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Acoustic measuring of partial discharge in power transformers

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DOI: 10.1088/0957-0233/20/11/115108

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Acoustic measuring of partial discharge in power transformers

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IOP PUBLISHING MEASUREMENT SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
Meas. Sci. Technol. 20 (2009) 115108 (9pp) doi:10.1088/0957-0233/20/11/115108

Acoustic measuring of partial discharge in

power transformers
J Ramı́rez-Niño and A Pascacio
Instituto de Investigaciones Eléctricas, Calle Reforma 113, Col. Palmira, CP 62490 Cuernavaca,
Morelos, Mexico
E-mail: jrtn@iie.org.mx and pascacio@iie.org.mx

Received 30 March 2009, in final form 7 August 2009

Published 9 October 2009
Online at stacks.iop.org/MST/20/115108

Abstract
Power transformers’ reliability can be seriously affected by partial discharges. For this reason,
it is necessary to implement technical methods to identify endangered equipment before
catastrophic failures occur. A well-known method that can be applied either in the laboratory
or in the field is the detection and localization of partial discharges, by means of the analysis of
the acoustic signals they produced. An innovative partial discharge detector was developed
based on the analysis of an acoustic or electrical PD signal envelope. This paper describes the
architecture of the developed acoustic detector, which is composed of a set of ultrasonic
sensors, signal conditioning and control modules, a graphical interface and the required
software for the location of the affected area within the transformer. The conditioning and
control modules perform analog to digital conversion, arrival time measurement,
communication and control operations. Finally, some power transformer diagnostic testing is
presented and discussed.

Keywords: partial discharges, acoustic detector, on-line diagnostic, power transformers

(Some figures in this article are in colour only in the electronic version)

1. Introduction generate partial discharges that cause abnormal aging of the

Partial discharges are the main cause of the deterioration
of high-voltage power equipment. International standards
establish the maximum PD levels for each type of equipment,
according to the insulation system design. Particularly, power
transformers are tested with induced voltage at 1.5 times
the rated voltage for 1 h, and the maximum discharge level
should not be greater than 300 pC. Occasionally, during
factory testing, a power transformer can be affected by
partial discharges making partial discharge source location
mandatory. In this circumstance, the method of detection and
localization of partial discharge through acoustic signals is of
great usefulness.
Once the power transformer is in operation, there are
many circumstances that can trigger the occurrence of partial
discharges. Some of these circumstances are the following:
water ingress due to improper sealing, floating capacitive tap of
condenser-type bushings, overloading, inadequate grounding
connections, etc. All the above-mentioned phenomena
transformer insulation system, endangering its operation. A
low-cost and effective method to measure and locate partial
discharges in the field is required.
Partial discharges are a phenomenon consequence of local
electrical stress concentration in the insulation or on its surface.
Generally, such discharges appear as current pulses having
a duration of much less than 1 μs. The discharges are
accompanied by emission of sound, light, heat and chemical
reactions.
The best-proven method to detect partial discharges
is the electrical standardized method; this method is
the most sensitive and has been used for many years
worldwide. Unfortunately, this method is also very
susceptible to electromagnetic interference, causing additional
logistical requirements such as special facilities to minimize
electromagnetic interference influence in order to obtain an
appropriate signal-to-noise ratio. The electrical method
detection bandwidth is in the range from 50 kHz through
50 MHz. Acquired pulses are synchronized with a phase

