1

Basic Facts, Principles and Theories of Human Development

Key Concepts in Human Growth and Development

1. Growth - the quantitative changes that take place within the organism

2. Development - the qualitative (orderly, progressive coherent) changes in the various

aspects of the organism-the psycho-social, mental physical and emotional.

3. Maturation – the gradual unfolding of the innate characteristics of an individual.

4. Heredity – the transmission of genetic characteristics from the parents to the

offspring.
5. Environment – includes all the conditions inside and outside the organism that in any
way influences behavior, growth and development.

6. Learning – a relatively permanent change in the behavior of an individual which

comes as a result of practice and experience.

7. Significant others – are the persons that exert an influence on the growth and
development of an individual.

8. Behaviors – those activities (feelings, attitudes, mental processes or events) of an

organism that can be observed by another organism.

9. Motivation –refers to the activating states directing a person toward the attainment of
specific needs or goals.

10. Homeostasis – the tendency of the body’s system to maintain an optimal state or level
of organic function.

Principles of Growth and Development

1. Normative sequence – physical, motor, mental and social-emotional development

takes place in certain order even though speed varies from one individual to another.

2. Differentiation and integration - global patterns of behavior are broken into smallest
ones, and smallest ones are put together into larger.

4. Developmental direction – growth and size and development of motor control take
place in a cephalo-caudal or head-to-tail direction, motor control also taking a
proximodistal or midline to extremities direction.

4. Optimal tendency – the organism grows as though seeking a target to be reached by

using any available resources.
5. Critical periods – at certain limited time in its development, the organism is most able
 2

to make use of certain environment or experiences and most vulnerable to certain

other environments and experiences.
6. Epigenesis – growth builds upon the organism that is already there, transforming it,
but preserving some continuity
7. Dynamic Interrelations – different measures of growth correlate imperfectly with
each other, suggesting some general overall controlling factors and some independent
controls.
8. Variations of rates and terminals – different measures of growth and different
completed growth are shown by different tissues, by individuals, and by the two
sexes.
9. Development is a product of maturation and learning
10. Growth is unique.
11. There is less predictable patterns of development with increasing age.
12. Development proceeds from general to specific responses.
13. Each developmental phase has traits characteristics of that phase.
14. Development follows a pattern.
15. Every individual normally passes through each major stage of development.

Direction of Development

1. Dependence to self-direction
2. Pleasure to reality
3. Ignorance to knowledge
4. Incompetence to competence
5. Diffused to articulated self-identity
6. Amoral to moral

Principles of Maturation

In addition to the principles of development, there are also principles of

maturation.
1. Principles of Directionality. Development governed by maturation has a clear
directionality. In the case of fetal development, there are two directions: development
proceeds from the head downward (cephalocaudal) and from the trunk outward
(proximodal). Thus the head and the trunk develop first, but the arms and legs develop
before the feet because they are closer to the head.

2. Principles of Functional Asymmetry. Humans have a tendency to develop

asymmetrically. For example, handedness; everyone has preferred side usually the
right. We write with the hand on the preferred side, throw a ball with that hand, kick
with the feet on that side, and so on. Accompanying such motor asymmetry is an
equivalent neural asymmetry; if you are left-handed your right brain is more
dominant.

3. Principles of Self-regulating Fluctuation. Development does not proceed at the same

even pace along all fronts simultaneously. For example, the child does not usually
begin talking extensively until he has learned to walk.
 3

Educational Implications of Developmental Tasks

Knowledge of the principles of growth and development is important for three reasons:

1. It helps us to know what to expect and when to expect it. Otherwise, there
would be a tendency to expect too much or too little of a child at a given age.

2. It gives the adults information as to when to stimulate and when not to

stimulate growth in the child. It gives a basis for planning the environmental
encouragement that must be offered and the correct timing of this encouragement. For
example, the child who is beginning to walk must be given the opportunity to practice
walking and the necessary motivation.

3.. It makes possible for parents , teachers, and others who work with children to
prepare the child ahead for the changes that will take place in his body, his interests, or
his behavior. While this psychological preparation will not eliminate the tensions that
normally accompany adjustment, at least they would be minimized. A child who is
prepared for what will be expected of him when he enters school, for example, makes
better adjustment in school than the child who had no foreknowledge of what to expect.

