Sunnia:

Election of a caliph depended on concensus among t h e

Sahabah. The r i g h t of e l e c t i o n to the o f f i c e v e s t s i n t h e Ahl a l -
heill wa al-ftgd. Once a person i s elected by the Abl - a l - h a l l va
al~aqd the body of the Ummah i s bound to obey hlm.^ '-"

Qazl Abu Tala Al-Pferra had described as follows how

a caliph ought to be elected and what kind of person should be
elected to the post:

"When Ahl al~hall wa al-aqd assemble to e l e c t an Amir*

they would consider the cases of those who f u l f i l the requirements
of an Imam. And they would bring t h a t person forward for offering
t a t h of allegiance vfao I s moet e x c e l l e n t emong them and poBsesBes
the q u a l i f i c a t i o n s of Imam^h to t h e highest degree and to whom
people would not h e s i t a t e to o f f e r t h e i r oath of a l l e g i a n c e .
And when a f t e r t h e i r d i l i g e n t e n q u i r i e s , they choose one amongst
them, they offer the position of Imamft^ to him and i f he a c c e p t s
i t , a l l of them offer t h e i r oath of a l l e g i a n c e to him and thus
t h e i r a l l e g i a n c e to him would be confirmed and t h e e n t i r e Ummah
 - 34 -

woulf^ be bound to obey him."^

In the l i ^ h t of the above d e s c r i p t i o n , i t i s worth

looking i n t o the d e t a i l s of the e l e c t i o n of the Guided Caliphs
which are given below:

According to a nxxmber of t r a d i t i o n s c i t e d by Sahih

of Al Eukhari, Prophet l^oharmsd (SAAW)^ ' ' said t h a t he was not
nominating anyone as his successor nor should nearness to him
o r family r e l a t i o n s h i p with him be any c o n s i d e r a t i o n i n t h e i r
selection.

Oath of Allegiance to Abu Bakr;

After the demise of t h e Prophet ( SAAW), the Ansar of
Hadinah on the strength of t h e i r s e r v i c e s and s a c r i f i c e s for t h e
f a i t h , thought that the caliph should be e l e c t e d from among
themselves. So they decided to o f f e r t h e i r o a t h of a l l e g i a n c e to
t h e i r l e a d e r Saad bin XJbadah. When r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of the Muhajlrs
heard t h i s , airong whorc Abu Bakr, Umar & Abu Obaidah occupied
eminent p o s i t i o n s , they immediately vent to Saqifa Bani Saaedah
where the Ansar had gathered for o f f e r i n g oath of a l l e g i a n c e to
Saad bin Ubadah and expalined to them the p o l i t i c a l s i t u a t i o n in
the country.
In his speech Abu Bakr said:
"You c e r t a i n l y deserve whatever you have said
about your q u a l i t i e s and merits but the people
of Arabia are not aware of any l e a d e r s h i p o t h e r
than that of the Ouraish, Hence they would not
be s a t i s f i e d with the l e a d e r s h i p of any o t h e r
tribe."(^^^
 - 35 -

After saying t h i s , he suggested t h e names of Umar

and Abu Ubaidah to the aeeeicbled people.

This speech of Abu Bakr opened t h e eyes of t h e

wise among the ^nsar and they s t a r t e d expressing themselves
in favour of h i s proposition. Zaid bin Thabit, an eminent Ansari
said:
"Don't you know that t h e Prophet ( 3AAW) was a
Muha.iir. Hence, the Arabs can bo s a t i s f i e d w i t h t h e l e a d e r s h i p of
the Muha.Hrs. So only a Muha.jir ought to be Caliph. We should
continue be t h e hands and arms of t h e successor of t h e Prophet
as we have been the hands and arms of the Prophet,"^( 19)'

Then Umar spoke of the excellence of Abu Bakr and

h i s r e l i g i o u s fervour and n o b i l i t y , adding:

"This i s the person who was given by Mohammad ( SAAW)

the honour of leading an important thing l i k e Salah. I s t h e r e
anyone among you who claims to be s u p e r i o r to one whom the
Prophet (SAAW) t r e a t e d as superior?^ '

Ansar with one voice eaid that they dare not to

consider themselves superior to Abu Bakr. Then a l l the
r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of the Ansar and the Muha.Urs p r e s e n t there^
came forvard to offer t h e i r oath of a l l e g i a n c e to Abu Bakr.
The next day, Abu Bakr went to the Kasjid Rabavi and Umar spoke
to the congregation about the great services rendered by Abu Bakr
in the cause of Islam, Thereafter, a l l the r e s t of t h e Muha.Urs
and the Ansar offered the oath of a l l e g i a n c e to him and the
process of offering the oath of a l l e g i a n c e by the common people
was completed.^ '
 ~ 36 -

A l l , i t l 8 s a i d ; did n o t o f f e r h i s o a t h of allegiance
t o Abu Bakr f o r s e v e r a l n o r t h s as he was n o t c o n s u l t e d i n the
m a t t e r of t h e e l e c t i o n of the C a l i p h . But t h e r e a r e evidences
a g a i n s t t h e d e n i a l of Ali to o f f e r o a t h of a l l e g i a n c e to Abu Bakr,
For example, Hakim, Ibn Saad and B a i h a q i have s a i d t h a t after
r e c e i v i n g a l l e g i a n c e from a l l t h o s e p r e s e n t when Abu Bakr was
a d d r e s s i n g the c o n g r e g a t i o n , he n o t i c e d t h e a b s e n c e of Zubair
and A l i . He swRmoned both t h e s e n i o r p e r s o n a l i t i e s and s a i d to
him:

"You a r e r e l a t i v e s o f t h e P r o p h e t o f A l l a h , Do you
want t h e r e t o be d i s a e n t i o n and d i s i n t e g r a t i o n aiaong t h e Ummah?
I f such i s not t h e c a s e why have not you o f f e r e d your o a t h o f
a l l e g i a n c e to me?" On h e a r i n g t h i s , b o t h o f them came forward
( 22')
and o f f e r e d t h e i r o a t h of a l l e g i a n c e t o him.^ '

According to s e v e r a l a c c o u n t s , Abu Sufyan and o t h e r s

had t r i e d to d i s s u a d e Ali from o f f e r i n g s i l l e g l a n c e b u t he r e b u k e d
Abu Sufyan s a y i n g t h a t such t h i n g s could l e a d t o the c r e a t i o n of
d i s s e n t i o n and d i s i n t e g r a t i o n among t h e Ummah. -^^

In t h i s c o n t e x t Ibn Saad h a s c i t e d a most c l e a r

s t a t e m e n t o*f A l i who i s r e p o r t e d to have s a i d t h a t a t t h e d e m i s e
of t h e Prophet (SAAW) when he c o n s i d e r e d h i s own p o s i t i o n he
r e c a l l e d t h a t Mohammad (SAAW) had asked Abu Bakr to l e a d t h e
p r a y e r s and hence he ( A l l ) had a c c e p t e d t h e l e a d e r s h i p of such a
personage i n worldly a f f a i r s too.^^''

Amar b i n Hareeth asked Saeed b i n Zaid I f any one had

d e s i s t e d from o f f e r i n g o a t h of a l l e g i a n c e to Abu Bakr. Saeed
 - 37 -

r e p l i e d t h a t none of them had done so e x c e p t t h o s e who had

become a p o s t a t e s or were about to becorre a p o s t e t e r . Amar b i n
H a r e e t h furth^^r asked i f any one among the N u h a j i r s had refused
t o o f f e r o a t h of a l l e g i a n c e . Saeed b i n Zaid r e p l i e d t h a t , on
t h e c o n t r a r y , t h e Wuhajira went on o f f e r i n g a l l e g i a n c e continually
even w i t h o u t b e i n g i n v i t e d to do 30.^{ ?5)

Saad b i n Ubadah was xne o n l y p e r s o n who, a c c o r d i n g

t o sonie a c c o u n t s , d i d not o f f e r o a t h of a l l e g i a n c e to any C a l i p h
t i l l h i e d e a t h . He even stopped p r a y e r s i n mosquee a l o n g w i t h
o t h e r Muslims. I t wag considered imprudent to f o r c e him t o
f o l l o w t h e d i s c i p l i n e of the Ucmah and hence he was allowed to
do what he l i k e d . ^ ^ ^ ^

According to some a c c o u n t s Saad b i n Ubadah was l a t e r

c o n v i n c e d by the arguments of Abu Bakr and a c c e p t e d t h e c l a i m
of t h e Muhajirs f o r C a l i p h a t e . He s a i d :

"Tou a r e r i g h t . ¥e a r e t h e m i n i s t e r s while
you a r e t h e r u l e r s . " '

Ibn Taimiyah s a y s :
"None of the companions s a i d t h a t anyone o t h e r t h a n
Abu Bakr ajmong t h e Kuha.iire d e s e r v e s c a l i p h a t e . Some Angar
opposed t h i s on the ground t h a t t h - T e should be an Amiy from
amongst t h e m s e l v e s and a n o t h e r from amongst t h e M u h a j i r s * Then,
a l l t h e Angar took the o a t h of a l l e g i a n c e e x c e p t f o r Saad b i n
Ubadah. Since Saad was himself a c a n d i d a t e for c a l i p h a t e , he
did n o t t a k e the o a t h of a l l e g i a n c e ( t o Abu B a k r ) . None of t h e
companions s a i d t h a t anyone siroong t h e Quraish d e s e r v e d Caliphate
 - 38 -

more thmn Abu Bakr ( n e i t h e r the Bani Hashiic nor the non-Bani
Haghim). These a r e the t h i n g s t h a t a r e well-known to a l l the
G c h o l a r e c o n v e r s a n t with t h e S u n n a h . "

OATH OF ALLEGIANCE TO imAR:

I t i s g e n e r a l l y b e l i e v e d t h a t the e l e c t i o n of Umar
a s c a l i p h took p l a c e in an u n d e m o c r a t i c manner. I t i s s a i d
t h a t Abu Bakr h i m s e l f s e l e c t e d him a s h i s s u c c e s s o r , s i n c e , in
h i e o p i n i o n , he was t h e most s u i t a b l e person t o be a C a l i p h .
But t h i s i s a b s o l u t e l y wrong and i s n o t b o r n e o u t by fact.