0957-0233/09/115108+09$30.00 1 © 2009 IOP Publishing Ltd Printed in the UK

Meas. Sci. Technol. 20 (2009) 115108
reference obtained from the power supply, allowing the user
to obtain a diagram called NQØ (number, charge and phase).
The acoustic method is a very attractive alternative for
on-line partial discharge detection in power transformers. The
transformer tank is grounded; therefore, the sensors can be
placed, in a safe way, over any point of any wall of the
transformer’s tank in order to detect the acoustic emission
of partial discharges. Partial discharge signals travel through
the insulating oil of the transformer, and they are practically
immune to interference caused by corona and other external
sources. By correlating the detected acoustic signals with the
phase voltage, it is possible to screen discharge pulses from
other noise patterns.
It is clear that the acoustic method can easily detect partial
discharges when sources are located in the insulating oil, but
when they are located in the solid insulation system, their
detection is very problematic. Acoustic signals are attenuated
and the signals that reach the acoustic sensors do not have
enough magnitude to be detected. In many cases only the
electrical method can detect the partial discharges activity.
Partial discharges, water ingress and high temperature
generate decomposition gases that are dissolved in the
insulating oil. Consequently, acoustic partial discharges
measurements and dissolved gas analysis are key factors for a
good field diagnostic for power transformer evaluation.
The described partial discharge detector is based on the
fact that PD acoustic emission can be registered by means of
piezoelectric sensors. Some publications [1, 2] and patents
[3] have analyzed the issue of acoustic partial discharge
detection and localization through their acoustic emission and
its propagation [4]. Signal processing tools are also used to
identify different sources and type of discharges [5–7] and
their location within the power transformer [8]. Currently,
a working group is drafting a guide for the detection and
localization of partial discharges inside power transformers
and reactors [9], evidencing that this technique is considered
both useful and accurate for on-service evaluation of this
important equipment.
Mexican Electrical Utilities (CFE, Comisión Federal de
Electricidad and LFC, Compañı́a de Luz y Fuerza del Centro)
operate the Mexican National Grid at three voltage levels, 115,
230 and 400 kV. A large number of transformers and reactors
involved in this network have an operative life that exceeds
30 years. Therefore, there is a need for the implementation of
diagnostic tools that can be used in an extensive way, without
the disadvantage of scheduled outages or a large investment
in test equipment. The main contribution of the proposed
instrument is the use of the acoustic signal envelope for
further analysis contrary to commercial equipment that uses
acoustic signals, received by sensors without being processed.
Our approach offers important competitive advantages in
signal processing and in the type of electronics used in the
measurement module.
2. Operation philosophy
The proposed partial discharge acoustic detector differs from
existing commercial equipment, in the fact that it has an
2
J Ramı́rez-Niño and A Pascacio
innovative characteristic regarding the analysis of the signals
coming from the sensors, which have a resonance frequency
in the range of 150 kHz. The response to an acoustic transient
impulse is shown in figure 1. As depicted in this figure, the
acoustic partial discharge signal reaches a maximum value and
decreases exponentially with time. The signals oscillate at the
resonant frequency mainly associated with frequency response
of the sensors.
Two important parameters are extracted from the wave
shape. The first one is maximum amplitude, which provides
information regarding the strength of the phenomenon. The
magnitude can also be related to the proximity between the
acoustic source and the sensor position. The second parameter
is the time at which the transient begins. As several sensors
are used, the arrival time to the first sensor is defined as the
initial time, and the signals from other sensors are correlated
with this one. This parameter is used for the localization of the
acoustic activity, measuring the arrival times of the acoustic
signal to each sensor. In order to adequately digitalize these
signals, sample speeds of around 1 M samples s−1 are required.