Developmental Tasks

Robert Havighurst, a well-known developmental psychologist, introduced social

expectation for each stage of development, labeled as developmental tasks. These are
skills and patterns of behavior every cultural group expect to master or acquire at various
ages during the life span. These tasks are physical, cultural, and psychological in nature.
According to him, failure to attain the task associated to a particular stage results to
unhappiness of the individual, disapproval by society, and difficulty with later task.
The concept of developmental tasks is important because it tells us what to teach
at various stages of development.

Major Developmental Stages in Life Span

Developmental Stage Characteristics

1. Pre-natal (Conception to Birth)
2. Infancy (Birth to 2 years)
3. Early Childhood (2 to 6 years)
Age when heredity endowments and sex
are fixed and all body features, both
external and internal are developed.
Foundation age; basic behavior patterns
are organized and many ontogenetic
maturational skills emerge; locomotion
established and rudimentary language
developed; social attachments
Pre-gang, exploratory, and questioning,
when language and elementary reasoning
are acquired and initial socialization is
 4

experienced; Sex typing; group play, ends

4. Late Childhood (6 to 12 years)
5. Adolescence (puberty to 18 years)
6. Early Adulthood ( 18 to 40 years)
7. Middle Age ( 40 to retirement)
8. Old Age (retirement to death)
with readiness for schooling
Gang and creativity age when self-help
skills, social skills, and play skills are
developed.
Transition age from childhood to
adulthood; sex maturation and rapid
physical development occur resulting to
change in ways of feeling, thinking and
acting; attainment of highest level of
cognition; independence from parents,
sexual relationship
Age of adjustment to new patterns of life
and new roles such as spouse, parent and
bread winner; career reaches highest level
Transition age when adjustments to initial
physical and mental decline are
experienced.
Retirement age; increasingly rapid
physical and mental decline are
experienced; enjoy family achievements;
dependency, widowhood, poor health

Theories of Child Development

1. Behavioristic Theories

1.1 These theories are rooted in the philosophy of John Locke, who viewed children
arriving in the world as blank slate. The slate would be written by
education, which would consist of a series of rewards and punishments.

1.2 Historically, behaviorists have believed that learning comes about because a
person receives a reward, or reinforcement for an action or a correct response
to a particular stimulus.
1.3 Other behaviorists called associationists see learning as the result of
association between events.
1.4 Among the proponents of this theory are Skinner, Thorndike, Bandura, Walters
and Watson.

2. Nativistic Theory

2. 1 This theory believes that the child will learn given proper time to develop. The
child’s outward behaviors indicate readiness. Hastening the process would be undesirable
and detrimental, if not impossible.
 5

2.2 Among the proponents of this theory are Rousseau, Hall, Gesell, Pestalozzi, and
Comenius.

3. Psychoanalytic Theories

3.1 Freudian Theory

3.1.1 Viewed children as having human sexual energy and believed that as they
grow and develop, this energy was invested in different ways.
3.1.2 Three structures explain a personality, namely: the id (instinctive structure),
ego (rational structure) and the superego (moral or ethical structure)
3.1.3 Children go through distinct development stages called psychosexual stages
which reflect the development of gratification zones.

3.1.3.1 Oral stage (first year of life ) reflects the infants need for
gratification from the mouth.
3.1.3.2 Anal stage (second to third year) reflect the toddler need for
gratification from the rectal area.
3.1.3.3 Phallic stage (four and five years) reflects the preschooler’s
gratification from the genitals.
3.1.3.4 Latency stage (middle years) is a repression of sexuality ending
during the preadolescence years.
3.1.3.5 Genital stage (beginning at puberty) adolescents develop an
awareness of their own sexuality and need for gratification.

3.2. Erickson’s Psychosocial Theory

3.2.1 A person undergoes 8 psychosocial stages of development. In each stage
of development, there is a crisis that needs to be resolved, positively or
negatively, depending on the person’s experiences.

3.2.1.1 Basic trust vs. mistrust (Birth- 1 ½ years)

The new baby interacts with his parents. If the parents are reliable,
consistent in their handling of the child, he comes to feel that he can rely
on them, trust them. In short, the kind of mothering, the individual
receives will determine, whether trust or mistrust will develop.