The t r u t h i s t h a t Abu Bakr was the Amir and r u l e r

of t h e Ummah and i t was h i s duty t o t h i n k o f t h e w e l f a r e o f the
community. Hence he deemed i t p r o p e r t o nominate h i s successor
d u r i n g h i s l i f e time so t h a t t h e r e were no d i f f e r e n c e s and
d i s s e n t i o n s among t h e Ummah on t h e i s s u e . But he could n o t do
80 simply b e c a u s e he h i m s e l f t h o u g h t i t was a d v i s a b l e . Since
c o n s e n s u s asrong t h e Ummah was i n d i s p e n s a b l e f o r t h e p u r p o s e , he
asked Abdur Kahman bin Auf for h i s o p i n i o n r e g a r d i n g t h e suitabilitj
of Umar f o r t h e p o s t , Abdur Rahman b i n Auf r e p l i e d t h a t the
q u a l i t i e s of Umar f a r exceed t h e words of p r a i s e u t t e r e d by
Abu B a k r . However, he s a i d t h a t Umar was somewhat h a r s h by n a t u r e .
Abu Bakr d i s a g r e e d s a y i n g , Umar had t o be h a r s h when he saw t h a t
he (Abu Bakr) was b e i n g unduly l e n i e n t in o r d e r to m a i n t a i n a
b a l a n c e between s u r g e r y en the one hand and a p p l y i n g o i n t m e n t
end bandaging: o r t h e o t h e r , adding t h a t when he h i m s e l f was
unduly s t r i c t , Umar becarre s o f t l i k e wajj and recommended t h e
a d o p t i o n o f a s o f t p o l i c y . A f t e r t h i s Abu Bakr consvilted Uthman
 - 39 -

who wholeheartedly supported the aelection of Umar. ( 29) Abu Bakr

discussed the matter with Saeed bin Zaid, Usaid bin Huzair and
o t h e r Wuha.jire and Anear. '

Some people objected to Abu Bakr's preference for

Umar saying tteit he would be answerable to Allah for nominating
an unduly harsh person as h i s successor. To t h i s Abu Bakr r e p l i e d
t h a t he would say to Allah t h a t he had nominated t h e most
e x c e l l e n t person among the Uromah as a Caliph,

Allama Ibn Qayyia w r i t e s that the assessment of

Abu Bakr regarding the s u i t a b i l i t y of Unar was based on the f a c t
t h a t h i s own s e l e c t i o n was due to h i s being among t h e Ahl a l ' - h a l l
wa al-aqd which happened to be t r u e of Umar too and hence the
( 31)
Ummah would not object to h i s s e l e c t i o n as Caliph.^-'^'

However, in s p i t e of a l l these e x t e n s i v e c o n s u l t a t i o n
Abu Bakr did not u t i l i s e his p o s i t i o n to impose hie w i l l on t h e
p e o p l e , but f i n a l i s e d the s e l e c t i o n of Umar a f t e r he had obtained
the consensus of the people i n the matter. When he f e l l fatally
i l l , he addressed a gathering of the Sahabah as follows:

"0 my people, as you see, Allah had decided to end

my days in t h i s world. After my death you will need a person
who can be your guardian and guide i n your a f f a i r s , can l e a d
you in your prayers; face your enemies and r u l e over you. I f
you wish, you can elect any one as caliph a f t e r d i s c u g s l n g the
m a t t e r among yourselves. And i f you vish, I tcay help you i n
nominating someone as celipji, I swear by Allah t h a t I would not
l e a v e any stone urturnod in my attempt tc do s o . "
 - 40 -

A f t e r Abu Bakr had s a i d t h i s , h i s e y e s w e r e filled

vith teara due t o t h e f e a r cf t h e Day of J u d g e m e n t and the entire

audience atarted shedding t e a r a and e v e r y o n e s a i d with one voice:

"Tou a r e b e t t e r and more k n o w l e d g e a b l e than us.

S o , p l e a s e n o m i n a t e a c a l i p h by o x e r c i s i n g y o u r judgement,"

On h e a r i n g t h i s , Abu B a k r s a i d that he would think

a b o u t t h e c n t t e r and would s - ^ l e c t t h e most e x c e l l e n t person from

(32)
aTicngst t h e r , a s caliph.
I n t h e l i g h t of t h e above f a c t it would n o t b e correct

to a s s e r t t h a t t h e s e l e c t i o n o f Umar t o o k p l a c e without

a s c e r t a i n i n g t h e c o n s e n t o f t h e p e o p l e . The o n l y o b j e c t i o n to

t h s s e l e c t i o n o f Umar a s c a l i p h c o u l d be h i s h a r e h a t t i t u d e . But

t h i s was c o n t r a d i c t e d by Abu B a k r . Umar, t o o , shared t h i s opinion

a b o u t h i m s e l f . He o n c e s a i d t h a t t h e h a r s h n e s s t h a t was noticed

by p e o p l e i n h i s a t t i t u d e d u r i n g t h e p r o p h e t h o o d o f Mohammad (SAAW)

was d u e t o t h e s o f t and l e n i e n t a t t i t u d e o f t h e Prophet,'-^^''

T h i s was t h e r e a s o n why nobody o p p o s e d Dinar's

appointment a s c a l i p h . Once A b d i i l l a h h i n Abbas s a i d t o him that

n o t e v e n two p e r s o n s had o p p o s e d h i s n o m i n a t i o n for caliphate,^ ^ '

OATH OF ALLRGIANCE TO UTEMAF:

The manner of t h e e l e c t i o n o f Uthman was t h e clearest

e v i d e n c e o f t h e democi*atic p r o c e s s . As h a s b e e n s a i d a b o v e only

t h e W u h a . l i r s of Q u r a i s h c o u l d s h o u l d e r t h e b u r d e n o f caliphate

d u r i n g t h e e a r l y p e r i o d o f I s l a i n , A c h i e v i n g c o n s e n s u s among t h e

Ummah o v e r t h e e l e c t i o n o f a n y o n e e l s e was d i f f i c u l t , Umar h a d

o n c e s a i d t h e t c a l i p h a t e would be c o n f i n e d t o t h o s e who h a d

participated i n t h e B a t t l e of B a d r , till e v e n o n e among them was

 - 41 -

a l i v e , a f t e r which thoee vho fought in the B a t t l e of Uhud would

deserve i t , and only then others would be considered suitable
for the c a l i p h a t e according to t h e i r s t a t u s , while those who
embraced Islam a f t e r the conquest of Makkah would not be e n t i t l e d
to becone c a l i p h s . (35) In o t h e r words, according to Umar, the
Uronah would take into acco-mt *h=' s a c r i f i c e s of the people i n
the cause of Islint and t h e i r lon^r a s s o c i a t i o n with the f a i t h i n
the matter of the selection of a caliph and t h a t nobody was to
be considered s u i t a b l e for t h i s p o s i t i o n of eminence u n l e s s he
deserved i t .

During the l a s t coajents of his l i f e , Umar wag asked

("^G)
by the Sahabah to nominate h i s successor. ' He, himself, thought
t h a t Ali deserved t h i s p o s i t i o n because of h i s manifold qualities
and t h a t A l i ' s appointment to the c a l i p h a t e would be in the b e s t
i n t e r e s t of the Ummah,^-'^ ' because of bla being atinong the f i r s t
to embrace Islam, his p a r t i c i p a t i o n in the B a t t l e of Badr, h i s
scholarship and his aost Allah-fearing n a t u r e . Umar's sone Abdullah
t o o , concurred with t h i s opinion of hie.^ ' • However, i n s p i t e
of these considerations, ha refused to nominate anyone. He once
asked Abdullah bin Abbas to remember t h a t he ht^d not nominated
anyone as his successor. (39) I n s t e a d , he c o n s t i t u t e d a panel
c o n s i s t i n g of A l i , Uthman, Talha, Zautair, 3aad bin Abi Waqqas
and Abdur Rahman bin Auf and asked i t 3 members to s e l e c t one from
among themselves for caliphate a f t e r necessary c o n s u l t a t i o n s .
These six roonbers of the panel were the most o u t s t a n d i n g people
belonging to the Ummah whose l o f t y character and n o b i l i t y were
known to everyone and whose p e i t y and A l l a h - f e a r i n g nature was
 - 42 -

such t h a t the Prophet (SAAW) h i a s e l f had given then glad t i d i n g

of t h e i r going to paradise.^ ^ These s i x people enjoyed the
confidence of the people to such an e x t e n t t h a t Umar once s a i d
to then that he had a s s e s s e d the opinion of the people about
th«B and found no d i f f e r e n c e of opinion regarding t h e s e x c e p t
t h a t there were disagreeaent aaongst t h e m s e l v e s , and hence
i f there were any d i s s e n t l o n s , t h e s e would be caused by thea.^( 4.2^'

Unar asked t h e panel of s i x to take t h e help of o t h e r

tfiinent people of the Uaroah l i k e Abdullah bin Haar* Abdullah bin
Abbas and H&san, with the s t i p u l a t i o n t h a t t h e s e a d d i t i o n a l
personages would only act as c o n s u l t a n t s and only a person
among t h e s i x senbers of the panel should be g i v e n t h e r e s p o n s i b ^
i l i t y of shoxildering the burden o f c a l i p h a t e . ^ * ' ' I f none of
t h o s e s i x were appointed t o the p o s i t i o n , i t could l e a d t o t k e
d i s t i n t e g r a t i o n of t h e Pamah. he worried.