The characteristic distinctive of the acoustic meter
proposed is to take advantage of the envelope waveform taken
from acoustic sensor signals instead of original signals. The
envelope waveform is obtained by taking the absolute value
of the original PD signals (figure 1) by a full wave rectifier,
and subsequently, it is band limited by applying a low-pass
filter that reduces the high-frequency components, producing
the waveform shown in figure 2.
The envelope signal preserves the information from
the original signal in terms of maximum amplitude and in
the beginning of the partial discharges transients. This
information is all that we need to locate the source of
discharges.
The envelope is a slow mode signal that can be sampled
at a frequency at least ten times lower than the original signal.
This reduces the cost of the electronics requirements and
simplifies the analysis of the signals. The user does not
require any information related to the frequency response of
the sensors, but only needs the useful information.
3. Partial discharge acoustic detector
The architecture of the partial discharge acoustic detector is
shown in figure 3. The partial discharge acoustic detector
consists of a set of piezoelectric ultrasonic sensors with a
resonant frequency around 150 kHz. Those sensors have an
amplifier that couples the impedance to be transmitted through
double-shielded coaxial cables to the measuring equipment.
The measuring equipment has a signal conditioning module
for each sensor. A microcontroller carries out several
functions such as controlling the input signal gain; the
analog/digital conversion of each signal; measuring of arrival
times; generation of a common analog signal to fix the
detection threshold for all channels and communication with
a PC, LAN or UAN network via Ethernet. Finally, a power
supply energizes the circuits and provides a phase reference
extracted from the system voltage.
Meas. Sci. Technol. 20 (2009) 115108
µ µ µ µ µ µ
Figure 1. Electric signal produced by partial discharge at the acoustic sensor output.
Each signal conditioning module, as shown in figure 4,
is made up of a band-pass filter centered around 150 kHz, a
programmable gain amplifier controlled by a microcontroller,
an envelope detector and a comparator. The analog output
(AO) signal is then digitized by the microcontroller. A
comparator provides a digital output (DO) as it compares the
analog signal with a threshold level (TI) established through
commands interpreted by the microcontroller.
The TI, which is common to four input channels, is
compared with the signal envelope provided by the sensors,
and these signals’ start time counters for each acoustic channel.
The advantage provided by the envelope waveform is that there
are only positive signals at the comparators inputs.
4. Operation characteristics
The partial discharge acoustic detector is operated with a
computer and can be operated either locally or remotely with
an Ethernet network port. The equipment can be used to assess
transformers dielectric integrity on site or remotely supervised
for on-line monitoring.
The acoustic detector has four operating modes, which
provide different types of information. It can be used for
J Ramı́rez-Niño and A Pascacio
µ µ µ µ µ µ µ µ µ µ
capturing wave shapes, counting events, measuring arrival
time and localizing the partial discharges source.
(i) Capturing wave shape mode. When the shape wave
of the acoustic signal exceeds a pre-established trigger
threshold, then the analog/digital conversion in all
channels starts. The acquired signal information is
displayed in a graphical way, as a function of time.
(ii) Counting events mode. In this mode, the equipment
counts the acoustic events that exceed a given trigger
threshold for a specified period of time and restart the
count in order to obtain the event trends.
These allow the user to know whether the acoustic events
are sporadic or periodic. If the repetition rate matches
120 Hz, there is a high probability that the acoustic event
corresponds to partial discharge events. If there is a
periodicity of 60 Hz or it is sporadic, it could mean that
the detected activity may be related to corona or other
interference sources.
(iii) Arrival time measurement mode. The equipment provides
the arrival time of acoustic signals to each of the sensors
in microseconds. The initial time is defined as the
arrival time to the nearest sensor from a given acoustic
source. Therefore, it is possible to determine which
3
Meas. Sci. Technol. 20 (2009) 115108 J Ramı́rez-Niño and A Pascacio

