M1 Sets PDF

Sets and the Set of Real
Numbers
At the end of this lecture, a student must be able to:
1 Recognize relations between sets
2 Perform operations on sets
3 Describe some well-known sets of real numbers
Math 17 (UP-IMath) Sets and The Set of Real Numbers Lec 1 1 / 25

Sets
A set is a well-defined collection of objects which are

called elements or members of the set.

Sets
A set is a well-defined collection of objects which are

called elements or members of the set.
Finite set: possible to list down all elements or has

no elements
otherwise, Infinite set

Notations
Uppercase letters : Names of sets

Notations

a ∈ A : a is an element of A

Notations

a∈/ A : a is not an element of A

Notations

Empty set : ∅ or { }

Notations

Universal set U : set consisting of all elements under
consideration

Notations

a∈ / A : a is not an element of A
Universal set U : set consisting of all elements under
consideration
n(A) : cardinality of a finite set A, the number of its
elements

Describing Sets
Listing/Roster Method:
A = {all the elements of set A}
Rule Method:
A = {x | description of any element x}

Describing Sets
Listing/Roster Method:
A = {all the elements of set A}
Rule Method:
A = {x | description of any element x}
1. Not all sets can be described by both methods.

2. The order of elements in the roster method does not
matter.

Examples:
1. Collection of counting numbers less than 6

Examples:
A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}

Examples:
A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
A = {x | x is a counting number less than 6}

Examples:
A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
n(A) = 5

Examples:
A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
n(A) = 5
2. Set of distinct letters in the word “element”

Examples:
A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
n(A) = 5
B = {e, l, m, n, t}

Examples:
A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
n(A) = 5
B = {e, l, m, n, t}
B = {x | x is a letter in the word “element”}

Examples:
A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
n(A) = 5
B = {e, l, m, n, t}
B = {x | x is a letter in the word “element”}
n(B) = 5

Relations on Sets: Subset
Definition
1 A is a subset of B, written A ⊆ B, if and only if
every element of A is an element of B. If set A is not
contained in set B, we write A 6⊆ B.

Relations on Sets: Subset
Definition
1 A is a subset of B, written A ⊆ B, if and only if
every element of A is an element of B. If set A is not
contained in set B, we write A 6⊆ B.
2 A is a proper subset of B, written A ⊂ B, if and only
if A is a subset of B and there exists an element of B
which is not in A.

Example.
U = {1, 2, . . . , 15}
A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
B = {x | x is a counting number less than 8}
C = {2, 4, 6, 8}

Example.
U = {1, 2, . . . , 15}
A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
C = {2, 4, 6, 8}
Then
A, B, C ⊆ U

Example.
U = {1, 2, . . . , 15}
A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
C = {2, 4, 6, 8}
Then
A, B, C ⊆ U
A⊆B

Example.
U = {1, 2, . . . , 15}
A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
C = {2, 4, 6, 8}
Then
A, B, C ⊆ U
A⊆B
C 6⊆ B

Example.
U = {1, 2, . . . , 15}
A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
C = {2, 4, 6, 8}
Then
A, B, C ⊆ U A⊂B
A⊆B
C 6⊆ B

Example.
U = {1, 2, . . . , 15}
A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
C = {2, 4, 6, 8}
Then
A, B, C ⊆ U A⊂B
A⊆B
C 6⊆ B A, B, C ⊂ U

Let A, B, C be sets. We have
Reflexivity A ⊆ A

Reflexivity A ⊆ A
Transitivity if A ⊆ B and B ⊆ C,

Reflexivity A ⊆ A
Transitivity if A ⊆ B and B ⊆ C, then A ⊆ C

Relations on Sets: Equal and Equivalent Sets

1 A and B are equal or A = B if and only if they have

precisely the same elements. Otherwise, A 6= B.


2 A is equivalent to B, or A ∼ B, if and only if
n(A) = n(B).


n(A) = n(B).
Example: Let
U = {x | x is a letter in the word “escape”}
A = {c, a, p, e} B = {p, a, c, e}
C = {a, p, e, s} D = {a, c, e}


n(A) = n(B).
Example: Let
A = {c, a, p, e} B = {p, a, c, e}
C = {a, p, e, s} D = {a, c, e}
Then
A=B


n(A) = n(B).
Example: Let
A = {c, a, p, e} B = {p, a, c, e}
C = {a, p, e, s} D = {a, c, e}
Then
A=B
B 6= C, A 6= C, A 6= D


n(A) = n(B).
Example: Let
A = {c, a, p, e} B = {p, a, c, e}
C = {a, p, e, s} D = {a, c, e}
Then
A=B
B 6= C, A 6= C, A 6= D
A ∼ B, B ∼ C, A ∼ C
Reflexivity A = A
Symmetry If A = B, then B = A.
Transitivity If A = B and B = C, then A = C.

