Module 1 - Personal Development PDF

LEARNER GUIDE
Personal Development
Module 1
Unit Standard 114076

Unit Standard 13925
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M1 Personal Development Learner Guide
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Learner Information:
Details Please Complete this Section
Name & Surname:
Organisation:
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Facilitator Name:
Date Started:
Date of Completion:
Copyright
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otherwise without the prior permission.
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transference of knowledge and skill.
Activities
This icon represents any exercise to be completed on a specific topic
Exer at home by you or in a group.
cises
An important aspect of the assessment process is proof of
competence. This can be achieved by observation or a portfolio of
evidence should be submitted in this regard.
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Tasks/Projects
An important aspect of learning is through workplace experience.
Activities with this icon can only be completed once a learner is in the
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Workplace Activities
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Learner Guide Introduction
About the Learner This Learner Guide provides a comprehensive overview of the PRESENT
Guide… INFORMATION IN A PUBLIC SETTING, and forms part of a series of Learner Guides
that have been developed for National Certificate: Information Technology
(Systems Development) LEVEL 5- SAQA- 48872- 131 CREDITS. The series of
Learner Guides are conceptualized in modular’s format and developed They are
designed to improve the skills and knowledge of learners, and thus enabling them
to effectively and efficiently complete specific tasks.
Learners are required to attend training workshops as a group or as specified by
their organization. These workshops are presented in modules, and conducted by
a qualified facilitator.
Purpose The purpose of this Learner Guide is to provide learners with the necessary
knowledge related to
Outcomes Confidently conduct a presentation in various settings ranging from a corporate
wellness program to a lecture, an informal discussion or a sports team.
Assessment Criteria The only way to establish whether a learner is competent and has accomplished
the specific outcomes is through an assessment process.
Assessment involves collecting and interpreting evidence about the learner’s
ability to perform a task.
This guide may include assessments in the form of activities, assignments, tasks or
projects, as well as workplace practical tasks. Learners are required to perform
tasks on the job to collect enough and appropriate evidence for their portfolio of
evidence, proof signed by their supervisor that the tasks were performed
successfully.
To qualify To qualify and receive credits towards the learning program, a registered assessor
will conduct an evaluation and assessment of the learner’s portfolio of evidence
and competency
Range of Learning This describes the situation and circumstance in which competence must be
demonstrated and the parameters in which learners operate
Responsibility The responsibility of learning rest with the learner, so:
● Be proactive and ask questions,
● Seek assistance and help from your facilitators, if required.
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Use computer technology to research a
computer topic (US114076)
Unit Std # 114076
NQF Level 4
Notional hours 30
Credit(s) 3
Field Field 03 - Physical, Mathematical, Computer and Life Sciences
Sub-Field Information Technology and Computer Sciences
Qualification National Certificate: Information Technology (Systems Development) LEVEL 5- SAQA-

48872- 131 CREDITS
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Specific Outcome 1: Plan the research of a computer topic.
● 1. The plan identifies the topic, objectives, and scope of the research.
● 2. The plan identifies the time to be taken for the research, the research methods to be used,
and the sources of information to be used.
● 3. The plan identifies the target audience, presentation methods, and the computer applications
to be used for the analysis of data and the presentation of the results of the research.
Specific Outcome 2 : Conduct research of a computer topic using computer technology

● 1. The research conducted accumulates data according to the research plan.
● 2. The research conducted provides data analysis with conclusions.
● 3. The description of the analysis methods allows the validity of the analysis to be assessed.
● 4. Research progress is indicated at intervals by reports, according to the research plan.
● 5. The research conducted uses a computer application to analyse the research data.
Specific Outcome 3 : Present the results of research of a computer topic using computer
technology
● 1. The presentation is made using the computer application identified in the research plan.
● 2. The presentation communicates summarised research data and conclusions to the target
audience.
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NOTIONAL HOURS BREAKDOWN
The candidate undertaking this unit standard is best advised to at least spend one hundred hours of study time
on this learning programme. Below is a table which demonstrates how these one hundred hours could be
spread:
TIMEFRAME
Total Notional Hours Contact Time Non-contact-

Self-Study/Assessment
Credits (3) x 10 = 30 9HRS 21HRS
1. Learning Programme REFER TO COVER PAGE

Name:
2. SAQA Qualification/Unit REFER TO COVER PAGE
Standard Title:
3. Qualification/ 4. SAQA ID 5. NQF 4 6. Credits 3
Unit Standard Number Level
7. PURPOSE for offering this REFER TO NEXT PAGE

programme to your
learners:
8. TARGET AUDIENCE for this REFER TO NEXT PAGE

specific programme:
9. Entry/Admission REFER TO NEXT PAGE

Requirements:
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The Learner guide
At the end of this unit standard you will be able to Use computer technology to research a
computer topic
Purpose:
People credited with this unit standard are able to:
• To provide a competent knowledge of the areas covered
• For those working in, or entering the workplace in the area of End-User Computing
• As additional knowledge for those wanting to understand the areas covered
Specific outcome:
● Plan the research of a computer topic

● Conduct the research of a computer topic using computer technology, and to
● Present the results of research of a computer topic using computer technology.
Learning assumed to be in place:
● Operate a personal computer