After c o n s t i t u t i i c : t h i s panel o f s i x c o n s i s t i n g o f
MuhaJirs he asked the eainent gahabi Abu Talha t o fora a o o u i t t e e
of f i f t y fron aBong the Aaeay whose job shovild be t o f o r c e t h e
neabers of t h e panel to s e l e c t one aaongst t h e a s e l v e s a s Aair
w i t h i n three days o f h i s death.^^^^

After t h e demise of Umar, t h e panel o f s i x appointed

by hio held a nuaber of s e s s i o n s f o r t h r e e days, d i s c u s s i n g t h e
i s s u e of s e l e c t i r ^ h i s s u c c e s s o r t o t h e c a l i p h a t e , w i t h o u t arriving
at any agreement. Seeing t h i s , Abdur RsLhman bin Auf askad h i s
panel c o l l e a g u e s i f anyone of them was w i l l i n g to withdraw from
c o n t e s t i n favour of o t h e r . In response t o h i s , Zubair s a i d t h a t
 - 45 -

he would ca«t h i s vote for A3,l, while Talha and Saad offered
to withdraw In favour of Uthrean and Abdur Rahitan bin Auf
respectively. Abdur Rahman assured the fellow p a n e l i s t s
t h a t he did not wish to be a c a l i p h and ask them i f they would
abide by h i s decision. All immediately said t h a t he was w i l l i n g
to do 80.^ ^ Other mecbera of the panel followed s u i t . ^ ^

After t h i s , Abdur Rahman bin Auf t r i e d to e l i c i t t h e

opinion of the Ummah regarding Uthman and A l i . Madinah was a l r e a d y
a centre of the Muha.jira and the Anpar. On hearing of the martyrdom
of Umar and being keen to l e a r n about the s e l e c t i o n of a new
c a l i p h , governors of different p r o v i n c e s , t r i b a l l e a d e r s and
eminent people from a large number of towns had a l s o gathered
a t Madinah. Abdur Rahnan bin Auf t r i e d to e l i c i t t h e opinion o f
a l l these people. He consulted Ahl al-Rae (those whose o p i n i o n
c a r r i e d weight) and asked the common people who they t h o u ^ t would
be the person most suited for being a c a l i p h . He csane to t h e
conclusion t h a t the ?r.ajority of the people wanted Uthioan t o be
the next c a l i p h . Or. the next day he addree.^iioig a l l the Kuha.iirs
ard the Ansar in the Hosque t o l d them t h a t he had t r i e d h i s b e s t
to e l i c i t p u b l i c opinion, a f t e r which he had come t o c o n c l u s i o n
t h a t the majority waB in UthniRn's favour and was prepared to
acknowledge hiTn as i t e Amir and hence he (Abdur Rahman bin Auf)
was going to put the band of c a l i p h a t e round Uthman's neck.

After t h i s npeech of Abdur Rahman bin Auf, fO 1 was

the f i r e t person who car.e fbrvard to take h i s oath of a l l e g i a n c e
to Uthman, All the othTE prepent a t the g n t h s r i r g followed him
and offered t h e i r oath of a l l e g i a n c e to Uthman.^ ^
 - 44 -

I r t h e words of Allama I b n A t h e e r , a l l t h e menibers

of t h e Shura a r r i v e d a t a c o n s e n s u s acknovfledging Uthman a s t h e i r
caliph. ' Imam Ahmad bin Hanbal, a g r e a t s c h o l a r of the traditions
of t h e Prophet (SAAV) w r i t e s t h a t t h e number o f p e o p l e who o f f e r e d
a l l e g l a r c e t o Uthman f a r exceeded t h a t o f f e r e d to any o f the
o t h e r Guided C a l i p h / ^ ^ ^

OATH OF ALLEGIANCE TO ALI

During t h e c l o s i n g y e a r s o f t h e c a l i p h a t e o f Uthman
d e f i n i t e s i g n s o f i n f i r m i t y and d i s i n t e g r a t i o n become d i s c e m a b l e
i n t h e I s l a m i c s t a t e and a most v i c i o u s element was b e n t upon
c r e a t i n g d i s t u r b a n c e s and m i s c i i i e v o u s elffinents s t a r t e d raising
t h e i r head. A l l t h i s r e s u l t e d i n t h e a s s a s i n a t i o n o f Uthman which
shook t h e f o u n d a t i o n of t h e s t a t e s p r e a d i n g chaos and d i s o r d e r
t h r o u g h o u t i t s l e n g t h and b r e a d t h . To d i s p e r s e t h i s storm and
t o r e s t o r e normalcy became a h e r c u l e a n t a s k . I t was u n d e r such
c i r c u m s t a n c e s t h a t t h e e l e c t i o n o f A l l to t h e c a l i p h a t e t o o k
p l a c e . Of t h e s i x p e r s o n a g e s irtiom Umar had deemed t o be t h e
r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of t h e Ummah o n l y A l l , Talha and Z u b a i r were
a l i v e . A l l s a i d to t h e o t h e r two t h a t he was p r e p a r e d to offer
h i s o a t h of a l l e g i a n c e to e i t h e r o f them, i f they so w i s h e d .
A l t e r n a t i v e l y , he asked them t o o f f e r t h e i r o a t h o f allegiance
to him.^-' -^ Both of them said t h a t t h e y c o n s i d e r e d A l l to be
most s u i t a b l e f o r c a l i p h a t e . There a r e a u t h e n t i c a c c o u n t s to t h e
effect t h a t i n s p i t e of h i s i n i t i a l u n w i l l i n g n e s s t h e Muha.lirs
and t h e fngar u l t i m a t e l y p r e v a i l e d upon him to a g r e e to accept
t h e burden of c a l i p h a t e . ^ ' A c c o r d i n g to I b n Saad, a l l liie p e o p l e
of Madinah, i n c l u d i n g t h e Sahabah and o t h e r prominent people
 - 45 -

offered t h e i r o a t h of a l l e g i a n c e t o A l i . ^( ^53)
^ ' There were a handful
of Wuha.lirg who did not accept Ali a s t h e i r caliph and, i n t h e words
of Ibn Atheer, a l l the Ansar took oath of a l l e g i a n c e for Ali except
a very omall g r o u p , ^ ^ Among those who did not o f f e r t h e i r o a t h
of a l l e g i a n c e to hiic, or moat h e s i t a t e d to do, t h e r e were some who
f i r s t vdshed to a s c e r t a i n the w i l l of the Uataah. They were prepared
to offer t h e i r eJ-legiance to him i f people in a l l Islamic c c n t r i e s
showed t h e i r w i l l i n g n e s s t o do s o .

There were two important decisions of Abu Bakr r e g a r d i n g

which i t i e generally believed t h a t they were taken c o n t r a r y to
the advice rendered by the Shura* p r e f e r l n g his own Judgement to
t h a t of Ahl a l ~ h a l l wa al-aod ( t h o s e a t the helm of a f f a i r s ) . The
f i r s t of t h e s e i s t h a t of waging war against t h o s e who refused to
pay Zakah.

The monster of apostasy r a i s e d i t head through out Arabia

a f t e r t h e deniae of the Prophet (SAAW). Among the a p o s t a t t r i b e s
t h e r e were some who cBiscarded the yoke of Islam a l t o g e t h e r , v h i l e
o t h e r s e i t h e r f l a t l y refused to c o n s i d e r the payment of Za^tfih as
t h e i r r e l i g i o u s o b l i g a t i o n o r a b s t a i n e d from t h i s pajrment without
denying t h a t i t was so.

Abu Bakr wanted to wage war against all these three

elements. There was no difference of opinion among the Sahabah
a g a i n s t suppressing the f i r s t of t h e s e t h r e e t r i b e s - those who had
gone back on t h e i r acceptance of Islam a s t h e i r f a i t h . However, t h e
Sahabah were h e s i t a n t to f i g h t a g a i n s t the other two e l a n e n t s . Umar
was foremost 8unong the gahabah who held t h i s opinion. He said t h a t
person became a Muslim a f t e r r e c i t i n g the Kalimah al~Tauheed
(affirmation of f a i t h in the unity of Allah) and s a i d t h a t he wondered
 . - 46 -

i f i t would be proper to use force a g a i n s t those who had not

renounced t h e i r f a i t h in the oneness of Allah, on the ground t h a t
they were refusing to pay Zakah. He said to Abu Bakr:
"How can you s t a r t a .11 had (holy war) a g a i n s t t h e s e
people since the Prophet of Allah has said t h a t he had been asked
(by Allah) to fight against people t i l l they affirmed t h e i r faith
in His u n i t y . Once they have done s o , t h e s e c u r i t y of t h e i r l i f e
and property i s guaranteed, unless i t becomes necessary to do so
i n t h e cause of Isleun, and they a r e accountable only t o A l l a h . "

Abu Bakr replied t h a t for the p r o t e c t i o n of o n e ' s l i f e

and property affirmation of f a i t h i n t h e unity of Allah was not
enough ae i t e n t a i l e d meeting two Important p r e r e q u i a i t e s - Salah
(Prayer) which eBveryone owed to Hla f o r giving him the b r e a t h o f
l i f e and Zakah which had to be paid by everyone i n r e t u r n for the
material b e n e f i t s t h a t have been bestowed on him. He added t h a t
both these o b l i g a t i o n s were equally important and could not be s e p a i ^
ated from each o t h e r , and t h a t i s why the Holy Quran always mentioned
them t o g e t h e r . Hence, he said t h a t Jihad had to be waged a g a i n s t
those refusing to pay Zakah j u s t as i t had to be waged a g a i n s t tiiose
who refused to perfonn Salah. According to Ibn Qutaibah, Abu Bakr
c i t e d the t r a d i t i o n of the Prophet (SAAW) too in t h i s context which
c l e a r l y mentioned t h a t guarantee of l i f e and property was c o n t i n g e n t
upon the performance of Salah and the payment of Zakah only. On
hearing the above mentioned arguments Umar responded spontaneously
saying that he was convinced t h a t Ab|[ Bakr was r i g h t and s t a r t e d
k i s s i n g h i s hands in sheer ecstacy.^ '
 - 47 -

From the above, i t i s c l e a r that in the matter of vaging

Jihad a g a i n s t those who were r e f u s i n g to pay Zakah Abu Bakr had
acted a f t e r o b t a i n i n g the consensus of the Ummah by convincing i t
with the s t r e n g t h of his arguments.

The o t h e r case in which Abu Bakr i s said to have r e j e c t e d

the advice of Ahl al-h""'"' ya«r''~°T^ (those ^^t tne heir; of
alf:iirs) r e l a t e s to the appointment of Usanja as the l e a d e r of the
army and acted according to h i s personal judgement. This misunder-
standing has a r i s e n due to a l a c k of knowledge of the f a c t s of the
case.

I t was not Abu Bakr but the Prophet (SAAW> who had given
the command of an army to Usama. However the Prophet (SAAW) died
before t h i s army could be despatched f o r the c ompaign for which i t
was meant*

Due to t h e conditions t h a t p r e v a i l e d i n the country

following the P r o p h e t ' s death, t h e Sahabah advised Abu Bakr not to
send thic5 army to the b a t t l e front but to use i t to quell the
disturbances t h a t had broken out within the country. However, Abu Bakr
said t h a t i t was not possible for him to a b s t a i n from doing what
had been urged by the Prophet (SAAW) again and a g a i n , even on
h i s death bed. ¥hen Umar asked him not to undertake t h i s compaign
Abu Bakr r e p l i e d t h a t he would not d e s i s t from sending the army
even i f t h e e n t i r e people of Arabia vere against t h i s measure and
even though a« a r e s u l t *f t h i s , b i r d s would claw him and eat him
up. This speech of Abu Bakr opened the eyes of a l l and they were
s a t i s f i e d with h i s decision in the m a t t e r . Then Umar infbrmed
Abu Bakr of the deirand of same people that someone with a high
 - 48 -

s t a t u r e and wide experience be appointed corciniander of the army

in place of Usarra bin Zaid on the ground thnt i t vould be most
humiliating for honourable members of the army to be led by one
who was eo young and waa begotten by a s l a v e .