Reflexivity A = A
Symmetry If A = B, then B = A.
Transitivity If A = B and B = C, then A = C.
Note: A = B if and only if A ⊆ B and B ⊆ A

Relations on Sets: One-to-one Correspondence
Definition
Two sets A and B are said to be in one-to-one
correspondence if to each element of A there corresponds
an unique element of B and vice-versa.

Definition
Illustration:
A = {c, a, p, e}

Definition
Illustration:
A = {c, a, p, e}
B = {a, p, e, s}

Definition
Illustration:
A = {c, a, p, e}
l l l l
B = {a, p, e, s}

Relations on Sets: Equivalent Sets
Equivalence can be defined in terms of one-to-one

correspondences.

Relations on Sets: Equivalent Sets
Equivalence can be defined in terms of one-to-one

correspondences.
Definition
Sets A and B are equivalent if and only if they are in
one-to-one correspondence.

Operations between sets
Venn diagrams are used to visualize sets, their relations

and operations.


and operations.
U - universal set; a
rectangular region


and operations.
rectangular region
A - a set; any closed
region, usually circular


and operations.
rectangular region
x or y - elements; dots


and operations.
rectangular region
x or y - elements; dots
x ∈ A, y ∈
/A

Set Operation: Union
Definition
The union of two sets A
and B is the set of elements
that belong to A or B or
both.

Set Operation: Union
Definition
The union of two sets A
that belong to A or B or
both.
A∪B = {x | x ∈ A or x ∈ B}

Set Operation: Intersection
Definition
The intersection of two sets
A and B is the set of
elements that belong to A
and B.

Set Operation: Intersection
Definition
The intersection of two sets
A and B is the set of
elements that belong to A
and B.
A∩B = {x | x ∈ A and x ∈ B}

Example: Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and B = {0, 2, 4, 8, 9}

Then

Then
A∪B =

Then
A ∪ B = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 8, 9}

Then
A ∪ B = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 8, 9}
A∩B =

Then
A ∪ B = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 8, 9}
A ∩ B = {2, 4}

Given sets A, B and C,

A∪A=

A∪A=A

A ∪ A = A and A ∩ A =

A ∪ A = A and A ∩ A = A

A ∪ A = A and A ∩ A = A
If A ⊆ B,

A ∪ A = A and A ∩ A = A
If A ⊆ B, then A ∪ B =

A ∪ A = A and A ∩ A = A
If A ⊆ B, then A ∪ B = B

A ∪ A = A and A ∩ A = A
If A ⊆ B, then A ∪ B = B and A ∩ B =

A ∪ A = A and A ∩ A = A
If A ⊆ B, then A ∪ B = B and A ∩ B = A

A ∪ A = A and A ∩ A = A
If A ⊆ B, then A ∪ B = B and A ∩ B = A
If A ∩ B = ∅, then A and B are said to be disjoint.

Distributive Laws:
A ∪ (B ∩ C) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C)
A ∩ (B ∪ C) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C)

Distributive Laws:
A ∪ (B ∩ C) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C)
A ∩ (B ∪ C) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C)
Commutativity:
A∪B =B∪A
A∩B =B∩A

Distributive Laws:
A ∪ (B ∩ C) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C)
A ∩ (B ∪ C) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C)
Commutativity:
A∪B =B∪A
A∩B =B∩A
Associativity:
A ∪ (B ∪ C) = (A ∪ B) ∪ C
A ∩ (B ∩ C) = (A ∩ B) ∩ C

Set Operation: Difference
Definition
The difference of two sets A
in A which are not in B.

Definition
A−B or A\B = {x | x ∈ A and x ∈
/ B}

Definition
/ B}
Example: Let A = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4} and

B = {0, 2, 4, 8, 9}. Then

Definition
/ B}
Example: Let A = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4} and

B = {0, 2, 4, 8, 9}. Then
A − B = {1, 3}
Definition
/ B}
Example: Let A = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4} and

B = {0, 2, 4, 8, 9}. Then
A − B = {1, 3} and B − A = {8, 9}

Set Operation: Complement
Definition
Let A ⊆ U . The
complement of A is the set
of all elements of U which
are not in A.