● Produce presentation documents for business
● Demonstrate ability to use the World Wide Web.
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Equipment needed:
Learning material, Learner workbook, Pen, Ruler.
PLEASE NOTE: THE USE OF PENCILS OR TIPPEX IS NOT ALLOWED.
IF YOU USE A PENCIL THE VALIDITY OF YOUR WORK COULD BE QUESTIONABLE, AND THIS
COULD LEAD TO FRAUD.
Resources (selective resources might be used, depending on the facilitator and venue
circumstances), one or all of the following can be used:
● Your facilitator/mentor
● Learning material
● Learner workbook
● Visual aids
● White board
● Flip chart
● Equipment
● Training venue
Venue, Date and Time:
Consult your facilitator should there be any changes to the venue, date and/or time.
Refer to your timetable.
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Assessments:
The only way to establish whether you are competent and have accomplished the specific
outcomes is through continuous assessments
The given exercises can contain one or more of the following:
● Information for you to read
● Exercises that require you to have a problem-solving approach to communication
● Questions for you to answer
● Case studies with questions that follow
How to do the exercise:
● The facilitator will tell you which exercise you need to complete each day.
● You need to hand in your answers to the facilitator who will mark it for correctness.
● If you do not know the answer, you will have to go back to that particular section in
you learner guide and go over it again.
● Ask the facilitator for help, if you do not understand any of the questions asked.
● Always remember to give reasons for your answers
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SPECIFIC OUTCOME 1:
Plan the research of a computer topic.
ASSESSMENT CRITERIA
❖ 1. The plan identifies the topic, objectives, and scope of the research.
❖ 2. The plan identifies the time to be taken for the research, the research methods to be used, and the
sources of information to be used.
❖ 3. The plan identifies the target audience, presentation methods, and the computer applications to be
used for the analysis of data and the presentation of the results of the research.
1.1 Planning steps of research
STEP 1: Identify the problem or topic
Identify a research problem or area of interest from everyday life experiences, practical issues, past research,
or theory. Pay attention to the feasibility of your research problem or topic and whether it can be researched
systematically. Determine the resources needed to conduct the study, your interest level, its size and
complexity, as well as the value of your results or solution for both theory and practice.
To thoroughly describe the research problem or topic, create a statement that includes the educational topic
or specific problem and the justification for research.
STEP 2: Review prior research
Explore the research literature to gain an understanding of the current state of knowledge pertaining to your
research problem. A review of prior research will inform you if your research problem has already been
explored (and if a revision or replication is needed), how to design your study, what data collection methods to
use, and how to make sense of the findings of your study once data analysis is complete. Reviewing prior
research can also help with creating research questions, what population to explore, and laying the theoretical
groundwork for your study.
If you are conducting qualitative research, this step is sometimes used throughout the research process or
after data is collected (e.g., grounded theory research).
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STEP 3: Determine the Research Purpose, Research Questions, or Hypotheses
Identifying a clear purpose and creating a purpose statement helps determine how the research should be
conducted, what research design to use, and the research question(s) or hypothesis(es) of your study. Four
general purposes for conducting educational research are to explore, describe, predict, or explain the relation
between two or more educational variables.
Explore – an attempt to generate ideas about educational phenomenon
Describe – an attempt to describe the characteristics of educational phenomenon
Predict – an attempt to forecast an educational phenomenon
Explain – an attempt to show why and how an educational phenomenon operates
The purpose of your study will help you determine which research design you should follow
1.2 Introduction to computer research
Qualitative research methods are being used increasingly in evaluation studies, including evaluations of
computer systems and information technology. This chapter provides an overview of the nature and
appropriate uses of qualitative methods and of key considerations in conducting qualitative research.
The goal of qualitative research is understanding issues or particular situations by investigating the
perspectives and behaviour of the people in these situations and the context within which they act. To
accomplish this, qualitative research is conducted in natural settings and uses data in the form of words rather
than numbers. Qualitative data are gathered primarily from observations, interviews, and documents, and
are analyzed by a variety of systematic techniques. This approach is useful in understanding causal
processes, and in facilitating action based on the research results.
Qualitative methods are primarily inductive. Hypotheses are developed during the study so as to take into
account what is being learned about the setting and the people in it. Qualitative methods may be combined
with quantitative methods in conducting a study. Validity threats are addressed primarily during data
collection and analysis.
Reasons for Qualitative Research
The reasons for using qualitative methods in evaluating computer information systems:
1. Understanding how a system’s users perceive and evaluate that system and what meanings the system has
for them Users’ perspectives generally are not known in advance. It is difficult to ascertain or understand
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these through purely quantitative approaches. By allowing researchers to investigate users’ perspectives in
depth, qualitative methods can contribute to the explanation of users’ behavior with respect to the system,
and thus to the system’s successes and failures and even of what is considered a “success” or “failure”.
2. Understanding the influence of social and organizational context on systems use Computer information
systems do not exist in a vacuum; their implementation, use, and success or failure occur in a social
and organizational context that shapes what happens when that system is introduced. Some researchers
consider this so important as to treat “context” as intrinsically part of the object of study rather than as
external to the information system. Because of “context,” in important respects, a system is not the same
system when it is introduced into different settings. As is true for users’ perspectives, the researcher usually
does not know in advance what all the important contextual influences are. Qualitative methods are useful
for discovering and understanding these influences, and also for developing testable hypotheses and
theories.
3. Providing formative evaluation that is aimed at improving a program under development, rather than
assessing an existing one. Although quantitative and experimental designs often are valuable in assessing
outcomes, they are less helpful in giving those responsible for systems design and implementation timely
feedback on their actions. Qualitative evaluation can help both in system design as well as in studies of
system use
Research Questions and Evaluation Goals
Qualitative methods typically are used to understand the perception of an information system by its users,
the context within which the system is implemented or developed, and the processes by which changes
occur or outcomes are generated. They usually focus on the description, interpretation, and explanation of
events, situations, processes, and outcomes, rather than the correlation of variables, and tend to be used for
understanding a particular case or for comparison of a small number of cases, rather than for generalization to
a specified population. They are useful for systematically collecting so-called “anecdotal” evidence and
turning the experiences they describe into data that can be rigorously collected and analyzed.
Thus, the questions posed in a qualitative study are initially framed as “what,” “how,” and “why” queries,
rather than as whether a particular hypothesis is true or false. The fundamental question is “What is going
on here?” This question is progressively narrowed, focused, and made more detailed as the evaluation
proceeds. Qualitative studies may begin with specific concerns or even suppositions about what is going
on, but major strengths of qualitative methods are avoiding tunnel vision, seeing the unexpected,
disconfirming one’s assumptions, and discovering new ways of making sense of what is going on.
Qualitative evaluators typically begin with questions such as:
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• What is happening here?
• Why is it happening?
• How has it come to happen in this particular way?
• What do the people involved think is happening?
• How are these people responding to what is happening?
• Why are these people responding that way?
1.3 Other considerations to make in planning a research project
Designing
The design stage constitutes the step where the methodological procedure is planned and prepared. What is
the time schedule and how do the different steps interrelate? When the chosen technique is interviews,
designing the research project will be to determine which kind of interviews to use—personal, collective (focus
group), expert, etc.—and how many interviews to perform.
Reporting
It goes without saying that reporting covers the part of the research process where the researcher writes a
report to present his findings.
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SPECIFIC OUTCOME 2 :
Conduct research of a computer topic using computer technology.
ASSESSMENT CRITERIA
❖ 1. The research conducted accumulates data according to the research plan.
❖ 2. The research conducted provides data analysis with conclusions.
❖ 3. The description of the analysis methods allows the validity of the analysis to be assessed.
❖ 4. Research progress is indicated at intervals by reports, according to the research plan.
❖ 5. The research conducted uses a computer application to analyse the research data.
2.0 What do we mean by collecting data?
Essentially, collecting data means putting your design for collecting information into operation. You’ve decided
how you’re going to get information – whether by direct observation, interviews, surveys, experiments and
testing, or other methods – and now you and/or other observers have to implement your plan. There’s a bit
more to collecting data, however. If you are conducting observations, for example, you’ll have to define what
you’re observing and arrange to make observations at the right times, so you actually observe what you need
to. You’ll have to record the observations in appropriate ways and organize them so they’re optimally useful.
Recording and organizing data may take different forms, depending on the kind of information you’re
collecting. The way you collect your data should relate to how you’re planning to analyze and use
it. Regardless of what method you decide to use, recording should be done concurrent with data collection if
possible, or soon afterwards, so that nothing gets lost and memory doesn’t fade.
Some of the things you might do with the information you collect include:
● Gathering together information from all sources and observations
● Making photocopies of all recording forms, records, audio or video recordings, and any other collected
materials, to guard against loss, accidental erasure, or other problems
● Entering narratives, numbers, and other information into a computer program, where they can be
arranged and/or worked on in various ways
● Performing any mathematical or similar operations needed to get quantitative information ready for
analysis. These might, for instance, include entering numerical observations into a chart, table, or spread
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sheet, or figuring the mean (average), median (midpoint), and/or mode (most frequently occurring) of a
set of numbers.
● Transcribing (making an exact, word-for-word text version of) the contents of audio or video recordings
● Coding data (translating data, particularly qualitative data that isn’t expressed in numbers, into a form
that allows it to be processed by a specific software program or subjected to statistical analysis)
● Organizing data in ways that make them easier to work with. How you do this will depend on your
research design and your evaluation questions. You might group observations by the dependent variable
(indicator of success) they relate to, by individuals or groups of participants, by time, by activity, etc. You
might also want to group observations in several different ways, so that you can study interactions among
different variables.
2.1 Ethics for gathering data
Consider several ethical issues related to professionalism, and the collection and storing of data from human
subjects when conducting educational research.
Professional issues
One important issue for researchers is to present truthful results. There is never any justification for
misrepresentation or fraud, and the cost is enormous, both to the researcher and professional community.
Human subject research
Many professional organizations have prepared ethical guideless for educational research with human subjects
such as the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare
2.2 Data Collection in computer science
The most important principle of qualitative data collection is that everything is potential data. The
evaluator does not rigidly restrict the scope of data collection in advance, nor use formal rules to decide
that some data are inadmissible or irrelevant. However, this approach creates two potential problems:
validity and data overload.
Validity issues are addressed below. The problem of data overload is in some ways more intractable. The
evaluator must continually make decisions about what data are relevant and may change these decisions
over the course of the project. The evaluator must work to focus the data collection process, but not to focus
it so narrowly as to miss or ignore data that would contribute important insights or evidence.
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Qualitative evaluators use three main sources for data: (1) observation, (2) open-ended interviews and
survey questions, and documents and texts. Qualitative studies generally collect data by using several of
these methods to give a wider range of coverage. Data collection almost always involves the researcher’s
direct engagement in the setting studied, what often is called “fieldwork.” Thus, the researcher is the
instrument for collecting and analyzing data; the researcher’s impressions, observations, thoughts, and
ideas also are data sources. The researcher incorporates these when recording qualitative data in detailed,
often verbatim form as field notes or interview transcripts. Such detail is essential for the types of analysis
that are used in qualitative research. We discuss each of these data sources in turn, drawing again on
Kaplan and Duchon’s study and several other studies for examples.
Observation
Observation in qualitative studies typically involves the observer’s active involvement in the setting studied;
it is usually called “participant observation” to distinguish it from passive or non-interactive observation.
Participant observation allows the observer to ask questions for clarification of what is taking place and to
engage in informal discussion with system users, as well as to record on-going activities and descriptions of
the setting. It produces detailed descriptive accounts of what was going on (including verbal interaction), as
well as eliciting the system users’ own explanations, evaluations, and perspectives in the immediate context
of use, rather than retrospectively. Such observation often is crucial to the assessment of a system
Open-Ended Interviews and Survey Questions
Open-ended interviewing requires a skilful and systematic approach to questioning participants. This can
range from informal and conversational interviews to ones with a specific agenda. There are two distinctive
feature of open-ended interviewing. First, the goal is to elicit the respondent’s views and experiences in his or
her own terms, rather than to collect data that are simply a choice among pre-established response
categories. Second, the interviewer is not bound to a rigid interview format or set of questions, but should
elaborate on what is being asked if a question is not understood, follow up on unanticipated and potentially
valuable information with additional questions, and probe for further explanation.
Another way to investigate the views of groups of respondents is through focus groups. This involves
interviewing several people together, and adds an opportunity for those present to react and respond to
each others’ remarks
Documents and Texts
Documents, texts, pictures or photographs, and artifacts also can be valuable sources of qualitative data.
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2.3 Summary of data collection methods in research
Methods
From the list below, select the data gathering method(s) you wish to use and learn the best practices way to
implement it.
Content analysis
The systematic examination of oral, written, or visual communication.
Experiment
A variety of research designs that use before and after, and/or group comparisons, to measure cause and
effect relations.
Focus group
A group of similar individuals who provide information during a directed and moderated interactive group
discussion.
Interview
A directed conversation with an individual using a list of questions designed to gather extended responses.
Observation
The systematic observation of behaviour using checklists, scaled ratings, or narrative comments.
Survey
An ordered series of questions administered to individuals in a systematic manner.
2.4 When and by whom should data be collected and analyzed?
● You can hire or find a volunteer outside evaluator, such as from a nearby college or university, to take care
of data collection and/or analysis for you.
● You can conduct a less formal evaluation. Your results may not be as sophisticated as if you subjected
them to rigorous statistical procedures, but they can still tell you a lot about your program. Just the
numbers – the number of dropouts (and when most dropped out), for instance, or the characteristics of
the people you serve – can give you important and usable information.
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● You can try to learn enough about statistics and statistical software to conduct a formal evaluation
yourself. (Take a course, for example.)
● You can collect the data and then send it off to someone – a university program, a friendly statistician or
researcher, or someone you hire – to process it for you.
● You can collect and rely largely on qualitative data. Whether this is an option depends to a large extent on
what your program is about. You wouldn’t want to conduct a formal evaluation of effectiveness of a new
medication using only qualitative data, but you might be able to draw some reasonable conclusions about
use or compliance patterns from qualitative information.
● If possible, use a randomized or closely matched control group for comparison
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SPECIFIC OUTCOME 3:
Present the results of research of a computer topic using computer
technology
ASSESSMENT CRITERIA
❖ 1. The presentation is made using the computer application identified in the research plan.
❖ 2. The presentation communicates summarised research data and conclusions to the target audience.
3.1 Data Analysis using computer technology
The basic goal of qualitative data analysis is understanding: the search for coherence and order. The purpose
of data analysis is to develop an understanding or interpretation that answers the basic question of what is
going on here. This is done through an iterative process that starts by developing an initial understanding of
the setting and perspectives of the people being studied. That understanding then is tested and modified
through cycles of additional data collection and analysis until an adequately coherent interpretation is
reached Thus, in qualitative research, data analysis is an ongoing activity that should start as soon as the
project begins and continue through the entire course of the research [5]. The processes of data collection,
data analysis, interpretation, and even research design are intertwined and depend on each other.
We briefly discuss each of the four techniques.
Coding
The purpose of coding, in qualitative research, is different from that in experimental or survey research or
content analysis. Instead of applying a pre-established set of categories to the data according to explicit,
unambiguous rules, with the primary goal being to generate frequency counts of the items in each category,
it instead involves selecting particular segments of data and sorting these into categories that facilitate
insight, comparison, and the development of theory [46]. While some coding categories may be drawn from
the evaluation questions, existing theory, or prior knowledge of the setting and system, others are developed
inductively by the evaluator during the analysis, and still others are taken from the language and conceptual
structure of the people studied. The key feature of most qualitative coding is that it is grounded in the data
(i.e., it is developed in interaction with, and is tailored to the understanding of, the particular data being
analyzed).
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Analytical Memos
An analytical memo is anything that a researcher writes in relationship to the research, other than direct
field notes or transcription. It can range from a brief marginal comment on a transcript, or a theoretical idea
incorporated into field notes, to a full-fledged analytical essay. All of these are ways of getting ideas down
on paper, and of using writing as a way to facilitate reflection and analytical insight. Memos are a
way to convert the researcher’s perceptions and thoughts into a visible form that allows reflection and
further manipulation. Writing memos is an important analysis technique, as well as being valuable for many
other purposes in the research, and should begin early in the study, perhaps even before starting the study.
Displays
Displays, such as matrices, flowcharts, and concept maps, are similar to memos in that they make
ideas, data, and analysis visible and permanent. They also serve two other key functions: data reduction, and
the presentation of data or analysis in a form that allows it to be grasped as a whole. These analytical
tools have been given their most detailed elaboration by Miles and Huberman , but are employed less self-
consciously by many other researchers. Such displays can be primarily conceptual, as a way of developing
theory, or they can be primarily data oriented. Data-oriented displays, such as matrices, can be used as
an elaboration of coding; the coding categories are presented in a single display in conjunction with a
reduced subset of the data in each category. Other types of displays, such as concept maps, flowcharts,
causal networks, and organizational diagrams, display connections among categories.
Contextual and Narrative Analysis
Contextual and narrative analysis has developed mainly as an alternative to coding. Instead of segmenting the
data into discrete elements and resorting these into categories, these approaches to analysis seek to
understand the relationships between elements in a particular text, situation, or sequence of events.
Methods such as discourse analysis , narrative analysis , conversation analysis ; profiles, or ethnographic
microanalysis identify the relationships among the different elements in that particular interview or
situation, and their meanings for the persons involved, rather than aggregating data across contexts.
Software
Qualitative methods produce large amounts of data that may not be readily amenable to manipulation,
analysis, or data reduction by hand. Computer software is available that can facilitate the process of
qualitative analysis. Such programs perform some of the mechanical tasks of storing and coding data,
retrieving and aggregating previously coded data, and making connections among coding categories, but do
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not “analyze” the data in the sense that statistical software does. All of the conceptual and analytical
work of making sense of the data still needs to be done by the evaluator. There are different types of
programs, some developed specifically for data analysis, and others (including word processors, textbase
managers, and network builders) that can be used for some of the tasks of analysis. For relatively small-
scale projects, some qualitative researchers advocate not using any software besides a good word
processor. A very sophisticated and powerful program may be difficult to use if it has unneeded features, so it
is advisable to carefully consider what the program needs to do before committing to its use.
Validity
Validity in qualitative research addresses the necessarily “subjective” nature of data collection and
analysis. Because the researcher is the instrument for collecting and analyzing data, the study is subjective in
the sense of being different for different researchers. Different researchers may approach the same
research question by collecting different data or by interpreting the same data differently.
Qualitative researchers acknowledge their role as research instruments by making it an explicit part of data
collection, analysis, and reporting. As in collecting and analyzing any data, what the evaluator brings to the
task— his or her biases, interests, perceptions, observations, knowledge, and critical faculties—all play a role
in the study. Qualitative researchers include in their studies specific ways to understand and control the
effects of their background and role. They recognize that the relationships they develop with those studied
have a major effect on the data that can be gathered and the interpretations that can be developed.
Rich Data
Rich data are data that are detailed and varied enough that they provide a full and revealing picture of what
is going on, and of the processes involved. Collecting rich data makes it difficult for the researcher to see
only what supports his or her prejudices and expectations and thus provides a test of one’s developing
theories, as well as provides a basis for generating, developing, and supporting such theories.
Feedback or Member Checking
This is the single most important way of ruling out the possibility of misinterpreting the meaning of what
participants say and do or what the researcher observed, and the perspective the participants have on what
is going on. Feedback, or member checking, involves systematically gathering feedback about one’s
conclusions from participants in the setting studied and from others familiar with the setting. The
researcher checks that the interpretation makes sense to those who know the setting especially well. In
addition, this is an important way of identifying the researcher’s biases and affords the possibility for
collecting additional important data
Searching for Discrepant Evidence and Negative Cases
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Identifying and analyzing discrepant data and negative cases is a key part of the logic of validity testing in
qualitative research. Instances that cannot be accounted for by a particular interpretation or explanation can
point up important defects in that account. There are strong pressures to ignore data that do not fit prior
theories or conclusions, and it is important to rigorously examine both supporting and discrepant data. In
particularly difficult cases, the only solution may be to report the discrepant evidence and allow readers
to draw their own conclusions
3.2.1 Reporting observation results
Analyze the data
Analyze the observational data by reviewing the completed observation form and any written comments. You
should also have a face-to-face debriefing discussion with all observers if you did not conduct all observations
yourself. This will give the observers an opportunity to explain the data and provide additional feedback. Begin
reviewing the data after the first observation. Look for patterns in the data using the research questions or
hypotheses of your study to focus analysis. Other questions or issues may emerge as you discuss and review
the information.
Determine findings
Summarize findings based on your analysis and in relation to your research questions and previous research
findings. Verify that findings are grounded in what was observed.
Report results
How you report your findings depends on the types of observations you used. If you used qualitative
observations (e.g., narrative comments), present repeating ideas that lead to major themes that, in turn,
inform conclusions and implications. Provide one or two examples of a repeating idea. You may also want to
note an exception to a trend in order to highlight a noteworthy idea.
For quantitative observations (e.g., rating scales), present the statistical findings graphically and with the level
of detail useful to the audience. For all observation types, make sure to discuss what practical or theoretical
implications can be drawn for the findings, any major shortcomings or limitations of the methodology used,
and directions or suggestions for future research.
3.2.2 Reporting interview results
Transcribe and analyze the data
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Interviews generate large quantities of data and tape transcription typically takes four to six hours for each
hour of speech, although using a transcription machine or having good typing skills can reduce the time. It is
important, therefore, to have a clear plan to guide this phase of the study. In addition, condensing, organizing,
and making meaning of interviews is often the most time-consuming and expensive part of analysis.
Determine findings
View analyzed data from a distance until you see a larger picture and understand how this picture relates to
your research question(s). Similar research may help you make sense of repeating ideas and larger themes. For
example, you might identify underlying factors that explain the themes you have observed and then construct
a logical chain of evidence. You might also describe an adaptive or maladaptive process that captures the
behavior of respondents. If there are respondents who do not follow the usual pattern, it may be important to
understand why. Qualitative researchers need to be flexible and open to the unexpected. Drawing on
repeating ideas and themes, summarize the findings in relation to your research question(s) and to previous
research.
When interpreting qualitative data, verify your findings. Review your data repeatedly to check that your
findings are grounded in what was said. Look at independent evidence from other sources and use other
methods, such as surveys, focus groups, or experiments, to triangulate your findings. To improve the
study's reliability and validity , show your results to some of the interviewees and ask them if you have
accurately recorded what they meant.
Report results
To report qualitative results, present repeating ideas that lead to major themes that, in turn, inform
conclusions and implications. Conclusions are statements that interpret and evaluate the results found from
the study. Make sure to give primary emphasis to the results that relate to the research questions of your
study.
Quote one or two responses that exemplify a repeating idea. Quotations, which capture the words, emotions,
experiences, and perceptions of interviewees, are not easily dismissed by readers. You may also want to quote
a response that was an exception to a trend in order to illustrate a minority opinion or highlight a noteworthy
idea. If so, report that it is one person's response. Finally, make sure to discuss what practical or theoretical
implications can be drawn for your findings, any major shortcomings or limitations of the methodology used,
and directions or suggestions for future research
3.2.3 Reporting focus group results
Transcribe and analyze the data
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Data analysis may be relatively simple, involving a summary of major themes, or may call for more complex
content analyses and comparisons of groups (Goldenkoff, 2004). A brief summary and analysis, highlighting
major themes, is sufficient when the results are readily apparent or the purpose of the focus group is
supplemental. On the other hand, to get an in-depth understanding of a complex issue you should conduct a
systematic analysis using full transcripts [more] and a formalized coding scheme.
Determine findings
View analyzed data from a distance until you see a larger picture and understand how this picture relates to
your research question(s). Similar research may help you make sense of repeating ideas and larger themes. For
example, you might identify underlying factors that explain the themes you have observed and then construct
a logical chain of evidence. You might also describe an adaptive or maladaptive process that captures the
behavior of respondents. If there are respondents who do not follow the usual pattern, it may be important to
understand why. Qualitative researchers need to be flexible and open to the unexpected. Drawing on
repeating ideas and themes, summarize the findings in relation to your research question(s) and to previous
research.
Report results
To report qualitative results, present repeating ideas that lead to major themes that, in turn, inform
conclusions and implications. Conclusions are statements that interpret and evaluate the results found from
the study. Make sure to give primary emphasis to the results that relate to the research questions of your
study. Quote one or two responses that exemplify a repeating idea. Quotations, which capture the words,
emotions, experiences, and perceptions of interviewees, are not easily dismissed by readers. You may also
want to quote a response that was an exception to a trend in order to illustrate a minority opinion or highlight
a noteworthy idea. If so, report that it is one person's response. Finally, make sure to discuss what practical or
theoretical implications can be drawn for your findings, any major shortcomings or limitations of the
methodology used, and directions or suggestions for future research.
3.2.4 Reporting experiment results
Analyze the data
Calculate descriptive statistics on outcome measures and determine if the variables are normally distributed, a
requirement for many statistical tests. If a variable is not normally distributed, consult with a statistician to
determine if you need to transform the variable. While comparing group means and standard deviations will
give you a rough sense of group differences on outcome measures, you must use statistical tests to
demonstrate that these differences are unlikely to have occurred by chance.
Determine findings
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From your data analysis, summarize the findings in relation to your research question(s) or hypotheses and to
previous research findings.
Report results
Conclusions are statements that interpret and evaluate the results found from the study. Make sure to give
primary emphasis to the results that relate to the research questions of your study such as the effect of an
intervention. One way to represent the magnitude of an intervention effect is with a percentage change. For
example, you might report that scores increased 35% for an intervention group compared with 15% for a
control group that did not receive the intervention. Also discuss what practical or theoretical implications can
be drawn for your findings, any major shortcomings or limitations of the methodology used, and directions or
suggestions for future research.
3.2.5 Quantitative content analysis findings
Determining the findings of your content analysis involves more than simply reporting initial results. Instead, it
is important to critically examine results and check for statistical pitfalls to develop accurate findings upon
which you can make reliable conclusions.
Critically examine results
● No matter what your results, ask some critical questions:

● Were the criteria you selected valid indicators of content quality? Did you omit important criteria or
include unnecessary ones?
● If you implemented an intervention and are comparing content between/among groups or periods of
time,
● were there significant differences between/among groups on the content before the intervention started?
● were conditions for groups roughly the same (for example, equivalent classrooms, instruction, and
assistance outside of class)?
● did anything happen other than your instructional intervention that would have affected study results?
● was there any difference in motivation between/among groups before or during the study?
Check for statistical pitfalls
While any conclusive findings should be statistically significant, having statistically significant results does not
mean, they are important or valuable; it just indicates that the difference you found is unlikely to be due to
chance.
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If you used multiple raters/coders, is the level of interrater reliability acceptable (e.g., .70 or higher)? Do
results indicate any type of bias on the part of one or more of the raters/coders? If you find poor reliability or
suspected bias, your results are possibly unreliable and data should be regathered and/or reanalyzed.
If you are comparing content between/among groups, could there be any errors due to sample size? If you
have fewer than 25 cases per group, you may lack adequate statistical power to detect differences between
groups. On the other hand, if you have very large groups, almost any difference, even a trivial one, will be
statistically significant, and could lead you to make unwarranted conclusions. For this reason, you should
indicate effect sizes, which allow the readers to judge how meaningful the differences are between/among
groups.
Other statistical pitfalls
Consult with a statistician if you are unable to resolve statistical problems on your own.
Make conclusions
● Evaluate your results based on how well they answer your research questions or confirm your hypotheses.
● Statistically significant causal, predictive, or correlational findings, as well as important qualitative
findings, should form the basis of your main conclusions. Emphasize your strongest findings.
● If you are evaluating an intervention using content analysis, consider all possible explanations for results
before concluding an intervention definitely worked or did not work.
● Verify (triangulate ) findings from your content analysis with results from other data sources such as
interviews or surveys that can provide additional insight. Finding similar results using different methods
strengthens conclusions. On the other hand, differing results call for further analysis.
Definitions
Member checking: Getting feedback from participants in the study to check the researchers’ interpretation.
Narrative analysis:.
Open-ended interviewing: A form of interviewing that does not employ a fixed interview schedule, but
allows the researcher to follow the respondent’s lead by exploring topics in greater depth and also by
pursuing unanticipated topics.
Open-ended questions: Interview or survey questions that are to be answered in the respondent’s
own words, rather than by selecting pre- formulated responses.
Participant observation: A form of observation in which the researcher participates in the activities going
on in a natural setting and interacts with people in that setting, rather than simply recording their behavior
as an outside observer.
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Qualitative research: A strategy for empirical research that is conducted in natural settings, that uses data in
the form of words (generally, though pictures, artifacts, and other non-quantitative data may be used)
rather than numbers, that inductively develops categories and hypotheses, and that seeks to understand the
perspectives of the participants in the setting studied, the context of that setting, and the events and
processes that are taking place there.
Rich data: Data that are detailed, comprehensive, and holistic.
Robustness: Interpretations, results, or data that can withstand a variety of validity threats because they hold
up even if some of the underpinnings are removed or prove incorrect.
Summative evaluation: Evaluation that is aimed at assessing the value of a developed program for the
purpose of administrative or policy decisions. This evaluation often is done by testing the impact of the
program after it has been implemented. See formative evaluation.
Triangulation: The cross-checking of inferences by using multiple methods, sources, or forms of data for
drawing conclusions.
Validity: The truth or correctness of one’s descriptions, interpretations, or conclusions.
Validity threat: A way in which one’s description, interpretation, or conclusion might be invalid, also known
as “rival hypothesis” or “alternative explanation.”
My notes
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Conduct a technical practitioners meeting
(US114051)
Unit Std # 114051
NQF Level 4
Notional hours 30
Credit(s) 3