Abu Bakr declined to ooncede t h i s demand, saying t h a t

i t was the Prophet (SAAV) h i a s e l f who had chosen Usaca to l e a d
the army. According to Ibn J a r e e r Tabri the Muna^ig^ ( h y p o c r i t e s )
had taunted and reproved him for t h i s s e l e c t i o n of h l s , ^ ' ' ' Even
then the Prophet (3AAW) had appointed Usama as commander i n a p l t e
of -this and had aald to h i s c r i t i c s t h a t he was not s u r p r i s e d
t h a t they wore taunting hiw on Usama's appointment s i n c e they
had e a r l i e r c r i t i c i s e d the s e l e c t i o n of h i e f a t h e r as a commander,
even though he eminently deserved to be a l e a d e r and waa h i s g r e a t
favourite and h i s son was also h i s f a v o u r i t e . (57)'

S e t t i n g high or low a n c e s t r y as a measure of a b i l i t y

or l a c k of i t only "befitted the h y p o c r i t e s (Wunafigs) s i n c e
a b o l i t i o n of p r i v i l e g e s based on t h i s standard was one of t h e
s a i n objectives of Islam. Abu Bakr could a l s o not go a g a i n s t
a decision already taken by the Prophet (SAAW). So, when some
of t h e Sahabah thought that the army m l ^ t not accept t h e l e a d e r s h i p
of Usama they approached Umar to convey t h e i r f e e l i n g s to Abu Bakr.
Vhen Umar did so, Abu Bakr was g r e a t l y enraged. He asked Umar
how he dared to advise him to dismiss one who had been appointed
by the Prophet (SAAV).^^^^

The above Incident shows t h a t when Abu Bakr was faced

with the demands of the people which went a g a i n s t the p r i n c i p l e s
of Islam and the d i r e c t i v e s of the Prophet (3AAW) , he p r e f e r r e d
 - 49 -

the l a t t e r to the former.

V/hen Abu Bakr put t h e f a c t s of the case of Usaina

before the Sahabah they were not merely s a t i s f i e d with h i s
d e c i s i o n but supported him wholeheartedly in the m a t t e r .

The importance attached by the f i r s t c a l i p h to t h e

opinion of t h e Shura i s c l e a r from t h e proceedings of the
c o n s u l t a t i v e meeting attended by eminent Sahabah to d i s c u s s
t h e i s s u e of war against Rome. Prominent among those p r e s e n t
a t t h e meeting were A l l , Uthman, Abdur Rahman bin Auf, Saad b i n
Abl Waqqas, Saeed bin Zaid and Abu Ubaldah bin J a r r a h and the
Sahabah who had p a r t i c i p a t e d in t h e B a t t l e of Badr from amongst
the Ansar and the Muha.Hra. Abu Bakr informed the assembled
g a t h e r i n g t h a t the Prophet (3AAV) had turned h i s a t t e n t i o n towarda
Syria (which was p a r t of t h e Roman Empire) but had died before
he could take any steps in the m a t t e r . Abu Bakr t o l d them t h a t
he now wished to serd an army to Syria and wanted to e l i c i t the
opinion of ths assembly. Umar said t h a t he agreed with t h e p r o p o s a l ,
adding t h a t i t was Allah who had guided Abu Bakr to take t h e
c o r r e c t decision in the m a t t e r . He asked the Caliph to send a s many
horses and men as possible for the compaign. He was sure t h a t
Allah would make the follov^ers of His t r u e f a i t h v i c t o r i o u s and
would make the Muslims strong,

Abdur Rahman bin Auf reminded Abu Bakr t h a t the Romans

were very cunning and c o n s t i t u t e d a strong m i l i t a r y power. He,
t h e r e f o r e was against a t t a c k i n g them without adequate p r e p a r a t i o n s .
He advised the Caliph to send t h e cavalry and surround the
t e r r i t o r y of the Romans and repeat t h i s a number of times every day.
 - 50 -

He said t h r t t h i s vculd f<reetly harm the Romans and t h e i r

belonginiTs would bo taken ae booty, and t h i s would a l s o r e s u l t
in a h l o c t e d e of the eneniy. He added t h a t t h i s should bo followed
by Kugtei'irg the t r i b a l e of Tainan, Rabiya and Kuzar. tie said to
t h e Caliph t h a t a f t e r these p r e p a r a t i o n s he should e i t h e r l e a d
t h e war agalnct the Komana p e r s o n a l l y or d i r e c t i t from a
distaY>ce.

Uthman was of t h e v i e v t h a t Abu Baltr waa a w e l l - w i s h e r

of t h e Umraah and ought to go ahead u n h e s i t a t i n g l y and t a k e
wha'lever steps he considared b e s t in i t s i n t e r e s t . Talha, Zubair,
Saad, Saeed bin Ziad and o t h e r s p r e s e n t supported Uthman a s k i n g
to Abu Eakr to take whatever s t e p s he deemed n e c e s s a r y . Ali was
i n i t i a l l y s i l e n t on t h i s occasion. But when the Caliph r e q u e s t i n g
him to express h i s opinion, he said t h a t whether o r not he
(Abu Bakr) led the army p e r s o n a l l y he would be v i c t o r i o u s over
the enemies. When Abu Bakr asked Ali on what b a s i s he was g.lving
such ,~lad t i d l n g a , he replied t h a t he had beared the Prophet (SAAW)
say t h a t the I s l a i s l c f a i t h would overcome a l l i t s opponents and
eneiniep u n t i l i t was completely e s t a b l i s h e d and t h a t i t s f o l l o w e r s
overcome a l l o t h e r s .

Then Abu Bakr addressed t h e people, s a y i r ^ t h a t Allah

had blessed there with the boon of Islam and with the d i v i n e
i n s p i r a t l o r of p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n JIhad (holy war) and had made
them superior to the followero of o t h e r f a i t h s and hence they
should proceed to the Syrian front to fight a g a i n s t the Romans.
The Caliph added that he was nominating t h e i r l e a d e r s and was
 - 51 -

awardinsp: their pennons. He enjoined on the people to obey Allah

?nd not to go a g a i n s t the eomnands of t h e i r l e a d e r s . ( 59)

Such vas t h e a t t i t u d e of Ahu Bakr r e l a t i n g to m i l i t a r y

a f f a i r s . He consulted prominent Sahabah even on i s s u e s concerning
the adffiinistratior. of the s t a t e and i n the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n and
e l u c i d a t i o n of the Islairic Shariah. In such a f f a i r s Umar was h i s
e s p e c i a l a d v i s e r . When Abu Bakr s t a r t e d implementing t h e Sunnah
of t h e Prophet (SAAW) by awarding fallow lands to people a s
J a g l r s ( r e n t - f r e e e s t a t e s ) so as to strengthen t h e economy of
t h e country and to increase n a t i o n a l income, Oyainah bin Hlsn
and Aqra bin Haabis approached t h e Caliph r e q u e s t i n g him to a l l o t
t o them as J a g i r e some barren p i e c e s of land i n t h e i r a r e a which
were l y i n g u n u t i l i s e d as they were u n f i t for c u l t i v a t i o n and
promised to s t a r t farming these l a n d s a f t e r making th«B f e r t i l e .
Abu Bakr acceded to t h e i r request and gave a document t r s m e f e r r i n g
t h e s e Ismds to them and asked them to get the document a t t e s t e d
by Umar. When these persons went to Umar for the purpose, he was
f u r i o u s . He snatched away the paper from them, s p a t on i t with
contempt and t o r e i t into p i e c e s . The two become very angry and
used harah words against him. Umar said that the Prophet (SAAW)
had showered them with benevolence when Islam was weak and s i n c e
Allah had now made the r e l i g i o n s t r o n g they ought to earn t h e i r
l i v e l i h o o d through hard work. Both of them went to Abu Bakr and
said to him a n g r i l y that they were not sure he o r Umar was
t h e Caliph. Abu Bakr replied t h a t Umar deserved to be Caliph
b u t had declined h i s offer to assume the C a l i p h a t e . In t h e
meantime Umar too reached there and expressed h i s d i s p l e a s u r e
 -52 -

9t the sictJor of tb'^ Caliph. He asked Abu Bakr whether the l a n d s

t h s t be hfid allott-.^c' to the~e tvo belonged to him jiersonally o r
to the e n t i r e Uirirah. The O-liph r e p l i e d t h a t t h e lands belongad
to a l l t h e ^'uslims. Ur-ar askfid him t h a t i f such was the case
why he had given these lands only to these two p e r s o n s , i g n o r i n g
the claims of a l l other Kualims. Abu Bakr r e p l i e d t h a t he had
consulted the Sahabah who were present on t h e occasion i n the
m a t t e r . Ulnar, then suggested to the Caliph t h a t whenever he
consulted people s i t t i n g around him or convened the assembly
of the e n t i r e people to hold c o n s u l t a t i o n he shovild keep some
scope for h i s own views a l s o . To t h i s Abu Bakr remarked t h a t
t h i s was why he was of the opinion t h a t i t was he (Umar) who
deserved to be Caliph but he had, i n s t e a d , i n s t a l l e d him (Abu Bakr)
in the s e a t of Caliphate.^ ^ ^
One feature of the system of Shura during the period
of the Guided Caliphs was that whenever a Sahabi thought what
was r i g h t and h i s opinion was confirmed in t h e l i g h t of the
Quran and the Sunnah. he was most vehemoat In p u t t i n g forward
h i s point of view and employed a l l t h e arguments and h i s f u l l
r h e t o r i c a l force to convince the Sahabah. This was why, according
to some accounts, in the case of the army of Usama when Umar
put before the f i r s t Caliph o b j e c t i o n s of some Shabah and
suggested a change in t h e command of the army, Abu Bakr caught
him by the beared in sheer r a g e . In t h e same way, when Abu Bakr
accepted the advice of some prominent Sahabah regarding t h e a l l o t -
ment of barren l a n d s , Umar became furious and s p a t on the deed
of the allotment of these lands and t o r e i t i n t o p i e c e s .
 - 53 -

Another example of the important r o l e of the Shura

during the caliphate of Abu Bakr r e l a t e s to t h e compilation of
the verses of the Quran, This i s s u e assumes g r e a t importance when
i n the B a t t l e of Tamama one thousand and two hundred Muslims
were k i l l e d , including 59 prominent Sahabah and Huffaz Quran
(those who had l e a r n t the Quran by h e a r t ) , t h i s being Just one
of the several b a t t l e s in which l a r g e number of the P r o p h e t ' s
companions were k i l l e d ,

Abu Bakr realized t h e need to take measures to p r e s e r v e

the a u t e n t i c i t y of the Quran. But he was r e l u c t a n t to undertake
anything which had not been done during the l i f e of the Prophet,
However, Umar took up courage and impressed upon t h e f i r s t Caliph
the need t o do something i n t h e m a t t e r . He s a i d t h a t I f s t e p s
were not taken to compile the Quran there was t h e danger t h a t
i t s l a r g e portions would be l o s t , Abu Bakr asked Umar how he could
do something not done by the Prophet (SAAW) . To t h i s Umar r e p l i e d
t h a t t h e compilation of t h e Holy Book was a v i r t u o u s u n d e r t a k i n g .