Definition
Let A ⊆ U . The
are not in A.
A0 or Ac = {x ∈ U | x ∈
/ A}
Example: Let
U = {x|x is a counting number less than 10} and
A = {3, 5, 2, 8, 9}
then
Definition
Let A ⊆ U . The
are not in A.
A0 or Ac = {x ∈ U | x ∈
/ A}
Example: Let
U = {x|x is a counting number less than 10} and
A = {3, 5, 2, 8, 9}
then Ac = {1, 4, 6, 7}.
Set Operation: Cartesian Product
Definition
An ordered pair is a sequence of two numbers a and b
denoted by (a, b).

Definition
denoted by (a, b).

Definition
denoted by (a, b).
The Cartesian product A × B of sets A and B is the set
of ordered pairs (a, b) where a ∈ A and b ∈ B.

Definition
denoted by (a, b).
Example: Let A = {7, 8, 9} and B = {1, 2}. Then

Definition
denoted by (a, b).
A × B = {(7, 1), (8, 1), (9, 1), (7, 2), (8, 2), (9, 2)}

Definition
denoted by (a, b).
A × B = {(7, 1), (8, 1), (9, 1), (7, 2), (8, 2), (9, 2)}
B × A = {(1, 7), (1, 8), (1, 9), (2, 7), (2, 8), (2, 9)}

Let A, B, C and D be sets.
In general, A × B 6= B × A

A×∅=∅=∅×A

A×∅=∅=∅×A
If C ⊆ A and D ⊆ B, then C × D ⊆ A × B.

Subsets of the Set of Real Numbers
set of Natural Numbers (or

Counting Numbers) :
N = {1, 2, 3, . . .}


Counting Numbers) :
N = {1, 2, 3, . . .}
set of Whole Numbers :
W = N ∪ {0} = {0, 1, 2, 3, . . .}


Counting Numbers) :
N = {1, 2, 3, . . .}
W = N ∪ {0} = {0, 1, 2, 3, . . .}
set of Integers :
Z = {. . . , −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, . . .}


Counting Numbers) :
N = {1, 2, 3, . . .}
W = N ∪ {0} = {0, 1, 2, 3, . . .}
set of Integers :
Z = {. . . , −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, . . .}
set ofnRational Numbers o:
Q = pq | p, q ∈ Z, q 6= 0,


Counting Numbers) :
N = {1, 2, 3, . . .}
W = N ∪ {0} = {0, 1, 2, 3, . . .}
set of Integers :
Z = {. . . , −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, . . .}
Q = pq | p, q ∈ Z, q 6= 0,
set of Irrational Numbers : Q0


Counting Numbers) :
N = {1, 2, 3, . . .}
W = N ∪ {0} = {0, 1, 2, 3, . . .}
set of Integers :
Z = {. . . , −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, . . .}
Q = pq | p, q ∈ Z, q 6= 0,

set of Real Numbers : R = Q ∪ Q0


Counting Numbers) :
N = {1, 2, 3, . . .}
W = N ∪ {0} = {0, 1, 2, 3, . . .}
set of Integers :
Z = {. . . , −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, . . .}
Q = pq | p, q ∈ Z, q 6= 0,

set of Real Numbers : R = Q ∪ Q0

Recap:
1 Recognize relations between sets
2 Perform operations on sets
3 Describe some well-known sets of real numbers

Exercises:
1 Given the universal set U = {a, b, c, . . . , x, y, z} and the sets
A = {t, r, i, a, n, g, l, e, s}, B = {s, q, u, a, r, e}, C = {d, e, c, a, g, o, n}
Find:
1 (A ∪ (B ∩ C)) 4 ((A ∩ (B ∪ U )) ∩ (B ∩ C))

2 ((Ac ∩ B c ) ∩ C)
3 ((A ∪ B ∪ C) − U ) 5 ((A ∩ C) × B)
2 TRUE or FALSE.
1 If A ∩ B = A, then B = A.
2 Given 3 non-empty sets A, B and C, if A 6= B and B 6= C, then
A 6= C.
3 For any two sets X and Y , if x ∈ / Y and y ∈ / X, then X and Y are
disjoint.
4 If A and B are sets, then n(A ∪ B) = n(A) + n(B) − n(A ∩ B).
5 The set {∅} is the null set.
6 If A ⊆ B and A ⊆ C, then B ∩ C 6= A.
7 If A is a finite set and B is an infinite set, then A × B is a finite set.