48872- 131 CREDITS
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Specific Outcome 1 : Demonstrate knowledge of different types of technical practitioners
meetings.
● 1. The demonstration describes the types of technical meetings and their uses.
● 2. The demonstration identifies leadership styles used in meeting procedures.
● 3. The demonstration identifies decision making processes used in meetings.
● 4. The demonstration describes meeting conventions relevant to the type of meeting chosen.
● 5. The demonstration identifies that the note taker should have technical background
knowledge.
Specific Outcome 2 : Prepare for a technical practitioners meeting

● 1. The preparation ensures physical arrangements for the meeting is done, relevant to the type
of meeting.
● 2. The preparation ensures that meeting outcomes are clear, concise and well documented.
● 3. The preparation ensures that meeting invitations are extended to relevant participants
timeously.
● 4. The preparation completes and distribute the meeting agenda and other supporting
documentation needed for the type of meeting.
Specific Outcome 3 : Chair a technical practitioners meeting.

● 1. The chair and members agree on rules and guidelines on behavior.
● 2. The chair applies agreed meeting conventions throughout the meeting, according to the type
of meeting and in accordance with the standing procedures of the organisation(s) involved.
● 3. The chair ensures that the published agenda is followed.
● 4. The chair provides for active participation by all members to avoid/ minimize conflict.
● 5. The chair ensures that meeting topics are prioritised and that discussion times are allocated
according to importance, urgency, complexity and agenda.
● 6. The chair ensures that agreed decisions are clear, accurate, includes a time frame for action
and are within the mandate of the type of meeting conducted
● Specific Outcome 4 : Conduct post meeting follow up for a technical meeting.
● 1. The follow up ensures minutes of the meeting is produced accurately and in line with the
policy of the organisation.
● 2. The follow up communicates agreed records of discussion to interested parties in a format
and time frame that meet requirements of the type of meeting and of the organisation(s)
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involved.
spread:
TIMEFRAME
Total Notional Hours Contact Time Non contact-


Name:
Standard Title:

programme to your
learners:
specific programme:

Requirements:
10. Timeframe for Training: Theory content –Role play, Simulation, Group work, Pair work = 9hrs.
(Total Hours/Days/Weeks) Non contact session- self-study, assignment, practise guided by coach or
mentor, formative assessment and summative assessment =21 hrs.
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The Learner guide
At the end of this unit standard you will be able to Conduct a technical practitioners
meeting
Purpose:
• Conduct a technical practitioners meeting
Specific outcome:
● Demonstrate knowledge of different types of meetings and their procedures

● Prepare for a technical practitioners meeting
● Chair a technical practitioners meeting
● Conduct post-meeting follow up for a technical meeting
● Communicate and write in English, at least at NQF level 4.

● Participate in formal meetings.
● Conduct formal meetings.
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Equipment needed:
● Visual aids
● White board
● Flip chart
● Equipment
● Training venue
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Assessments:
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SPECIFIC OUTCOME 1:
Demonstrate knowledge of different types of technical practitioners

meetings.
ASSESSMENT CRITERIA
❖ 1. The demonstration describes the types of technical meetings and their uses.
❖ 2. The demonstration identifies leadership styles used in meeting procedures.
❖ 3. The demonstration identifies decision making processes used in meetings.
❖ 4. The demonstration describes meeting conventions relevant to the type of meeting chosen.
❖ 5. The demonstration identifies that the note taker should have technical background knowledge.
1.0 Overview
The purpose of a Technical Review is to examine a deliverable for faults in a planned, independent, controlled
and documented manner. A Technical Review provides a record that the deliverable was independently
reviewed and that any faults found were corrected and the corrective work was itself checked.
Technical Reviews are a way of improving quality, by finding faults early in the development life cycle, when
the effort to correct faults is considerably less than for faults found during test execution. This reduction in
effort spent on corrective rework, means that Technical Reviews can save time and reduce costs. The use of
Technical Reviews also reduces the risk of test execution overrunning because of finding a large number of
faults.
1.1 What is a technical review meeting?
A technical review meeting provides the opportunity for you and your project professionals to discuss detailed
planning and technical issues, such as engineering and landscape architecture matters, associated with your
proposal with stakeholders prior to lodgement of your resource consent. The meeting provides the
opportunity to identify particular issues and concerns, and to provide stakeholders with an understanding of
the proposal prior to lodgement of the resource consent application.
Why have a technical review meeting?
A technical review meeting informs stakeholders of your proposal, and can assist you with information that
may identify and resolve technical issues prior to lodgement of the application. The meeting can provide you
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with certainty about the consent process. The intension is to work with you and your professional team to
ensure a better overall development outcome is achieved and to improve timeliness in the consenting process,
part of which is removing potential delays resulting from the need to provide stakeholders with further
information during the assessment of your application
1.2 Conducting Effective Team Technical Reviews
Mention team technical reviews to a group of tech writers and chances are good that you will either get a
loud, collective groan, or the group will vie to tell the best review horror story. On the one hand, technical
reviews are a vital part of our jobs because they help us to produce high quality product documents. On the
other hand, technical reviews gone wrong are the bane of our existence. The good news is that we have the
power to conduct consistently effective technical reviews. This article summarizes why we do reviews and
what often goes wrong in reviews, and then summarizes steps to take before, during, and after technical
reviews that can help you conduct effective team technical reviews.
Why We Do Reviews and Why Reviews Often Go Awry
As technical writers, we have important reasons for conducting technical reviews:
▪ Technical reviews can provide a system of checks-and-balances from a variety of Subject Matter Experts
(SMEs) on the team, which helps bring technical accuracy and completeness to the documents we
produce.
▪ Technical reviews can help improve the product’s design and catch problems or bugs, which can help
improve both the product and the accompanying documents. And, as a result….
▪ Technical reviews can help reduce product development costs, minimize problems for product users, and
help reduce technical support calls or needs.
Most people on the project team would agree with these reasons, but despite these common goals, technical
reviews still go awry. What’s more, reviews can often go awry for a number of reasons at a number of points in
the overall process:
▪ Poor communication
▪ Lack of preparation
▪ Lack of management support
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▪ Unclear expectations and objectives for the review
▪ Insufficient time planned for the review
▪ Lack of follow-up
▪ Wrong people involved, or right people involved at the wrong time
As communication specialists, we can–and should–take steps to facilitate communication throughout the