µ µ µ µ µ µ µ µ µ µ µ µ µ µ µ µ

Figure 2. Envelope signal taken from the signal shown in figure 1.

Figure 3. Simplified block diagram of the partial discharge acoustic detector.

sensor receives the acoustic signal first. This mode is (iv) Partial discharge source location mode. With previously
indispensable for locating partial discharge sources by measured arrival times, the test equipment determines the
triangulation of the acoustic signals obtained from the coordinates in three dimensions from the origin of the
four sensors. acoustic activity in the equipment under evaluation.

4
Meas. Sci. Technol. 20 (2009) 115108
Signal condtioning
S1 BP-Filter Gain
Figure 4. Detail of one of the analog signal conditioning modules.
Figure 5. Definition of the transformer model that will be tested and
the localization of the acoustic sensors.
The amplifier gain can be adjusted in the first three operating
modes. It is possible to establish a trigger threshold
to discriminate background noise, causing only relevant
information to be processed.
The physical dimensions of the transformer being
evaluated can be introduced in the control program. The
transformer is modeled as a rectangular parallelepiped, in
which each sensor’s coordinates can be fixed in a graphical
way over each wall as we can see in figure 5).
Geometrical information along with the other parameters
such as speed of sound is saved in a configuration file. For
localizing partial discharge sources using the triangulation
method, it is indispensable that the four sensors adequately
detect the signal coming from the acoustic source. Some rules
must be followed to place sensors in order to guarantee the
solver convergence and in this way obtain a valid solution of
the equation system, as will be seen later in section 5.
4.1. Mathematical model for triangulation
By taking the example shown in figure 6, the acoustic signal
arrives first at sensor S3. At this time, the measurement of
J Ramı́rez-Niño and A Pascacio
Ao
DO
Envelop detector Comparatpr
TI
GI
Figure 6. Model used for triangulation that shows the coordinates of
the partial discharge source F(x, y, z) and the four acoustic sensors.
arrival time to the other sensors begins. Thus, the distance
between the source and the other sensors, S1, S4 and S2, is
equal to the radius ‘A’ of the sphere, which is an unknown
variable, plus the arrival time multiplied by the speed of the
sound. Hence, the four nonlinear quadratic equations (1)–(4)
which model the behavior are constructed.
The equations that define the triangulation of the partial
discharge source can be written as follows:
(x − xs1 )2 + (y − ys1 )2 + (z − zs1 )2 − (A + VS ∗ Tas1 )2 = 0
(1)
(x − xs2 )2 + (y − ys2 )2 + (z − zs2 )2 − (A + VS ∗ Tas2 )2 = 0
(2)
(x − xs3 )2 + (y − ys3 )2 + (z − zs3 )2 − (A + VS ∗ Tas3 )2 = 0
(3)
(x − xs4 )2 + (y − ys4 )2 + (z − zs4 )2 − (A + VS ∗ Tas4 )2 = 0
(4)
5
Meas. Sci. Technol. 20 (2009) 115108 J Ramı́rez-Niño and A Pascacio