On beir^ urged by Umar to undertake t h i s t a s k again

and a g a i n , the f i r s t Caliph was convinced of t h e need to do s o .
He c a l l e d Zald bin Thabit the Katib ( s c r i b e ) of t h e Vahi (Divine
Revelation to the Prophet) tc c o l l e c t the v e r s e s of t h e Quran
and compile them. Zaid bin Thabit said t h a t i f had been asked
by the Caliph to remove a mountain from i t s p l a c e , t h i s t a s k
would not been as d i f f i c u l t as t h a t of the oompilation of the
Quran, Then he raised the same objection to t h e measure as t h a t
i n i t i a l l y raised by Abu Bakr himse] f, The f i r s t Caliph gave t h e
 - 54 -

aaice reply as wae given to him by Umar. U l t i m a t e l y , a f t e r some

h e s i t a t i o n Zaid bin Thabil too, was convinced of the need to do
s o . He c o l l e c t e d different p a r t s of t h e Quran most carefully
i n s c r i b e d on pieces of cloth, bark of t r e e s and palm l e a v e s or
those t h a t had been l e a r n t by h e a r t by o t h e r s or by himself.
For eatample, he got two verses of Surah al-Taubah which had
been preserved by Khuzaimah Ansari and the v e r s e of Surah al-Ahzaab
which he had himself heard from the l i p s of t h e Prophet (SAAW)
and had a l s o been preserved by Khuzaimah Ansari. He included
t h i s v e r s e i n the compilation a f t e r i t was a t t e s t e d by t^fo o t h e r
Sahabah. All those pages on vhich the Quran war? compiled by
Zaid bin Thabit were kept in t h e safe custody of Abu Bakr. They
were then looked a f t e r by Umar and a f t e r h i s d e a t h they were
handed over to Hafsa the Mother of f a i t h f u l . ^ ^

Abu Bakr held c o n s u l t a t i o n s on the i s s u e s of Flgh

( I s l a m i c Jurisprudence) t o o . A person was a r r e s t e d and brought
before Khalid. fie was charged with the criOie of sodomy. Xhalid
r e f e r r e d the matter to Caliph Abu Bekr since t h e r e was no mention
of t h e punishment for such B crime in the Quran oi' the Sunngh.,
The Caliph conferred with his a d v i s o r s on the i s s u e , g i v i n g h i s
personal opinion that death should be th^ punishment for a
sodomite. His advisers were aboux to concur with hie opinion when
Ali said t h a t such an unnatural and loathsome a c t should not be
punishable raarely with death but with the h a r s h e s t and most
exemplary punishment so t h a t no ona would dare to commit such
a crime in the f u t u r e . He f u r t h e r p^^id t h a t the Arabs cjonsidered
the c u t t i n g off of the nose and efirs as the most h u m i l i a t i n g
punishment
 - 55 -

and a b l o t on the face of humanity. In h i s opinion Ali

continued the punishment meted cut for such a d i s g u s t i n g crime
should be harsher than that of the c u t t i n g off of the nose and
e a r s and suggested that the criminal should be burnt a l i v e .
Abu Bakr accepted t h i s suggestion of Ali and asked Khalid to
pronounce judgement accordingly,^ '

The above examples show t h a t the f i r s t Caliph

e s t a b l i s h e d the Islamic system of Shura and sonculted t h e s c h o l a r s
and Ahl al~Raae (those whose opinion carried w e l ^ t ) In t h e
d i s p o s a l of a l l national and p o l i t i c a l iBsues, thus keeping
a l i v e t h e (Bupnah of the Prophet (SAAW).

Umar the second Caliph of Islam, l i k e Abu Bakr,

maintained the Shura system of Islamic s t a t e . During h i s
C a l i p h a t e the most v i t a l and fundamental t h i n g was t h e
establishment of the Consultative Assembly. Whenever an important
q u e s t i o n come up for d e c i s i o n , the Consultative Assembly was
c a l l e d and no question was decided without free debate and
without t h e consent of the E a j o r i t y , The whole body p o l i t i c of
Islam was divided at that into two groups, namely, t h e Muha.Urg
and the Ansar. They were the l e a d e r s of the people, and t h e
whole of Arabia looked upon them as t h e i r r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s .

Members of both groups always n e c e s s a r i l y took p a r t

i n the d e l i b e r a t i o n s of the Assembly. The Ansar consisted of
two t r i b a l groups, the Aus and the Zhazraj and i t was considered
e s s e n t i a l t h a t members of both the groups should be p r e s e n t i n
t h e Assembly meetings. The h i s t o r y t e l l e us t h a t Uthman, A l l ,
 - 56 -

Abdur Rahman b . Auf, Kab and Zaid b . Thabit were Included i n

t h e roeicbers of Assembly/ ^' The assembly was csilled in the
following manners: A p u b l i c c r i e r went out in the c a p i t a l calling
t h e people to p r a y e r s . When the people had c o l l e c t e d , Umar would
e n t e r the P r o p h e t ' s Mosque and pray two Rakats of Salah with
them. He would then ascend the p u l p i t and address the congregation
on the matter in hand.^ ^' in ordinary matters of d a i l y
occurence, d e c i s i o n s of t h i s congregation were considered
s u f f i c i e n t . But for deciding m a t t e r s of great importance a
general assembly of the Muhajirs and Ansar was convened. The
pay of t h e s o l d i e r s , o r g a n i s a t i o n of s e c r e t a r i a t , appointments
of c i v i l o f f i c e r s , freedom of t r a d e of foreigners and assessment
of import d u t i e s and o t h e r questions of S t a t e were decided by
free d i s c u s s i o n in the Consultative Assembly* These a s s a n b l i e s
were held not merely out of p i e t y , but because as explained by
Umar, Caliphate was not lawful without o o n e a l t a t i o n , ^ •^^

The Consultative Asswnbly was called only on s p e c i a l

occasions when v i t a l i s s u e s had to be decided. There was another
council i n irtiich current a d m i n i s t r a t i v e and o t h e r q u e s t i o n s of
l e s s e r importance were d i s c u s s e d . This council met always i n
t h e P r o p h e t ' s Mosque and only the Muha.1irs took p a r t i n i t .
Daily r e p o r t s from d i s t r i c t and provinces t h a t a r r i v e d i n t h e
C a l i p h ' s court were presented to t h i s council by Umar who
consulted with them on any d e t a i l s that called for d i s c u s s i o n .
Baladhuri speaks of t h i s council as follows: "The Muha.1irq used
t o g e t h e r in the Mosque and Umar used to s i t with them and t a l k
with them about world a f f a i r s . "
 - 57 -

When Umar had gome l e i s u r e from m i l i t a r y e x p e n d i t i o n s ,

t h a t i s , a f t e r Arabian Iraq had been completely conquered i n
16 A.H, and the victory of Yannuk had s h a t t e r e d the power of
t h e Romana, he turned h i s a t t e n t i o n to the o r g a n i z a t i o n of land
revenue a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . The f i r s t o b s t a c l e t h a t confronted him
in t h i s connection was the i n s i s t e n c e of t h e army commanders t h a t
the e n t i r e conquered t e r r i t o r y should be handed over to the
army in e s t a t e s and the I n h a b i t a n t s made t h e i r s e r f s and s l a v e s .
Immediately on the conquest of I r a q , Umar had ordered Sad b ,
Waqqas to take census of the people. Sad took t h e census very
c a r e f u l l y and submitted h i s r e p o r t . On comparing t h e number of
t h e army with t h a t of the i n h a b i t a n t s i t was found t h a t t h r e e
men vould f a l l t o the l o t of each s o l d i e r . Umar had made up h i s
mind at t h a t Yery time t h a t land should be l e f t i n the p o s s e s s i o n
of the i n h a b i t a n t s who should be l e f t free.^ ' But some of t h e
eminent companions l i k e Abdur Rahman b . Auf and o t h e r s supported
the army. B i l a l was so p e r s i s t e n t i n t h i s m a t t e r t h a t Umar
exclaimed in annoyance, "Kay Allah save me from B i l e d . " Umar
argued, i f the conquered lands were divided up among the army,
wherefroiE they would get the necessary finance fbr the r a i s i n g
and equipment of armies in future for defence a g a i n s t aggression
and for the maintenance of peace and o r d e r i n t h e country, Abdur
Rahman b , Auf contended that the l a n d s belonged to those who
had conquered them, and future g e n e r a t i o n s had no rigjit to them.
Then a general assembly comprising a l l yuha.lirs and f i v e
r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s from each of the two t r i b e s of Ansar namely, Aus
and KhazraJ, was c a l l e d . ^ A l i , Uthman and Talha supported Umar,
 - 58 -

but no decision was arrived a t , and the assembly continued i n

s e s s i o r for several days. Then Umar suddenly r e c o l l e c t e d v e r s e s
8-10 of gurah Al-Hashr which speak of "the poor who had f l e d ,
those who were expelled from t h e i r homes and p r o p e r t i e s " and of
"those who come a f t e r . " These v e r s e s proved d e c i s i v e and Umar
i n f e r r e d from them that coming g e n e r a t i o n s had a share i n t h e
conquests; and i f the lands were divided up among t h e conquerors,
nothing would be l e f t for the coming g e n e r a t i o n s . The Caliph
advanced his contention in a powerful speech, so t h a t t h e whole
audience acclaimed i t unanimously. On the b a s i s of Umar'a
inference the p r i n c i p l e was e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t c o u n t r i e s conquered
would be the property of the s t a t e and not of t h e conquering
forces and former occupants of l a n d s would not be d i s p o s s e s s e d .