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Sets and the Set of Real

1 Recognize relations between sets

2 Perform operations on sets

3 Describe some well-known sets of real numbers

Math 17 (UP-IMath) Sets and The Set of Real Numbers Lec 1 1 / 25

A set is a well-defined collection of objects which are

Math 17 (UP-IMath) Sets and The Set of Real Numbers Lec 1 2 / 25

A set is a well-defined collection of objects which are

Finite set: possible to list down all elements or has

otherwise, Infinite set

Math 17 (UP-IMath) Sets and The Set of Real Numbers Lec 1 2 / 25

Uppercase letters : Names of sets

Math 17 (UP-IMath) Sets and The Set of Real Numbers Lec 1 3 / 25

Uppercase letters : Names of sets

Math 17 (UP-IMath) Sets and The Set of Real Numbers Lec 1 3 / 25

Uppercase letters : Names of sets

Math 17 (UP-IMath) Sets and The Set of Real Numbers Lec 1 3 / 25

Uppercase letters : Names of sets

Math 17 (UP-IMath) Sets and The Set of Real Numbers Lec 1 3 / 25

Uppercase letters : Names of sets

Math 17 (UP-IMath) Sets and The Set of Real Numbers Lec 1 3 / 25

Uppercase letters : Names of sets

Math 17 (UP-IMath) Sets and The Set of Real Numbers Lec 1 3 / 25

A = {all the elements of set A}

A = {x | description of any element x}

Math 17 (UP-IMath) Sets and The Set of Real Numbers Lec 1 4 / 25

A = {all the elements of set A}

A = {x | description of any element x}

1. Not all sets can be described by both methods.

Math 17 (UP-IMath) Sets and The Set of Real Numbers Lec 1 4 / 25

Math 17 (UP-IMath) Sets and The Set of Real Numbers Lec 1 5 / 25

Math 17 (UP-IMath) Sets and The Set of Real Numbers Lec 1 5 / 25

Math 17 (UP-IMath) Sets and The Set of Real Numbers Lec 1 5 / 25

Math 17 (UP-IMath) Sets and The Set of Real Numbers Lec 1 5 / 25

Math 17 (UP-IMath) Sets and The Set of Real Numbers Lec 1 5 / 25

Math 17 (UP-IMath) Sets and The Set of Real Numbers Lec 1 5 / 25

Math 17 (UP-IMath) Sets and The Set of Real Numbers Lec 1 5 / 25

Math 17 (UP-IMath) Sets and The Set of Real Numbers Lec 1 5 / 25

Math 17 (UP-IMath) Sets and The Set of Real Numbers Lec 1 6 / 25

Math 17 (UP-IMath) Sets and The Set of Real Numbers Lec 1 6 / 25

Math 17 (UP-IMath) Sets and The Set of Real Numbers Lec 1 7 / 25

Math 17 (UP-IMath) Sets and The Set of Real Numbers Lec 1 7 / 25

Math 17 (UP-IMath) Sets and The Set of Real Numbers Lec 1 7 / 25

Math 17 (UP-IMath) Sets and The Set of Real Numbers Lec 1 7 / 25

Math 17 (UP-IMath) Sets and The Set of Real Numbers Lec 1 7 / 25

Math 17 (UP-IMath) Sets and The Set of Real Numbers Lec 1 7 / 25

Math 17 (UP-IMath) Sets and The Set of Real Numbers Lec 1 8 / 25

Math 17 (UP-IMath) Sets and The Set of Real Numbers Lec 1 8 / 25

Transitivity if A ⊆ B and B ⊆ C, then A ⊆ C

Math 17 (UP-IMath) Sets and The Set of Real Numbers Lec 1 8 / 25

Math 17 (UP-IMath) Sets and The Set of Real Numbers Lec 1 9 / 25

1 A and B are equal or A = B if and only if they have

Math 17 (UP-IMath) Sets and The Set of Real Numbers Lec 1 9 / 25

1 A and B are equal or A = B if and only if they have

Math 17 (UP-IMath) Sets and The Set of Real Numbers Lec 1 9 / 25

1 A and B are equal or A = B if and only if they have

Math 17 (UP-IMath) Sets and The Set of Real Numbers Lec 1 9 / 25

1 A and B are equal or A = B if and only if they have