where x, y, z are the coordinates where the acoustic disturbance

is generated. (xs1 , ys1 , zs1 ), (xs2 , ys2 , zs2 ), (xs3 , ys3 , zs3 ) and
(xs4 , ys4 , zs4 ) are the coordinates of sensors 1, 2, 3 and 4,
respectively. VS is a constant that corresponds to the average
speed of the sound in the object under evaluation. Tas1 , Tas2 ,
Tas3 and Tas4 are the arrival time to each sensor. ‘A’ is the
distance from the source of the acoustic disturbance to the first
sensor that detects the phenomenon and is indispensable for
solving the equations. If the arrival times are in μs, the speed
of the sound must be in m μs−1 and the sensor coordinates
must be in m.
The calculation begins with the initial values for x, y, z
with the coordinates of the geometric center of the test object
and with a suitable value for ‘A’. By substituting these values
in the four equations, the value will not be zero, and this value
is considered as a variable to be minimized. To obtain the
final solution, the minimum mean square of this variable is
obtained varying x, y, z and ‘A’. Figure 7. Test of the acoustic partial discharge detector in the
laboratory, using a 400 kV bushing installed in a testing tank.
The Newton–Raphson method is used to solve the
simultaneous equation system, and the basic equation of this
method is given as equation (5):
f (X0 )
X1 = X0 − . (5)
f (X0 )
Equation (5) can also be expressed in another way:
f  (X0 )X1 = X0 f  (X0 ) − f (X0 ). (6)
On the left-hand side of equation (6) are the problem variables
multiplied by their corresponding coefficients, and on the
right-hand side of the formula, there are only constants.
The method establishes that the solution of the simultaneous
equations is used as an initial condition to form a new system
of equations. If the solutions converge, one can notice a
difference reduction between the new values and the previous
ones.
Expressing equation (6) in matrix form and using the
equation of the distance between the sensors and the point at
Figure 8. Field evaluation of the acoustic detector applied on a
which the acoustic activity is generated ((1)–(4)), we have the
7500 kVA, three-phase, 110 kV/13.8 kV transformer.
matrix equation (7):
(x0 − xsi )x + (y0 − ysi )y + (z0 − zsi )z − (A0 + VS ∗ Tasi )A
on the tank walls. Figure 7 shows two acoustic sensors on
= (x0 − xsi )x0 + (y0 − ysi )y0 + (z0 − zsi )z0 the right-hand side of the image, placed on the tank wall.
− (A0 + VS ∗ Tasi )A0 − 12 ((x0 − xsi )2 The 400 kV transformer used to energize the bushing can be
+ (y0 − ysi )2 + (z0 − zsi )2 − (A0 + VS ∗ Tasi )2 ) (7) observed on the left.
This arrangement allows us to measure partial discharge
where x0, y0 , z0, A0 are the initial values or the old values; xsi ,
activity, within the testing tank, in the range of 50–100 pC
ysi , zsi are the coordinates of the sensors i; x, y, z and A are
the new values. The solution is iterative and converges to the at a distance of 1 m to the sensors. This was verified with
coordinates of the partial discharge source. simultaneous measurement taken from a previously calibrated
partial discharge detector.
Field testing of power transformers was also performed
5. Results and discussion
with this new test equipment. Figure 8 shows a 7.5 MVA,
Laboratory tests were conducted to evaluate the equipment three-phase, 110 kV/13.8 kV transformer being evaluated.
sensitivity. Partial discharge measurements with the developed The wave shape of the envelope of acoustic signals is shown
equipment and with a commercially available partial discharge in figure 9. The horizontal axis represents the time expressed in
detector were performed simultaneously. A 400 kV bushing milliseconds and the vertical axis shows the magnitude in mV.
placed in a 2 × 1.8 × 3 m3 test tank was evaluated. The Peaks of repetitive activity higher than 20 mV, with a repetition
partial discharge source was located in the geometric center of period of 8.3 ms, can be observed. They correspond to electric
the tank and the sensors were installed at different positions activity with a frequency of 120 Hz within the transformer.