The consultation was sought about m i l i t a r y o r g a n i z a t i o n

t o o . I t i s said t h a t Abu Harairah who had been appointed governor
of Bahrain brought five lakh dirhame of t h e land revenue of the
province to Madinah. A sum of f i v e lakhs was wonder a t t h e time.
Umar would not believe Abu H a r a i r a h ' s report and wondered whether
t h e governor was quite in his s e n s e s . The l a t t e r repeated t h a t
he had brought five lakhs with him, Umar was s t i l l doubtful and
asked whether the governor could count up five l a k h s . Abu Harairah
assured him t h a t he know the f i g u r e s and r e p e a t e d lakh f i v e t i m e s .
When Umar was at l a s t really convinced he called t h e C o n s u l t a t i v e
Assembly and sought t h e i r opinions as to what was to be done
with such a l a r g e amount of money. A l i , Uthman and o t h e r companions
offered various suggestions. Walid b . Hisham s a i d , he had seen
the r u l e r s of Syria maintaining a War department and a r e g i s t e r
 - 59 -

o f the anny. The idea appealed to Dmar who then decided to

keep a r e g i s t e r o f the army arxl organize a war department,^ "'

There were, a t t h e time a t Madinah t h r e e expert

g e n e a l o g i s t s who were a l s o w e l l - v e r s e d i n accountancy neunely,
Mahzarcah b , Naufal, Jubair b. Mutair and Aqil b. Abi T a l i b . The
keeping o f g e n e a l o g i e s was a h e r e d i t a r y s c i e n c e among t h e Arabs,
but t h e s e t h r e e gentlemen were d i s t i n g u i s h e d as g e n e a l o g i s t s
throughout the country. Umar commissioned them t o prepare a
r e g i s t e r o f the whole o f Qaraish and the ^peay. g i v i n g t h e name
and parentage of each person. They presented a s k e t c h , i n which
were entered f i r s t t h e E a s h i s i t i s * then t h e family o f Abu Bakr,
and a f t e r him that o f Umar. The soheme was prepared i n view o f
t h e a c t u a l s u c c e s s i o n o f the Caliphate* I f i t had been adopted,
t h e r e was f e a r o f the Caliphate becoming an o b j e c t o f f a m i l y
a m b i t i o n s . Umar, t h e r e f o r e , r e j e c t e d i t and said t h a t they should
begin with the near r e l a t i v e s o f the Holy Prophet (3AAW) and t h e n
e n t e r the names i n the order i n which they receded f a r t h e r and
away from the Holy Prophet (SAAW) i n r e l a t i o n s h i p , u n t i l they
came t o Umar's family when h i s name should be w r i t t e n , ^ ' ^ ^

Umar consulted with the governor of Bgypt and i t s

l e a d i n g p e r s o n a l i t i e s in the matter of Amir ul Muminin's Canal,
which joined the M l e t o the Red Sea, There was a general famine
i n Arabia i n 18 A.H. Umar commanded a l l h i s d i s t r i c t and
p r o v i n c i a l o f f i c e r s to purchase l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s o f food stuffs
and send them to Arabia. The order was compiled w i t h , but t h e
land r o u t e s from Syria and Bgypt were so Ittng t h a t the import
 - 60 -

of food s t u f f s ^rom these c o u n t r i e s proved very t a r d y . Umar

invited Amar b . al-As, governor of Egypt to come to Madinah
with him a party of responsible persons to solve the problem.
When they arrived at the c a p i t a l , t h e Caliph t o l d them t h a t if
the Kile were connected with t h e Red Sea, Arabia would never have
any fear of s c a r c i t y , for the c a r r i a g e Of food s t u f f s by the land
route was tedious and slow. Umar t o l d them to seek c o n s u l t a t i o n
among thenselves and to infbrm him t h e r e s u l t . Next day, when
t h e delegation came to the c o u r t , Umar noticed t h e i r h e s i t a t i o n
and unwillingness. He further, discussed the m a t t e r and convinced
th«ii f u l l y , Amar, then went back, took the work i n hand and b u i l t
a canal from Pustat to the R«d Sea.^ '

In the appointment of governors and o t h e r officials,

ITmar consulted with his companions and appointed t h e honest and
capable men for the p o s t s . On important p o s t s , s e l e c t i o n was made
openly in t h e Consultative Assembly* Uthman b . Haneef's appointment
was made in t h i s wise. At times, t h e i n h a b i t a n t s of d i s t r i c t s o r
provinces wei^e asked to select honest and capable men, and t h e
persons so selected were appointed o f f i c e r s over them.^ '

The man appointed to an o f f i c e of s t a t e was given an

instrument of i n s t r u c t i o n s , in which h i s appointments, powers
and obligations were s t a t e d , ^ ' ^ ' and which was witnessed by a
number of Wuha.lire and ^nsar.

Umar sought for companions' opinion about i n t r o d u c i n g

the new dCLender. In 16 A.H. he was one day presented with a d r a f t
on which was written one word Sjambaa • Umar asked how he should
 - 61

know whether Shaban of the previous year was meant or of the

current one. Thereupon he called the C o n s u l t a t i v e Assembly, a t
which a l l prominent companions were present and t h e q u e s t i o n of
f i x i n g an era was discussed. Most of those present suggested
t h a t the Persian method should be adopted. Harmuzan, King of
Khazistan who had embraced Islani and s e t t l e d down a t Madinah,
said t h a t the method current in h i s country c a l l e d Mahrug was
convenient as i t indicated both the day and the month. The
question arose next as to the d a t e from which t h e era was to
commence. Ali suggested i t should begin from HiJrah and a l l
agreed to i t . The Holy Prophet (SAAV) had migrated i n the month
of Rabiul Awwal when the year had a l r e a d y run two months and
eight days. The era should have s t a r t e d thus from Bablul Awwal.
But as the year begin in Arabia with t h e month of Muharram, t h e
date was pushed back two months and e i t h daysy and the e r a was
made to commence from the beginning of the year.^ '

Ushur were an innovation of Umar and they began with

t h e consultation of companions t h i s wise. Musiims who went t o
foreign lands for t r a d e had to pay an import duty a t t e n p e r c e n t
on t h e i r merchandise according to t h e laws of t h o s e l a n d s . Abu
nusa Ashari reported the fact to Umar who ordered t h a t import duty
should be charged a t the same r a t e from merchants of those
c o u n t r i e s coming to the Muslim c o u n t r i e s for t r a d e . The C h r i s t i a n s
of ManbaJ who had not yet cone under the r u l e of Islam applied
to Umar for permission to t r a d e ±n Arabia on payment of Ushuf
( o r custom d u t i e s a t ten pertfent). The c a l i p h hold t h e Consultativ*
Assembly and sought the public o p i n i o n . The companions gave the
 - 62 -

p e r m i s s i o n and t h e same r u l e was extended to Muslims and Phlmmlq

thoU(R;h t h e r a t e s v e r e d i f f e r e n t .
The f o r e i g n e r s p a i d t e n p e r c e n t ,
( 75")
DhiiriiiiB f i v e p e r c e n t and Muslims two and a h a l f p e r c e n t . ^ "^''

A f t e r t h e conquest o f Qadiaiyah (14 A.H./635 A.D.)

Saad t h e cominander-in-chief, ordered t h a t t h e t r e a s u r e s of the
r o y a l psuLaces should be b r o u ^ t and accumulated i n one p l a c e *
There were v a s t r i c h e s c o m p r i s i n g t h o u s a n d s o f r a r e and p r i c e l e s s
h e i r l o o m s t r a n s m i t t e d and p r e s e r v e d from t h e Kayani d y n a s t y down
t o t h e t i m e of Anusharwan such a s t h e c o a t e - o f - m a i l and swords
of t h e monarohs of t h e c a l e s t i a l Empire o f China, t h e Raja Dahar,
t h e Emperor of Rome. Numan b . Mundhir, Siyawash and Bahram
Chobin, t h e p o n i a r d s of K i a r a , Hurmuz and Qaiqubad and t h e
gembedizened crown and k i n g l y r o b e s o f Anusharwan. The most
wonderful and e x q u i s i t e l y m a g n i f i c e n t o f a l l was a c a r p e t which
t h e P e r s i a n s c a l l e d t h e ' S p r i n g ' . A f t e r t h e s e a s o n of 'ethereal
m i l d n e s s ' was o v e r , t h e c a r p e t was used f b r t h e f e a s t o f w i n e .
Hence t h e c a r p e t was provided w i t h a l l t h e p a r a p h e r n a l i a o f
s p r i n g which a r t and w e a l t h would a s s a y to i m i t a t e . I n t h e centre
was a p a r t e r r e of v e r d u r e b o r d e r e d on a l l s i d e s wilh o r n a m e n t a l
a v e n u e s around which t r e e s and p l a n t s of v a r i o u s descriptions
grew l a d e n w i t h buds and f l o w e r s and f r u i t s . S t r o n g e s t of a l l ,
every t h i n g was worked i n g o l d , s i l v e r and p r e c i o u s s t o n e s . The
ground xork was of g o l d , t h e v e r d u r e of e m e r a l d , t h e borders
of t o p a z , the t r e e s of gold and s i l v e r , t h e l e a v e s of s i l k sind
t h e g r u i t s o f gems.