review process, which is the core of a successful review. As you’ll see in the following sections, conducting an
effective team technical review requires commitment from the project team, management, and from yourself;
however, with proactive communication, consistency, and organization throughout the process, the review
process can indeed be effective.
1.3 FOUR LEADERSHIP STYLES:
1. Autocratic. Autocratic leaders insist on doing it all themselves. They have all the power, make all the
decisions, and don't often tell anyone else about what they're doing. If you work for an autocratic leader, your
job is usually to do what you're told.
An autocratic leader often maintains his authority by force, intimidation, threats, reward and punishment, or
position. Although he may or may not have a clear vision, and may or may not be steering the organization in
the right direction, he's not concerned with whether anyone else agrees with what he's doing or not.
Autocratic leadership allows quick decision-making, and eliminates arguments over how and why things get
done. At the same time, however, it may reduce the likelihood of getting a range of different ideas from
different people, and can treat people badly, or as if they don't matter. If, as is often true, the leader is
concerned with his own power and status, he'll be looking over his shoulder, and moving to squelch any
opposition to him or his ideas and decisions. Innovation or the use of others' ideas is only permissible if it's
part of the leader's plan.
2. Managerial. The leader who sees herself as a manager is concerned primarily with the running of the
organization. Where it's going is not at issue, as long as it gets there in good shape. She may pay attention to
relationships with and among staff members, but only in the service of keeping things running smoothly.
Depending upon the nature and stability of the organization, her main focus may be on funding, on
strengthening the organization's systems and infrastructure (policies, positions, equipment, etc.), or on making
sure day-to-day operations go well (including making sure that everyone is doing what he's supposed to).
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3 Democratic. A democratic leader understands that there is no organization without its people. He looks at
his and others' positions in terms of responsibilities rather than status, and often consults in decision-making.
While he solicits, values, and takes into account others' opinions, however, he sees the ultimate responsibility
for decision-making as his own. He accepts that authority also means the buck stops with him. Although he
sees the organization as a cooperative venture, he knows that he ultimately has to face the consequences of
his decisions alone.
Democratic leadership invites the participation of staff members and others, not only in decision-making, but
in shaping the organization's vision. It allows everyone to express opinions about how things should be done,
and where the organization should go. By bringing in everyone's ideas, it enriches the organization's
possibilities. But it still leaves the final decisions about what to do with those ideas in the hands of a single
person.
4. Collaborative. A collaborative leader tries to involve everyone in the organization in leadership. She is truly
first among equals, in that she may initiate discussion, pinpoint problems or issues that need to be addressed,
and keep track of the organization as a whole, rather than of one particular job. But decisions are made
through a collaborative process of discussion, and some form of either majority or consensus agreement.
Toward that end, a collaborative leader tries to foster trust and teamwork among the staff as a whole.
A collaborative leader has to let go of the need for control or power or status if she is to be effective. Her goal
is to foster the collaborative process, and to empower the group - whether the staff and others involved in an
organization, or the individuals and organizations participating in a community initiative - to control the vision
and the workings of the organization. She must trust that, if people have all the relevant information, they'll
make good decisions...and she must make sure that they have that information, and provide the facilitation
that assures those good decisions.
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Prepare for a technical practitioners meeting.
ASSESSMENT CRITERIA
❖ 1. The preparation ensures physical arrangements for the meeting is done, relevant to the type of
meeting.
❖ 2. The preparation ensures that meeting outcomes are clear, concise and well documented.
❖ 3. The preparation ensures that meeting invitations are extended to relevant participants timeously.
❖ 4. The preparation completes and distribute the meeting agenda and other supporting documentation
needed for the type of meeting.
2.1 General Pre meeting Preparation
● Define the meeting purpose and decide if a meeting is the best way to accomplish this goal - ask what
would happen if the meeting were not held and ask what other ways the goal could be accomplished
● If so, decide on the meeting format
● Decide how long it should last
● Decide who should attend (e.g., any outsiders necessary?)
● Circulate the agenda
o Send out draft
▪ Try to use action verbs with objectives rather than just headings when crafting
agendas (e.g., approve minutes; approve or deny a request)
▪ Try to assign preliminary time estimates to each item
o Ask for input
o Revise as necessary
o Circulate final agenda
● Send out any supplemental materials that need to be read before the meeting
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● Get the necessary practicalities under control
o Reserve the room and confirm the reservation
o Obtain necessary audio-visual equipment (e.g., flip charts and pens, whiteboards and markers,
projectors, etc.)
o Obtain refreshments if necessary
● Consider rotating the role of running meetings - this helps develop skills and creates involvement but can
be troublesome if the leader is unskilled - again advance preparation and practice can be useful.
● Ensure that the following roles are filled by someone during the meeting:
o Timekeeper - pays attention to amount of time spent on each issue and overall time use by team
o Record keeper - records comments as necessary (e.g., on board or flip charts) and takes minutes
or keeps written record of actions. This sample meeting minutes form (in Word) can modified to
meet your needs.
o Facilitator - pays attention to how the meeting is going.
▪ Do members understand what is going on?
▪ Is participation structured properly? Have all members indicated their positions/given

information, etc?
▪ Is conflict constructive?
▪ Is the decision making process sufficiently rigorous?
2.2 How to Set a Technical Meeting Agenda
Make every minute count when inviting colleagues and employees to a technical meeting by establishing a
clear agenda ahead of time. Setting an agenda will let the participants know what the exact procedures for the
event are so that they don't get off-track during discussions and will allow every important topic to be
covered. Having a meeting agenda gives a purpose to the gathering and increases its efficiency and
productivity.
Instructions
Start by defining the meeting's technical details such as start and end time, meeting location, list of
participants and general purpose of the meeting. A technical meeting can be similar to a large conference, in
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which case only the speakers need to be included in the participants list because there are too many other
attendees.
Set the objectives of the meeting in a sentence or two. Define the focus of the session by completing the
following sentences: "By the end of the meeting, the group should..." or "The main purpose of this meeting is
to ...."
Break down the meeting into sections by defining topics and subtopics. Start by including any action items that
were defined in the last meeting's minutes if the meeting is a follow-up to a previous event. Outline the most
important topic first and its subtopics. Write a list of all topics that need to be covered by order of importance.
Note specific times for each topic to be covered. Allow more time for issues that are complex or that may
require discussion from attendees. Plan for extra time in the schedule to allow each speaker to set up their
presentations -- technical meeting presentations often require the use of computers, speakers and projectors.
If the total time of all topics exceeds the allotted time for the meeting, push some items to the next meeting or
reduce the time of less-urgent sessions.
Insert the name and title of the speaker for each section, as well as the specific room if there is more than one
presentation happening simultaneously. This will allow participants to know who will lead the discussion for
each topic or subtopic.
Send the agenda ahead of time to all participants. If the meeting is with a small internal audience, ask invitees
if there is anything else they think should be added or if some topics do not need to be covered at the
meeting. For larger technical meetings, only the final agenda needs to be sent to participants.
Finalize the agenda according to the feedback you received and send it as an attachment to the meeting
invitation you will send to all participants, or insert it in gift bags for large technical meetings.
For smaller groups, a copy of the agenda on a flip-board or regular sheets of paper will allow participants to
follow along during the event. For large technical meetings and conferences, you can print the agenda on a
large poster to place at the entrance of the room and other areas.
Before the Meeting
Recognize that producing quality documentation is collaborative process that takes time and commitment
▪ Get involved early in the project. As the user advocate, you have a unique perspective on the usability of
the product. Use your expertise to eliminate usability problems early in the design phase. For example, if
you are working on a software product and the UI (User Interface) contains text that is idiomatic or
jargony, you can provide alternatives early in the design phase.
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▪ Obtain a commitment from managers to support the technical review process. Get to know the project
managers and establish a rapport with them. Educate them about your needs, work with them to
establish goals and roles, and work with them to establish consequences for team members being
unprepared or for not participating as expected.
▪ Establish a rapport with the rest of the project team, too. If the team whines about review meetings, plan
to take steps throughout the process to make reviews more pleasant by accommodating–as much as
possible–their schedules, bringing food or drinks, or even offering prizes for the most issues found.
Identify the review team
▪ Work with the managers to recruit a cross-functional review team, with members that offer expertise
from all areas of product, document, and business development.
▪ Know the key players. Typically, you want to include the functional leads at the review meeting. These
leads are responsible for collecting comments from the other members of their functional group.
▪ Identify the secondary reviewers. Know which team members are the experts in which topics. These
reviewers can also help review sections to help ensure accuracy before the official review process.
▪ Plan, as much as is possible, to have a consistent review team. Bringing new people into the review cycle
in the middle of a project causes the review process to grind to a halt because the new person inevitably
wants to rehash decisions made by the project team. If you must add a new reviewer during the project,
take the time to provide them with the list of issues and solutions that have already been identified and
responded to. This will help bring the new person up to speed, and will reduce their need to rehash issues.
Be prepared
▪ Develop a project plan and content plan. Have the team review the plans so that they know how your
work meshes with the rest of the project schedule. Work with the project manager to incorporate your
deliverable schedule with the rest of the project schedule.
▪ Use all of the resources available. As you’re developing product documents, use the design specifications,
functional specifications, meeting notes, or other project documents as a starting point for answering your
own questions. Get access to prototypes as soon as they’re available, and use them throughout the
document development cycle. When approaching SMEs, ask informed questions, tell them what you’ve
done to answer your own questions, and take time to understand an issue while you have an SME’s
attention.
▪ Ask people in your immediate group to preview product documents before sending them to the project
team. By doing so, you can often eliminate more obvious problems or ones that would detract from
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technical review goals. Then, incorporate needed changes and resolve any issues before sending the
document to the project team.
Provide clear objectives and instructions for each review
▪ Educate the project team on what to review–and not review. Different stages of a project require a
different focus, and team members should be informed of the goals and needs throughout each review
pass.
▪ Clearly identify the document’s purpose, audience, and scope.
▪ Identify specific issues that need to be addressed in each review. For example, if the lead engineer needs
to provide you with information on a particular section, indicate that you want her to pay particular
attention to that section and specify what issues to look for.
▪ Establish sign-off protocols. Before the project begins, establish procedures for the required sign-off, and
establish criteria that the document must meet at each review phase.
Provide sufficient time for the review
▪ Plan review time into the project schedule. If it’s not in the project team’s schedule, it won’t happen.
▪ Work with reviewers (individually and collectively) to find out what review schedule(s) would best meet
their needs.
▪ Schedule the review meeting. Be specific about the time, place, and agenda, and provide a copy of
document and any review instructions.
▪ Establish realistic deadlines for returning comments. Don’t expect a thorough review if you give the team
a 30-page document at 3pm on Friday and schedule the review for 9am on Monday.
▪ Give reviewers at least 48 hours to review even a short document and a week for anything over 20 pages.
Even though the documentation is your primary responsibility, it’s likely a secondary responsibility for
other team members.
▪ Break large projects into manageable chunks. Unless it’s the final check on a document, provide reviewers
with only a few chapters or sections at a time. Or in the case of online help, provide them with a set of
related topics.
▪ Establish and announce a finite time for the meeting. Typically, people’s attention tends to wander after
about two hours. Even if you aren’t finished with the review, end the meeting on time and schedule a new
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time to finish the review. If you are almost done and time is up, you can take a vote to see who wants to
continue on.
SPECIFIC OUTCOME 3:
Chair a technical practitioners meeting.
ASSESSMENT CRITERIA
❖ 1. The chair and members agree on rules and guidelines on behavior.
❖ 2. The chair applies agreed meeting conventions throughout the meeting, according to the type of
meeting and in accordance with the standing procedures of the organisation(s) involved.
❖ 3. The chair ensures that the published agenda is followed.
❖ 4. The chair provides for active participation by all members to avoid/ minimize conflict.
❖ 5. The chair ensures that meeting topics are prioritised and that discussion times are allocated according
to importance, urgency, complexity and agenda.
❖ 6. The chair ensures that agreed decisions are clear, accurate, includes a time frame for action and are
within the mandate of the type of meeting conducted.
3.1 During the Meeting
Assign someone else to be the review leader This person should be one who understands the purpose and
goals of the review, who can push people along through the review, and who can guide people back on topic
when they stray:
▪ Go page by page through the document to be reviewed. Pause for 15 seconds or so as each page is
announced. If no one has a comment, move on.
▪ Keep discussions focused. Sometimes tangential issues arise during the discussion. In this case,
acknowledge the issue, assign an action item, and arrange for the item to be resolved–either with an
individual or at another meeting. During the meeting, though, stay focused on the topic at hand.
▪ Keep comments constructive. The comments should be about the documentation and what will improve
it, not about someone’s personality flaws or competence.
Assign yourself as the recorder As the person responsible for incorporating changes, you care more than
anyone else on the team about how clear the comments and solutions are. By being the meeting recorder, you
can focus on listening rather than talking, and you can ensure the notes about changes needed are clear for
your needs:
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▪ Use a review form. The form should contain space for the name of the document, the date, team
signatures, and the issues list.
▪ Track both direct and indirect issues. Attach the form to the document; mark up the document with direct
issues, and document indirect issues on the form.
▪ Assign action items to appropriate people. If an issue requires further action, assign someone to take care
of it and give them a deadline. Then, follow up with a reminder after the meeting.
▪ Ensure that the appropriate people sign the review form after the meeting. The signatures give you a
paper trail in case of problems. Save the forms, and make a backup in case problems arise after the
project is completed.
Resolve direct issues in the meeting, if possible If the project team disagrees about how to present a piece of
information, for example, discuss it and come to agreement about wording or presentation during the
meeting. Determine whether or not another review is required If there are minimal changes, suggest that the
leader check the changes and sign off, rather than convening another meeting. Make second reviews
“changes only,” unless the document was significantly changed as a result of the first meeting This will keep
the review process moving and prevent revisiting every issue every time.
3.2 Guidelines on chairing committees
1. How to Chair a Meeting Effectively