3.2.1.2 Autonomy vs. shame and doubt ( 1 ½ to 3 years)

The major issue is autonomy - the ability to do as one pleases not
to be pushed around by others. At the same time, he worries, whether he is
capable of doing the things he wants to do. If the child is ridiculed for his
efforts to be independent, he may develop shame and doubt.

3.2.1.3 Initiative vs. guilt ( 3 – 5 ½ years)

The child makes plans and works toward a goal. This is also
 6

known as the “ play age”. Children should be allowed to do things at their own
pace and should be commended for their efforts.

3.2.1.4 Industry vs. inferiority (5 ½ - 12 years)

Children industriously apply themselves to learning the skills that

society requires of them. It is a period of ego growth as they become more
sure of their abilities It is also a period in which feelings of inferiority are
common.

3.2.1.5 Identity vs. Role Confusion (13 - 20 years)

Adolescents must develop an identity of their own, apart from their

family identity. At the same time they are faced with a rapidly changing
physical appearance, and with the necessity to start making decision that
will determine the course of their lives.
If they do not feel at ease with their bodies, do not have a sense of
where they are going, and do not feel accepted by the significant others in
their lives, these are signs that they are experiencing identity crisis.

3.2.1.6 Intimacy vs. Isolation (20 – 45 years)

The consequences of the adult’s attempt at reaching out to make

contact with others may result in intimacy (a commitment – sexual
emotional and moral – to other persons) or else in isolation from close
personal relationships. If young adults engage in combative relationship
with the same people they love, feeling of isolation develops.

3.2.1.7 Generativity vs. self-absorption

At this stage, one’s life experiences may extend the focus of

concern beyond oneself to family, society or future generations. People
who feel that they play a role in molding future generation, raise children
and are productive in their career will resolve this crisis positively.

3.2.1.8 Integrity vs. despair (old age)

One looks back on what it has been about and ahead to the
unknown death. If the person feels that time is running out on him, and he
has not done what he wants to do in life, feeling of despair is experienced.
On the other hand, if the person feels happy with what he has achieved in
life, he experiences ego integrity.

4. Interactionist Theories

Knowledge is created as children interact with their social and physical

 7

environment.

4.1 Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development

4.1.1 Sensori-motor Period (Birth – 2 years)

The basic mode of operating is through senses and muscles. Children learn
their world by manipulating and exploring through the use of their body. Children
engage in imaginative play and egocentric thinking.

4.1.2 Preoperational Period (2 - 7 years)

Piaget describes cognitive development during early childhood

the period of pre-operational thought. At this stage, children are highly perceptual,
and thinking is egocentric and irreversible.

4.1.3 Concrete operational stage (7 – 12years).

Children began to think deductively and to form concepts of space, time,
and to categorize objects. Thinking becomes more logical and systematic.

4.1.4 Formal operational stage (12 years onward)

Children are capable of hypothetical thinking and are able to solve
problem and combine information from different sources.

5. Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development

5.1 Level I. Preconventional Morality

Judgments are based on external criteria. Standards of right or wrong are

absolute and laid down by authority.
Stage 1 – Punishment/obedience orientation
Behavior is based on the desire to avoid physical punishment
Stage 2 – Naïve, egoistic orientation. Actions are based on satisfying
one’s personal needs.

5.2 Level II. Conventional Morality

Morality of conventional role conformity. Moral value resides in

performing good or right roles, in maintaining the conventional order and
expectancies of others.

Stage 3 –– Good Child Morality

Good behavior is that which pleases others; judgments are based
on intentions.

Stage 4 – Law and Order Orientation

What is right is what the law says and the law is fixed.
 8

5.3 Level III. Post Conventional Morality

Social and legal conventions are arbitrary. Moral values separate
from group norms are defined.
Stage 5- Contractual Legalistic Orientation
Laws are arbitrary and changeable. For aspects of life not governed
by laws, decisions are based on agreements and contracts.

Stage 6- Conscience or Principle Orientation

Judgments are based on fundamental and universal principles.

These theories on growth and development follow the age- level approach and
make use of developmental tasks. The age-level characteristics or norms were
determined from a large number of children exhibiting a wide range of behavioral
development all of whom were considered normal. The age-level characteristics
refer to a typical child. However, keep in mind that age- levels overlap and
proper restraint should be exercised in generalizing from these age level
characteristics.