The c a r p e t and o t h e r a n c i e n t r e l i c s were s e n t t o t h e

c a l i p h ' s c o u r t in t h e i r e n t i r e t y so t h a t t h e Arabs might view t h e
 - 63 -

s p e c t a c l e of t h e grandeur and m a g n i f i c e n c e of P e r s i a a s v e i l as
of t h e might and g l o r y of I s l a m . Umar c a l l e d t h e companions and
sought a d v i c e with regard to t h e c e l e b r a t e d c a r p e t . The p u b l i c
o p i n i o n v a s t h a t i t should n o t be d i s t r i b u t e d b u t b e p r e a e r v e d ,
Umar h i m s e l f was i n c l i n e d t o w a r d s t h i s view. A l i was a l o n e t o
d i s a g r e e w i t h i t . He i n s i s t e d to d i s t r i b u t e i t anong t h e M u s l i m s .
He p e r s i s t e n t l y t o l d t h a t i f t h e c a l i p h had p r e a e r v e d i t how
could he p r o h i b i t t h o s e w i s h i n g t o p o s s e s s u n l a w f u l l y i n future.
At h i s i n s i s t e n c e the c a r p e t a l s o liad to be d i s t r i b u t e d and «cut
( 76^
into pieces. '

Though the second c a l i p h himself was a g r e a t jurist

and h i s o p i n i o n a l o n e s u f f i c e d t o e s t a b l i s h t h e d i c t a of l a w ,
e v e r t h e n , Umar brought most o f t h e q u e s t i o n s i n t h e asBembly o f
t h e companioxia» where m a t t e r s v e r e disccuised w i t h t h e greatest
freedom and acumen. The h i s t o r i a n s w r i t e t h a t Umar n e v e r
a d j u d i c a t e d upon any q u e s t i o n which had not been d e c i d e d a l r e a d y ,(17) '
Shah W a l i u l l a h a n a l y s e s t h e s i t u a t i o n and s a y s , " I t was U m a r ' s
p r a c t i c e t o c o n s u l t t h e companions and bold d i s c u s s i o n s w i t h them
u n t i l v e i l s were l i f t e d and c o n v i c t i o n was a t t a i n e d . Jbr t h i s
r e a s o n Umar's d i c t a were a c c e p t e d throughout t h e B a s t and t h e

The q u e s t i o n decided upon by Unar i n c o n s u l t a t i o n with

t h e companione were not small i n number, and f U l l d e t a i l s o f them
a r e t o be found in t h e h i s t o r y . Bor i n s t a n c e , B a i h a q i r e p o r t s
c a s e of the b a t h of J a n a b a b o r s e x u a l p u r i f i c a t i o n (particulars
of which a r e given by B a i h a q i ) . Umar commanded t h a t t h e Muha.Urs
and t h e ^ n s a r should a s s e m b l e , and t h e q u e s t i o n was p u t i n t h e
 - 64 -

Assembly. All the companions except All and Muadh who d i f f e r e d ,

agreed on one opinion. Umar s a i d , "If you gentlemen who faught
the B a t t l e of Badr differ so, what would happen t o t h e coming
generations?" The matter was r e f e r r e d to t h e noble -wives of t h e
Holy Prophet (SAAV) and t h e i r opinion was made law by Umar,^ '

Similarly, there was a difference of opinion among

the companions with regard to t h e number of Takbirg o r r e p e t i t i o n
of the magnificatory formula in the funeral p r a y e r s . Umar i n v i t e d
the companions to a general assembly a t which i t was decided to
make an inquiry as to what the Holy Prophet (SAAW) had done i n
t h i s r e s p e c t the l a s t time. I t was found t h a t in the l a s t funeral
p r a y e r s , the Holy Prophet (SAAW) had said Takbir four times and
the question was decided upon by c o n s u l t a t i o n and d i s c u s s i o n , ^ '

In war a f f a i r s t o o , Umar used to t a k e a d v i c e with

the companions. In the B a t t l e of Qadieiyah he ordered t h a t t h e
troops should mustered and equipped i n the beat o r d e r and
intimated h i s intention to command the whole force i n p e r s o n .
He, accordingly, entrusted the d i v i s i o n a l command of the vanguard
to Talha and t h a t of the r i g h t wing to Zubair, while Abdur Rahman
b . Auf was appointed to the command of the l e f t wing of t h e army.
When the army was drawn up, he made over t h e charge of t h e
c a l i p h a t e to All and leaving Madinah advanced toward I r a q . The
a c t i v i t y thus displayed by Umar c r e a t e d wide spread enthusiasm
and every one girded up h i e l i o n s to meet death i n t h e f a c e . At
Sarar, a spring three miles from Madinah, t h e f i r s t h a u l t was
ordered. As, for certain reasons, i t was not expedient that
the Caliph should go personally to the b a t t l e f i e l d , Umar convened
 - 65 -

a ge:ieral council of war at S a r a r and i n v i t e d the opinion of

every one p r e s e n t . All unanimouBly exclaimed t h a t the expedition
could not terminate succeBBfUlly u n l e s s i t vas headed by the
caliph himself. The e l i t e of the companions, however, who would
weigh the proa and cone of the a f f a i r , gave a contrary o p i n i o n .
Abdur Rahman b . Auf said, " War haa two s i d e s . Supposing we a r e
defeated and some harm b e f a l l s you xhen Islam w i l l bo no more. "
Uniar got up and made a s t i r r i n g speach and iiound I t up by
addressing the people t h u s , "I had a mind to follow your counsel
but t h e e l i t e of the companions do not acquiesce i n t h i s v i e w . "
In s h o r t , i t was unanimously r e s o l v e d t h a t Umar should not l e a d
the expedition In person.^ '

Likewise, in regard to t h e B a t t l e of Nlhawand, Umar

csdled t h e companions to the P r o p h e t ' s Mosque with the l e t t e r
sent by Ammar b . Yasir t h e governor of Kufa. He addressed the
people regarding i t out, "0 people of Arabia, t h i s time t h e
P e r s i a n s , one and a l l , have girded up t h e i r l i o n s to sweep off
the Muslims from the face of t h e e a r t h , t e l l me what do you
propose to do now?" Talha b , Ubaidullah rose and s a i d , "0 commandei
of the F&lthful, experience haa made you w i s e . We know no more
than t h i s that we obey whatever you o r d e r us t o d o . " Uthaan
apoke next and observed, "In my opinion orders should be Issued
to the governors of Syria, laman and Basra to march with t h e i r
r e s p e c t i v e forces toward Iraq while you should p e r s o n a l l y s t a r t
frorr Wadinah a t the head of the F a d i n i t e s . At Kufa a l l the
troops should assemble under your standard and then we may proceed
i n the direction of Fihawand." All approved of t h i s view but
 - 66 -

All .^as s i l e n t . Jmar glanced a t Ali who spoke t h u s , "If t h e

e n t i r e forces atationed In Syria and Basra were mobilized, the
f r o n t i e r enar/les vould obtain posseseion of t h o s e t e r r i t o r i e s
pnd i f you were to leave Kadirah the whole of Arabia would
becoice involved in i n t e r n e c i n e a g i t a t i o n r e n d e r i n g our c o n t r o l
over our own country a itatxer of d i f f i c u l t y . I am of opinion
t h e t you should not peraonally l e a v e Madinah but i s s u e o r d e r s
to the governors of Syria, Yaman, Basra and o t h e r p r o v i n c e s
i n s t r u c t i n g them to despatch one t h i r d of the f o r c e s under t h e i r
command." Dmar approved of t h i s counsel and said t h a t he a l r e a d y
held the sams view but t h a t he did not l i k e to pronounce h i s
decision without consulting o t h e r s . ^ '

During the year 18 A.H, v i r u l e n t plague broke out i n

Syria, Egypt and Iraq and many a towring personed-ity o f Islam
succumbed to i t . The epidemic appeared toward t h e c l o s e of the
year 17 A.H. and raged with t h e g r e a t e s t r i g o u r for many months.
When Umar f i r s t heard of i t he p e r s o n a l l y went to the i n f e c t e d
area to concert measures for i t s suppression. On a r i d v i n g a t
Surgh he learned Abu Ubaidah and o t h e r s , who had hastened to t h e
spot to receive him, that the v i r u l e n c e of t h e plague was
i n c r e a s i n g by l e a p s and bounds. Umar sent for t h e F i r s t Muha.lirs
and the An ear and invited eipreflsion of t h e i r o p i n i o n . Different
counsels were offered bj th<» v a r i o u s people but t h e Muha.lirp
of the period of victory unaniiiouoly exclaimed t h a t i t was
against the d i c t a t e s of prudence t h a t the Caliph should h a l t
t h e r e . Umar acquiesced in the *K)undness of t h e advice and abade
announce that a l l were to march tomorrow. Abu Ubaidah was an
 - 67 -

extreiie f a t a l i s t . Ke in a tone o i paoaion cried o u t , "Ulest

thou, 0 Umax' away from God's w i l l ? " Unar bore t h i s a c r i d
remark with an urBUtiled mien and calmly r e p l i e d : "Yes I f l y
irom A l l a h ' s « i l l , but toward A l l a h ' s Will.''^^^^

These examples are s u f f i c i e n t to prove t h a t Umar

though none of the s t a t e s around h t a was domocratic, e s t a b l i s h e d
a pov/srful democratic s t a t e in which a l l the matters were
discussed freely and decided e n t i r e l y with c o n s u l t a t i o n s .

I t has been discussed a l r e a d y t h a t Uthman was appointed

as c a l i p h through the mutual c o n s u l t a t i o n among the Ansar and
the Wuha.1irg« All the members of Oonsultative Assembly, a s
Ibn Athir^ ' has s t a t e d , agreed upon the s e l e c t i o n of Uthman.
Ahmad b , Hanbal, who has a vast and deep v i s i o n i n the Holy
T r a d i t i o n s , has elaborated the p o i n t t h a t the general consensus
^as so much in t h i s regard t h a t no other highteous Caliph could
got 80 support,^ •^'

In the outgoing period, when t h e r e was an anarchy

and disturbance throughout the c o u n t r y , Uthman could not haiumer
the s p i r i t of c o n s u l t a t i o n . To wake a c r i t i c a l a n a l y s i s he c a l l e d
for the Apsay and t h e Muhaiirg t o whom he s a i d , "You a r e my
p a r t n e r s and a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of t h e Muslims, give your advice
what to do to cool the abnormal s i t u a t i o n s . " On the advice of
the companions, he sent few experienced persons i n different
p a r t s of the country so that they might find out t h e r e a l causes
and t h e i r remedies.^ '

These fev- examples from the history of t h e Fbur Guided

Caliphs prove the importance, v a l i d i t y and lawfulness of
 - 68 -

consiiltation with the Ummah or t h e i r r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s i n the

a f f a i r s of Islamic s t a t e . The Caliphs were r e a l l y deserved to
be t i t l e d * Khalifah' (successor of the Prophet) because they
followed the Islamic p o l i t i c a l p r i n c i p l e s l a i d by the Prophet
(SAAW) i . e . the c o n s u l t a t i o n , j u s t i c e , freedom and e q u a l i t y
in the t r u e sense of the terms.