Effective chairing will ensure that a meeting achieves its aims and objectives. Chairs should facilitate,
encourage, focus and clarify
2. What Makes a Good Chair?
● An understanding of the issues and topics being discussed and keenly listening to the discussions;
● Being able to prevent discussions wandering, prevent those without anything new to add repeating
the same point, being able to move on when a point is discussed as far as possible;
● Ensuring that all members have an equal opportunity to express their point of view;
● Showing respect for the views and actions of others
● Encouraging all members to take equal responsibility for the meeting proceeding smoothly;
● Being impartial;
● Being able to sum-up the points made in discussions.
Before the Meeting
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1. Plan the agenda with the chief officer and officers. Include items brought to you by other
members. Decide the order and timing of the agenda, and who will introduce each one.
2. Identify which agenda items are for information, discussion or a decision.
3. Be well briefed about each item, and actions taken since the last meeting.
4. Ensure all necessary background papers (including the last meeting's minutes) are sent out with the
agenda beforehand.
5. Check with staff that all relevant practical arrangements have been made, e.g. room layout, visual aids,
etc.
6. Arrive in good time before the meeting is due to start.
During the Meeting
Communicate
● Start the meeting. Welcome any new members. Make any necessary introductions.
● Receive apologies for absence.
● Ensure that additions or amendments to minutes are recorded.
● Set the scene. State the objectives of the meeting and each item.
● Try to be brief when making a point.
Control
● Maintain control. Set out any time limits.
● Allow flexibility and freedom of expression.
● Keep to the agenda.
● Ensure quorum is present.
● Ensure time is used effectively.
● Ensure that proper minutes are taken.
Coax
● Ensure full participation.
● Draw out quieter members and discourage those who are monopolising the meeting.
● Be prepared to highlight issues that no-one else will, and to be the one who always has to ask the
awkward questions.
Compare
● Weigh up contributions impartially.
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● All points in favour of a point should be summarised against all points not in favour.
Clarify
● Ensure everyone understands what is being discussed.
● Summarise.
● Ensure that if jargon and abbreviations are used, all present understand them.
● Ensure that decisions are recorded, together with who is going to implement them. It can be useful to
record decisions on a flip-chart as they are made.
Decision Making
● Ensure that decisions are taken in the context of the organisations strategy and that they are recorded,
together with who is going to implement them.
Guide
● Remember that above all you are there to guide the meeting.
● Steer members to work harmoniously and purposefully as a team.
● Keep an eye on time.
At the End of the Meeting
1. Summarise decisions taken and action points to be followed up e.g. who's responsible, by when.
2. Agree a date for the next meeting - it is usually best to set dates for the year's meetings well in advance.
3. Agree what special items will be put on the agenda of the next meeting and what work needs to be done,
by whom etc.
4. Ensure that the minutes are written up, checked by the Chair and sent out in good time.
Finally, a few dos and don’ts

Do
● introduce yourself, maybe new members or others observing don't know who you are
● make everyone feel comfortable
● enjoy yourself
Don't
● talk too much
● assume everyone has the same knowledge or knows what you are talking about
● take sides
● become a participant of the discussion
● manipulate the meeting towards your own agenda
● criticise the values and ideas of others
● force your own ideas on the meeting. If necessary have someone else chair the meeting so you can take
part
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● make decisions for the members without asking them for agreement
3.4 Other points to successful and effective chairing:

a) Start the meeting on time. This respects those who turned up on time and reminds late-comers that the
scheduling is serious. Start late to accommodate late-comers and they will assume it is ok to come late.
b) Introduce yourself and welcome all, especially new members and thank them for their time. If it is the first
meeting of the committee (or the first of the academic year), it is good practice for all members to
introduce themselves.
c) At the start of the meeting, review the overall agenda briefly and involve members in committing to the
agenda. This will give participants a chance to understand all proposed major items and to indicate any
adjustments you may need to make to the agenda for new problems or priorities.
d) Review what has previously been done, congratulating members when things have been accomplished
e) At the start of each major agenda item, there should be a short introduction to develop a common
understanding and to encourage participation. Clarify at the outset the type of action needed, the
outcome expected (decision, information point, action assigned to someone).
f) Remind members what preparation was expected of them and if colleagues were expected to read papers
before the meeting don't read them out. The next time you ask them to read beforehand they will assume
it is not worth the effort.
g) Keep the meeting focussed, on time and encourage equal participation and contribution from members.
Summarise key points afterwards if lengthy. If discussions are side-tracked, take appropriate action to get
back on track.
h) Ensure that all members understand any jargon, initials or acronyms – you should not assume that
everyone has equal knowledge or understanding.
i) Ensure that all the key points are agreed and minuted and actions assigned to individuals where
appropriate with the proposed time-frame and feedback required.
j) Ensure unresolved items or non agenda items raised during the meeting are parked for later attention
and it is agreed how they will be followed-up, eg agenda item for next meeting, sub-group to address
outside of meeting etc.
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SPECIFIC OUTCOME 4:
Conduct post meeting follow up for a technical meeting.
ASSESSMENT CRITERIA
❖ 1. The follow up ensures minutes of the meeting are produced accurately and in line with the policy of the
organisation.
❖ 2. The follow up communicates agreed records of discussion to interested parties in a format and time
frame that meet requirements of the type of meeting and of the organisation(s) involved.
4.1 Following Up After the Meeting
What we call the beginning is often the end. And to make an end is to make a beginning. The end is where we
start from.—T. S. Eliot
You planned and facilitated a productive meeting. Now what? As the saying goes, "No job is finished until the
paperwork is done." And that's where you are now. Following a successful meeting you should have
assignments, open items, a parking lot of potential agenda items, and notes. All of these items are the product
of your work and must be captured in such a way that the product is useful. The final step in Making Meetings
Manageable is to organize all this information in such a way that it not only ends the most recent meeting but
also becomes the foundation for beginning the next meeting.
Four Steps to Take After a Meeting
Step 1. Minutes
Prepare and distribute the minutes of the meeting within 24 hours. Doing so serves several purposes:
1. The meeting product is captured while it is still fresh in the writer's mind.
2. Participants have an opportunity to review the work immediately.
3. Assignments are reiterated and the notation in the minutes serves as an accountability check for future
reference.
4. The minutes get done!
Step 2. Follow Up
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After preparing the minutes, make note of items that require action, or raise questions. Contact the
appropriate people. Make certain people know their tasks, have necessary information, and get their
questions answered.
As people read the minutes, receive support information, and begin work on their assignments, additional
follow up may be required.
Step 3. Evaluation
As the meeting facilitator, take some time to reflect on the meeting itself. What went well? What could be
improved? What would I do differently?
Periodically, ask participants to evaluate the meeting. Use their input for continuous improvement.
Step 4. Agenda Development
"To make an end is to make a beginning." Use the information gathered and developed through the process of
writing the minutes, conducting follow up, and evaluating the meeting as the basis for the agenda of the next
meeting. This provides continuity and keeps work focused on the goal.
Following these four simple steps can go a long way in concluding meetings, capturing information, completing
tasks, and preparing for future meetings.
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Summary
After the Meeting
Follow up on action items and issues
▪ Send reminders about action items.
▪ Resolve issues promptly.
▪ Go over complex comments with the reviewer, if necessary, as quickly as possible after the meeting.
▪ If you don’t incorporate a particular comment, document the reason.
▪ Follow your document control procedures.
▪ Thank your reviewers for their time. This small courtesy will go a long way toward ensuring help on future
projects. In addition, if someone was particularly helpful, you may want to further acknowledge their
contributions with a special public thanks or a message to her boss.
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Demonstrate an awareness of ethics and
professionalism for the computer industry in
South Africa(US114055)
114055
Unit Std #
NQF Level 5
Notional hours 30
Credit(s) 3
48872- 131 CREDITS
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The Learner guide
At the end of this unit standard you will be able to Demonstrate an awareness of ethics
and professionalism for the computer industry in South Africa
Purpose:
This unit standard is intended:
To provide conceptual knowledge of the areas covered
For those working in, or entering the workplace in the area of Information Technology
As additional knowledge for those wanting to understand the areas covered
Specific outcome:
● People credited with this unit standard are able to:

● Describe professionalism for the computer industry in South Africa
● Describe the codes of practice for professionalism in the IT industry in South Africa
● Describe the code of ethics in the computer industry in South Africa
● The performance of all elements is to a standard that allows for further learning in
this area.
● The credit value of this unit is based on a person having prior knowledge and skills
to:
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● Describe the management and use of computers in organisations
Equipment needed:
● Visual aids
● White board
● Flip chart
● Equipment
● Training venue
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Assessments:
Table of contents
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Specific Outcome 1 : Describe professionalism for the computer industry in South Africa.
● 1. The description identifies acceptable and unacceptable professional practices found in

the computer industry.
● 2. The description identifies known professional bodies in South Africa.
● 3. A short description of each named professional body is provided.
Specific Outcome 2 : Describe the codes of practice for professionalism in the IT industry
in South Africa.
● 1. The description identifies the codes of practice for the IT industry in South Africa.
● 2. The description provides a brief explanation of the codes of practice identified.
Specific Outcome 3 : Describe the code of ethics in the computer industry in South Africa.
● 1. The description confirms that the computer industry supports equality of opportunity.
● 2. The description confirms the understanding that the computer industry is against
computer software piracy.
● 3. The description identifies ways in which piracy is addressed in South Africa.
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SPECIFIC OUTCOME 1:
Describe professionalism for the computer industry in South Africa.
ASSESSMENT CRITERIA
❖ 1. The description identifies acceptable and unacceptable professional practices found in the computer
industry.
❖ 2. The description identifies known professional bodies in South Africa.
❖ 3. A short description of each named professional body is provided.
1.1. ACCEPTABLE AND UNACCEPTABLE PROFESSIONAL PRACTICES FOUND IN THE COMPUTER INDUSTRY.
What is Professional Ethics?
Professional Ethics concerns one's conduct of behaviour and practice when carrying out professional work.
Such work may include consulting, researching, teaching and writing. The institutionalisation of Codes of
Conduct and Codes of Practice is common with many professional bodies for their members to observe.
Any code may be considered to be a formalisation of experience into a set of rules. A code is adopted by a
community because its members accept the adherence to these rules, including the restrictions that apply.
It must be noted that there is a distinction between a profession such as Information Systems, and controlled
professions such as Medicine and Law, where the loss of membership may also imply the loss of the right to
practice.
Apart from codes of ethics, professional ethics also concerns matters such as professional indemnity.
Furthermore, as will readily be appreciated, no two codes of ethics are identical. They vary by cultural group,
by profession and by discipline. The former of these three variations is one of the most interesting, as well as
controversial, since it challenges the assumption that universal ethical principles exist. In some cultures,
certain behaviours are certainly frowned upon, but in other cultures the opposite may be true. Software piracy
is a good case in point, in that attitudes towards software piracy vary from strong opposition to strong support
- attitudes that are supportable within a particular culture. At the end of these pages is a section called
Cultural Perspectives, where we hope to point you to alternative perspectives of ethical standards, attitudes
and behaviours..
Software Engineering Code of Ethics and Professional Practice
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PREAMBLE
Computers have a central and growing role in commerce, industry, government, medicine, education,
entertainment and society at large. Software engineers are those who contribute by direct participation or by
teaching, to the analysis, specification, design, development, certification, maintenance and testing osoftware
systems. Because of their roles in developing software systems, software engineers have significant
opportunities to do good or cause harm, to enable others to do good or cause harm, or to influence others to
do good or cause harm. To ensure, as much as possible, that their efforts will be used for good, software
engineers must commit themselves to making software engineering a beneficial and respected profession. In
accordance with that commitment, software engineers shall adhere to the following Code of Ethics and
Professional Practice.
The Code contains eight Principles related to the behavior of and decisions made by professional software
engineers, including practitioners, educators, managers, supervisors and policy makers, as well as trainees and
students of the profession. The Principles identify the ethically responsible relationships in which individuals,
groups, and organizations participate and the primary obligations within these relationships. The Clauses of
each Principle are illustrations of some of the obligations included in these relationships. These obligations are
founded in the software engineer’s humanity, in special care owed to people affected by the work of software
engineers, and the unique elements of the practice of software engineering. The Code prescribes these as
obligations of anyone claiming to be or aspiring to be a software engineer.
It is not intended that the individual parts of the Code be used in isolation to justify errors of omission or
commission. The list of Principles and Clauses is not exhaustive. The Clauses should not be read as separating
the acceptable from the unacceptable in professional conduct in all practical situations. The Code is not a
simple ethical algorithm that generates ethical decisions. In some situations standards may be in tension with
each other or with standards from other sources. These situations require the software engineer to use ethical
judgment to act in a manner which is most consistent with the spirit of the Code of Ethics and Professional
Practice, given the circumstances.
Ethical tensions can best be addressed by thoughtful consideration of fundamental principles, rather than
blind reliance on detailed regulations. These Principles should influence software engineers to consider
broadly who is affected by their work; to examine if they and their colleagues are treating other human beings
with due respect; to consider how the public, if reasonably well informed, would view their decisions; to
analyze how the least empowered will be affected by their decisions; and to consider whether their acts would
be judged worthy of the ideal professional working as a software engineer. In all these judgments concern for
the health, safety and welfare of the public is primary; that is, the "Public Interest" is central to this Code.
The dynamic and demanding context of software engineering requires a code that is adaptable and relevant to
new situations as they occur. However, even in this generality, the Code provides support for software
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engineers and managers of software engineers who need to take positive action in a specific case by
documenting the ethical stance of the profession. The Code provides an ethical foundation to which
individuals within teams and the team as a whole can appeal. The Code helps to define those actions that are
ethically improper to request of a software engineer or teams of software engineers.
The Code is not simply for adjudicating the nature of questionable acts; it also has an important educational
function. As this Code expresses the consensus of the profession on ethical issues, it is a means to educate
both the public and aspiring professionals about the ethical obligations of all software engineers
1.2 PROFESSIONAL BODIES IN SOUTH AFRICA. A SHORT DESCRIPTION OF EACH NAMED PROFESSIONAL
BODY IS PROVIDED
Professionalism
Students should be encouraged to become involved professionally while they are in school and to continue
their professional involvement throughout their career. Several societies and professional organizations are
concerned with security
The Computer Society of South Africa
The Computer Society of South Africa (CSSA) is a professional association, established to represent and
promote the information and communications technology (ICT) professional and ICT professionalism, as well
as to elevate ICT capability in South Africa, and specifically:
* To facilitate the exchange of opinions and views on information and communications technology, and to
inform and promote knowledge of ICT to members and the public for the development and use of ICT.
* By representing industry practitioners, to inform and lobby government on ICT policy.

* To obtain from members and other sources information relating to ICT, and to disseminate such information
among the public and the Society by means of journals, circulars, publications, lectures, seminars, conferences
or otherwise.
* To improve the technical and general knowledge and to elevate the professional status of persons engaged
in ICT.
* Education and training to elevate the level of ICT capability in southern Africa.
* Professional development and advancement.
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* Community development that enhances the standards and levels of ICT for the greater good of the South
African people.
* To do all such other lawful things as are incidental or conducive to the attainment of the above purposes.
Computer Society South Africa has members in all of the provinces in South Africa, and the CSSA has regional
representation through chapters in the Western Cape, KwaZulu-Natal and Gauteng.
List PROFESSIONAL BODIES IN SOUTH AFRICA.
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ISACA South Africa
With more than 100 000 constituents in 160 countries, ISACA (www.isaca.org) is a leading global provider of
knowledge, certifications, community, advocacy and education on information systems (IS) assurance and
security, enterprise governance and management of IT, and IT-related risk and compliance. Founded in 1969,
the non-profit, independent ISACA hosts international conferences, publishes the ISACA Journal, and develops
international IS auditing and control standards, which help its constituents ensure trust in, and value from,
information systems. It also advances and attests IT skills and knowledge through the globally respected
Certified Information Systems Auditor (CISA), Certified Information Security Manager (CISM), Certified in the
Governance of Enterprise IT (CGEIT) and Certified in Risk and Information Systems Control (CRISC)
designations. ISACA continually updates COBIT, which helps IT professionals and enterprise leaders fulfil their
IT governance and management responsibilities, particularly in the areas of assurance, security, risk and
control, and deliver value to the business. ISACA in South Africa has chapter representation in all of the key
cities, including Johannesburg, Pretoria, Cape Town, Durban, East London, Port Elizabeth and Bloemfontein.
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Activities
❖ The description identifies acceptable and unacceptable professional practices found in the computer
industry.
❖ The description identifies known professional bodies in South Africa.
❖ Short description of each named professional body is provided.
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Self-check
OUTCOME Yes No I Need help