6
Meas. Sci. Technol. 20 (2009) 115108
Figure 9. Display of the waveform of the envelope of acoustic
signals produced by partial discharges.
Figure 10 displays a screen of the software display,
showing two graphs. At the upper-left corner, the count of
acoustic events that exceed a certain trigger level and that
occur in a 5 s period is shown for each sensor. The trends of
acoustic events for a long time period (a day or a week) are also
shown at the lower part of the screen. With this information it
is possible to determine the periodicity of the acoustic activity,
as well as other activity related to external events such as load
tap changer operation or switching.
The environment noise can produce false alarms.
Sometimes, sand moved by the wind or rain may produce
Figure 10. Display of the number of acoustic events and the trend of the acoustic activity.
7
J Ramı́rez-Niño and A Pascacio
µ
Figure 11. Graphical display of the arrival times for each sensor,
showing that the acoustic transient arrives first at sensor 1.
acoustic signals that are confused with partial discharge.
Therefore, this factor must be considered when the acoustic
activity is measured for a long time and the equipment is
unattended and operating in monitoring mode.
Additional and useful information that the test equipment
can provide is the measurement of arrival times, as shown in
figure 11. This information is mainly used to locate the partial
discharge source. In all cases, the sensor that does not show a
time bar (arrival time equal to zero) indicates that this sensor is
the nearest to the disturbance source, assuming that the sound
is propagated in a uniform medium with constant speed. This
is a close approximation of what occurs in real transformers.
Meas. Sci. Technol. 20 (2009) 115108
Figure 12. Visual display of the triangulation process, where the localization in three dimensions of the partial discharge source and the four
acoustic sensors is shown.
The sensor with zero arrival time should be kept in the
same position and the user has to move the other sensors around
to reduce the volume of the electric equipment being explored
and facilitate the partial discharge source location. A good
knowledge of the construction of the transformers is always
recommended to identify the affected component. Figure 12
shows the localization of the partial discharge source in three
dimensions, after applying the triangulation mathematical
model. The arrival time values and the location coordinates of
the acoustic sensors were used in this determination.
Valid results are obtained with the triangulation
mathematical model only when the following conditions are
accomplished.
• A careful localization of the sensors is necessary in order
to obtain a real solution of the equation system. It was
found that the best results are obtained when the separation
between sensors is greater than 1 m, and a symmetrical
distribution is avoided. When the sensors are located
symmetrically, for example, all aligned in one plane,
the nonlinear equation system (1)–(4) is not compatible
and causes the solution of equation (7) not to converge,
because there are redundant equations.
8
J Ramı́rez-Niño and A Pascacio
• A commercial tool kit is used to solve the equation system.
If there are any scaling and ill-conditioning problems
when solving the equation system, the application
software indicates the problem and it can be easily
corrected by relocating one or more sensors.
• The acoustic signals of the four sensors must exceed the
level of the pre-established threshold. This assures a
correct value of the arrival times.
• The average speed of the sound used in the calculations
must be close to the real average value, in order to assure
that the solutions are inside the test volume. Otherwise,
the mathematical triangulation process may not converge
or gives solutions outside the test volume.
• Special care should be taken when multiple partial
discharge sources are presented because an error in
measuring arrival times can occur. Under this condition,
the equation system is incompatible and it is not possible
to obtain a valid solution.
The value used for the speed of the sound is 1510 m s−1 and was
obtained in an experimental way under controlled conditions
at an ambient temperature of 20 ◦ C; however, variations under
10% of this value can be acceptable.
Meas. Sci. Technol. 20 (2009) 115108
Figure 13. Picture showing the damage caused by partial discharges
associated with false contact in the connection between the
magnetic core and ground.
At this moment, approximately 100 power transformers
have been evaluated using this technique and test equipment.
Three faults have been located and were confirmed after an
internal inspection. Two of these faults were caused by an
inadequate connection between the magnetic core and the
ground. Figure 13 shows one of these faults and it was found
in a 230 kV transformer. Figure 13 shows the damage caused
by partial discharges associated with false contacts, which was
detected in its early stage. The third detected fault was related
to metallic particles that were deposited over the windings of
a transformer, producing partial discharges.
6. Conclusions
The effectiveness of the acoustic technique for the localization
of partial discharge activity in power transformers has been
proven. Also, it was concluded that the results obtained
through the analysis of the envelope of acoustic signals are
equivalent to those obtained by commercial equipment that
analyzes the complete wave shape. Also, the reduction of
testing frequency and the measurement of arrival times in
digital form (indispensable for the process of triangulation)
allow instrumentation simplification.
The proposed equipment has been used in the evaluation
of one hundred 230 kV through 400 kV power transformers.
Three incipient faults have been localized, which have been
confirmed after physical inspection. Field experience allows
us to conclude that the application of this diagnostic technique
is recommended when abnormal levels of dissolved gases have
been found in power transformers.
Error in localizing acoustic activity sources has been
assessed in the order of 50 cm. This error can be considered
negligible, given the size of a power transformer.
View publication stats
J Ramı́rez-Niño and A Pascacio
Extensive work is carried out now on the development
of low-cost sensors with specific characteristics that make
it possible to install them under the adverse environmental
conditions that prevail in power substations. The future goal
is to integrate the PD acoustic detection in an on-line low-cost
monitoring system for electric power equipment.
Acknowledgment
We want to thank Ing. Manuel Guzmán Villagómez, head of
LAPEM’s Transformation Office of the Comisión Federal de
Electricidad (CFE), for his valuable support with the validation
tests of the proposed equipment in laboratory and in the field
by testing power transformers.
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