After going through t h e cases c i t e d above i n d e t a i l ,

one may conclude that the ^hnra system during the period of Pour
Caliphs was implemented with due importance. During t h e p e r i o d
of Umar a l Earooq, i t was developed i n i t s highest degree. The
I s s u e s were put to the Consultative AssKcbly and a f t e r due
d e l i b e r a t i o n s t h e problems were r e s o l v e d . In the m a t t e r s of
g r e a t e r importance the general assembly was c a l l e d and t h e
general body of Kadinah o r i t s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s p a r t i c i p a t e d t h e
discussion.

Secondly, both the r e l i g i o u s and wordly a f f a i r s ,

were presented to the ghura for i t s d e c i s i o n . A d m i n i s t r a t i v e
as well as l e g a l aspects were discussed and a f t e r reaching to
a consensus the final v e r d i c t s were given. In case t h e consensus
was not p o s s i b l e , the opinion of majority was followed.

Thirdly, the head of s t a t e was e i t h e r nominated a s

was done in the case of second Caliph, or proposed by Majlip
a l Shura as was practiced in t h e s e l e c t i o n of Uthman, o r s e l e c t e d
by eminent Sahabah and was p r e s e n t e d , l a t e r , to t h e general
p u b l i c for approval as was followed i n the e l e c t i o n of Abu Bakr
o r was elected by the people d i r e c t l y as was in t h e case of A l i .
 - 69 -

The f i n a l a u t h o r i t y l i e d with t h e people. He could not be

imposed upon the people in a d e s p o t i c way. The approval of
t h e Muslims, d i r e c t l y or i n d i r e c t l y , was considered essential
 KiOT - TOT 23

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a l - N l z a m i , Kanpur» 1293 A.H., p p . 3 2 - 3 3 ; al-Baihaq^
Abu Bakr Ahmad b . Hussaln b . A l i , a l - 3 u n a n a l K u b r a .
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 - T i -

ll, l i a i k a l , KohaEmad Husain, a l - F a r o o g Umar, V o l . I I ,

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 - 72 -

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33. Hakim, Muetadrak. Op. C i t . , V o l . I , P . 136.

34. Qazi Abu Yusuf, Taqub b . I b r a h i m , K i t a b a l - K h a r a L

Matbaah S a l a f i y a h , C a i r o , 1346 A . H . , PP. 7 - 8 .

35. Ibn Saad, Tabaaat. Op. C i t . , V o l . I l l , P . 248.

 - 73 -

36. B u k h a r l , Al-Jarne a l ~ S a h l h . P a r t IX, Op. C i t . , P . 100.

37. Ibn A t h i r , Al-Kamel f l a l - T a r l k h . Op. C i t . , V o l . Ill,

P . 66.

38. Ibn Abdul B a r r , Yusuf b . A b d u l l a h b . Muhammad, Al-Isteeaab

f i Mare fab a l - A s h a b , ( e d . ) A l l Mohammad a l - B a j a v i , Maktabah
Nuhdhah, Egypt, Vol. I l l , P . 1154.

39. Ibn Saad, Tabaaat. Op. G i t . , V o l . I l l , P . 2 5 6 .

40. A l - T a b r e z i , Valiuddin Hohammad b . A b d u l l a h a l - K h a t e e b

ad-Umaxd, Mighkat a l Wasabeejh, ( e d . ) Mohamnad N a s e r u d d l n
a l - A l b a n i , Al-Maktab a l - I s l a m l , Damascus, V o l . I l l , P . 2 4 8 ,

41. I b i d , P . 240.

42. Ibn Saad, Tabaaat. Op, G i t . , V o l , I I I , P . 2 4 9 .

43. Ibn Qutaibah, Al-Imamah ya a l ~ 3 1 y a s a h . Op, 0 1 1 , , V o l , I,

P . 26.

44. Ibn Saad, Tabaaat. Op. G i t , , V o l . I l l , P . 4 2 .

45. Ibn Qutaibah, Al-Imainah va a l ~ 3 i y a s a h . Op. G i t . , V o l , I,

P . 29.

46. Hakim, Mustadrak. Op, G i t . , V o l . I l l , P . 3 1 0 .

47. Ibn Qutaibah, Al-Imamah wa a l - S i y a e a h . Op. C i t . , V o l . I,

P. 30.

48. Ibn Saad, Tabaaat. Op. G i t . , V o l . I l l , P . 4 3 .

Ibn K a t h i r , Al«Bidayah ya al-»Kihayah. Op. C i t . , V o l . V I I ,
P. 147.

49. Ibn A t h i r , Al.Kamel f i a l > T a r i k h . V o l . I l l , P P . 7 1 - 7 2 .

50. I b r Talmiyah, Klnha.i al~Sunnah. Op. C i t . , Vol. I l l , P . 162.

51. Ibn A t h i r , ^ - K a m e l f i a l - T a r l k h . Op. C i t . , Vol. Ill,

PP. 190-191.
T a b a r i , A l - T a r l k h . Op. C l t . , Vol. IV, P . 4 2 7 .

52. Ibid

53. Ibn Saad, Tabaaat. Op. C l t . , Vol. I l l , P . 3 1 .

54. I b n A t h i r , Al-Kamel fi a l - T a r i k h . Op. C i t . , V o l . Ill,

P. 191.

55. I b n Q u t a i b a h , Al-Imamah wa a l - S i y a s a h . Op. C i t . , V o l . I,

P . 20.

56. T a b a r i , a l - T a r i k h . Op. C i t . , Vol. I l l , P . 184.

57. B u k h a r i , Al-Jame a l - S a h i h . Op. C i t . , V o l . VI, P . 1 9 .

58. T a b a r i , A l - T a r i k h . Op. C i t . , Vol. I l l , P . 2 2 6 .

59. Waqldi, Futuh al-Sham. ( e d . ) Abdul Hamid Ahmad H a n a f i ,

Sgypt, P. 2.

60. Abu Ubaid Qasim b . Sallam, K i t a b a l - A m v a l . C a i r o , 1353 A.H.

P . 276.

61. B u k h a r i , Al-Jame a l - 3 a h i h . Op. C i t . , Vol. VI, PP. 2 2 5 , 226.

62. Ibn Hazm, Abu Mohamnad A l i b . Ahmad b . Saeed, Al-Muhalla.

Bgypt, 1352 A.H., Vol. XI, PP. 3 8 0 - 3 8 1 .

63. Ibn Saad, Tabaaat. Op. C i t . , Vol. I l l , PP. 2 8 2 - 2 8 3 .

64. T a b a r i , T a r i k h . Op. C i t . , Vol. IV, PP. 9 8 - 9 9 .

65. Ibn Abi Sheebah, Abu Bakr Abdullah b . Mohammad b . I b r e i h i a

b , Uthman, Al-Kitab al-Muaannaf f i a l - A h a d i t h va a l - l a a a r .
( e d . ) Abdul Khaliq a l - A f g h a n i , Hyderabad, 1867, V o l . Ill,
P . 139.
 - 75 -

66. Quoted by S h i b l i Nomani, A l - F a r o o o u e . Azamgarh, 1956,

Vol. I I , P . 16.

67. T a b a r i , Tarlldi. Op. C i t . , V o l . IV, PP. 3 0 - 3 1 .

68. Qazi Abu Tusuf Yaqub b . I b r a h i m , K l t a b a l - K h a r a . 1 .

Op. C i t . , P . 14.

69. A l - B a l a d h u r i , Ahmad b . Yahya, Futuh a l - B u l d a n . Dar

al-lTaahr l e a l - J a m e i n , 1957, PP. 6 3 5 - 6 3 6 .

70,- T a b a r i , T a r i k h . Op. C i t . , V o l . I l l , P . 6 1 4 .

71. T a b a r i , 1?arikh. Op. C i t . , V o l . IV, P . 100.

72. Qazi Abu l u s u f , K i t a b a l - K h a r a j . Op, C i t . , PP. 6 4 - 6 5 .

73. T a b a r i , Tarilch. Op. C i t . , V o l . IV, PP, 3 4 , 3 5 .

74. I b i d , PP. 3 8 , 3 9 .

75- Qazi Abu Tusuf, K i t a b a l - K h a r a j . Op. C i t . , P . I6I-I62.

76. T a b a r i , T a r i k h . Op. C i t . , V o l . IV, P . 2 1 - 2 2 .

77. Qazi Abu Tusuf, K l t a b a l - K h a r a J . Op. C i t . , P . 106.

S h i b l i Nomani ( A l - P a r o o q u e , Op, C i t . , V o l . I l l , P . 123)
has c i t e d some examples i n t h i s r e g a r d . He h a s t h e o p i n i o n
t h a t Umar, while i s s u i n g t h e Flqhi o r d i n a n c e s , considered
t h e c c n s e n s u s of companions. The m a t t e r s i n which
d i f f e r e n c e s c-'' o p i n i o n p r o s e were d i s c u o s e d and d e c i d e d
i n t h e assembly o f companions.

78. Shah W a l i u l l a h , jLzalah a l - K h i f a an K h i l a f a h al-Khulafa.

Vol. I I , P. 140.

79. I b i d , Vol. I I , P . 8 8 .
 - 76 -

80. See for d e t a i l s , S h l b l i T^omani, A l - F a r o o o u e . Y o l . II,

Op. C i t . » P . 216-217.

81. T a b a r i , TarHch. Op. C l t . , V o l . I l l , PP. 4 8 0 - 4 8 1 .

82. S h i b l i Nomani, Al-Farooutte. Op. C i t . , Vol. I , PP. 166-167.

83. T a b a r i , T a r i k h . Op. C i t . , Vol. I ¥ , PP. 5 7 - 5 8 .

84. Ibn A t h i r , Al-Kamel f i a l - T a r l k h . Op. C i t . , Vol. Ill,

P. 79.

85. Ibn Taimiyah, Minha.i al-Snnnah. Op. C i t , , Vol. Ill,

P. 162.

86. Urjoon, Sadeq Ibrahim, Uthman b. Affan. Cairo, 1947,

P. 9 9 .