● 1. The description identifies acceptable and
unacceptable professional practices found in the
computer industry.
● 2. The description identifies known professional bodies

in South Africa.
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Describe the codes of practice for professionalism in the IT industry
in South Africa.
ASSESSMENT CRITERIA
❖ 1. The description identifies the codes of practice for the IT industry in South Africa.
❖ 2. The description provides a brief explanation of the codes of practice identified.
2.1 CODES OF PRACTICE FOR PROFESSIONALISM IN THE IT INDUSTRY IN SOUTH AFRICA.
COMPUTER SOCIETY OF SOUTH AFRICA (C.S.S.A.) CODE OF CONDUCT
BASIC APPROACH
The Society is ready at all times to give guidance in the application of the Code of Conduct. In cases where
resolution of difficulties is not possible informally, the Society will invoke the disciplinary procedures defined in
its Articles of Association. These procedures involve initial discussion to establish the background for a formal
complaint, the appointment of a Committee of Enquiry and, if the latter find a case to answer, a Disciplinary
Committee. The Disciplinary Committee is empowered to exclude from the Society; to suspend from
membership for a given period; to reprimand; to admonish or; of course, to dismiss the case.
NOTE: In case of conflict in the interpretation of any provision contained in this document the English version
will prevail.
PRINCIPLES
A PROFESSIONAL MEMBER OF THE COMPUTER SOCIETY OF SOUTH AFRICA.

1. Will behave at all times with integrity. A member will not knowingly lay claim to a level of competence not
possessed and will at all times exercise competence at least to the level claimed.
2. Will act with complete loyalty towards a client when entrusted will confidential information.
3. Will act with impartiality when purporting to give independent advice and must disclose any relevant
interests.
4. Will accept full responsibility for any work undertaken and will construct and deliver that which has been
agreed to.
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5. Will not seek personal advantage to the detriment of the Society and will actively seek to enhance the image
of the Society.
6. Will not engage in discriminatory practices in professional activities on any basis whatsoever.
NOTES FOR GUIDANCE
The six principles set out on the previous page make up the Computer Society of South Africa (CSSA) Code of
Conduct, and each professional member of the Society, as a condition of membership, undertakes to adhere
to these principles. The principles are clear, but have an inevitable appearance of generality. In the following
pages each principle is supported by a number of notes for guidance which will help in specific interpretation.
Members of the Society will readily appreciate that continued evidence of the determination to abide by the
Code will ensure the public trust and confidence in computer professionals which is so necessary to the
continuing effective use of computers.
Terminology:
The following conventions apply to the reading of this Code:

1. "A member" includes all categories of corporate membership defined in the Society's Articles of Association.
2. "Client" is any person, or organisation for whom the member works, or undertakes to provide computer-
based aid, in any way.
3. "User" is any person, department or organisation served by computer-based systems.

4. "System" means all applications involving the use of computer and information technology. The term does
not imply any particular mode of processing, eg. local batch or remote real time, etc. "System" may be
interpreted as encompassing non-computer procedures and disciplines, eg. Clerical, Manual, etc.
Integrity:
"A member will behave at all times with integrity. A member will not knowingly lay claim to a level of
competence not possessed, and will at all times exercise competence at least to the level claimed."
Integrity implies wholeness, soundness, completeness: anything the member does should be done
competently. Where necessary, additional guidance or expertise should be obtained from properly qualified
advisers. While claims to competence should not be made lightly, a member will not shelter behind this
principle to avoid being helpful and co-operative; any guidance or advice that can be provided from experience
should be readily given. A member should act in a manner based on trust and good faith towards clients or
employers and towards others with whom he or she is associated. A member should express an opinion on a
subject only when it is founded on adequate knowledge and honest conviction, and will properly qualify any
opinion expressed outside the level of professional competence attained. A member should not deliberately
make false or exaggerated statements as to the state of affairs existing or expected regarding any aspect of
the construction or use of computers. A member should comply with the CSSA Code of Practice and any other
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codes that are applicable and ensure that clients are aware of the significance of his or her work. A member
has an obligation to be aware of relevant developments in information technology. A member should not
engage in any illegal activities, including copyright or patent violations.
Confidentiality:
"A member will act with complete loyalty towards a client when entrusted with confidential information. A
member shall take adequate measures to ensure the confidentiality of a client's information. A member
should not disclose, or permit to be disclosed, or use to personal advantage, any confidential information
relating to the affairs of present or previous employers or customers without their prior permission. This
principle covers the need to protect confidential data.
Many kinds of information can be considered by a client or employer to be confidential. Even the fact that a
project exists may be sensitive. Business plans, trade secrets, personal information are all examples of
confidential data. Training is required for all staff on measures to ensure confidentiality, to guard against the
possibility of a third party intentionally or inadvertently misusing data and to be watchful for leaks of
confidentiality arising from careless use of data or indiscretions.
Impartiality:
"A member will act with impartiality when purporting to give independent advice and will disclose any
relevant interests." This principal is primarily directed to the case where a member or members relatives or
friends may make a private profit if the client or employer follows advice given. Any such interest should be
disclosed in advance. A second interpretation is where there is no immediate personal profit but the future
business or scope of influence of the department depends on a certain solution being accepted. Whereas
salesperson are assumed to have a bias towards their own company, an internal consultant should always
consider the welfare of the organisation as a whole and not just the increased application of computers.
Responsibility:
"A member will accept full responsibility for any work undertaken and will construct and deliver that which has
been agreed to." Trust and responsibility are at the heart of professionalism. A member should seek out
responsibility and discharge it with integrity. A member should complete the work accepted within the agreed
time and budget. If that which has been promised cannot be achieved then the client or employer must be
alerted at the earliest possible time so that corrective action can be taken. Members should have regard to the
effect of computer based systems, insofar as they are known to them, on the basic human rights of individuals,
whether within the organisation, its customers or suppliers, or among the general public. Subject to the
confidential relationship between themselves and their customers, members are expected to transmit the
benefit of information acquired during the practice of the profession, as a result of technical knowledge, to
alleviate any situation which may harm or seriously affect a third party. A member should combat ignorance
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about technology wherever it is found, and in particular in those areas where application of technology
appears to have dubious social merit.
Relationship to the Society:
"A member will not seek personal advantage to the detriment of the Society and will actively seek to enhance
the image of the Society." It is necessary to write this principle into the Code of Conduct to prevent misuse of
the considerable influence that a professional society can have. Nevertheless, its impact is largely internal and
the points that have been made should be read in that light.
A member should not bring the Society into disrepute by personal behaviour or acts when acknowledged or
known to be a representative of the Society. A member should not misrepresent the views of the Society nor
represent that the views of a segment or group of the Society constitutes the view of the Society as a whole.
When acting or speaking on behalf of the Society members should, if faced with conflict of interest, declare
their position. Members should not serve their own pecuniary interests or those of the company which
normally employs them when purporting to act in an independent manner as representative of the Society,
save as permitted by the Society following a full disclosure of all the facts. Members are expected to apply the
same high standard of behaviour in their social life as is demanded of them in their professional activities
insofar as these interact. Confidence is at the root of the validity of the qualifications of the Society and
conduct which in any way undermines that confidence (e.g. a gross breach of a confidential relationship) is of
deep concern to the Society. Members should conduct themselves with courtesy and consideration towards all
with whom they come into contact in the course of their professional work.
A member should have regard to the great extent that professional and other bodies depend on voluntary
effort and should consider what personal contribution can be made both to the public generally and to the
Society, in order to enhance the image of the Society and the quality of work delivered by its members. In this
regard the member will inter alia seek co-operation with related professional bodies. A member should avoid
any behaviour which impinges on the reputation of any other member of the Society.
Non-discrimination:
"A member will not engage in discriminatory practises in professional activities, on any basis whatsoever."
Professional people should ensure that their dealings with others are free from unfair discriminatory
behaviour. Wherever they have the opportunity to control or influence the hiring and management of
employees, their decisions should be based solely on the skills, experience and performance of the employee.
This implies hiring and remunerating on an equal opportunity basis.
Wherever possible, members should support and/or initiate programmes which encourage the development
and training of professionals and managers on an equal opportunity basis.
DISCIPLINARY PROCEDURE
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All members of the Society undertake to abide by the Society's Code of Conduct. It will sometimes happen,
however, that someone (member or non-member) wishes to lay a complaint against a member for
infringement of the Code, and this note explains the Society's procedures. Professional workers exercise not
only the skills which they have learned in formal education and training, but also mature personal judgement
developed from the use of those skills, in the varying situations of day-to-day working life. The level of
members' professional objectives will be dependent on, amongst other things, their seniority, their position
and their type of work.
Consultants carry additional professional obligations. A senior executive in charge of a major computer
application or computer project is responsible for the accuracy of the information produced by the installation
and for ensuring that those for whom it is prepared are fully aware of its limitations in relation to the purpose
for which they intend to use it; a person cannot, however, be held responsible if it is used for a purpose of
which they are unaware or for which it was not intended. The responsibility of senior systems analysts and
programmers is also heightened because their work is so little understood by others and failures can have
serious consequences. It must, however, be borne in mind that the more responsibility a member carries, the
higher will be the standard expected of him or her, and the more rigorously may the Society's sanctions have
to be applied. In the interest of the public, the highest standard will be expected of those in public practice
who by nature of their work accept personal responsibility for what they undertake. The Society has no legal
standing between a member and his employer, whether an individual or a company. Its remedy lies in giving,
where appropriate, fullest support for the stand taken by a member who loses a job, or is in danger of doing
so, and of censuring the employer who seeks to place the member in a position which could cause violation of
the Society's Code of Conduct. The Society's disciplinary regulations clearly set out the procedures to be
followed. In essence, however, they provide for the processing of complaints against members, or former
members of the Society, in two stages. Firstly: all complaints should be in writing and addressed to the
Executive Director of the Society. These complaints may be lodged by any person, organisation or Chapter
committee or where Council resolves to proceed against any member or former member for breach of the
Code of Conduct. The complaint will then be investigated by a Committee of Enquiry which has the power to
summon any member or former member, whom the committee believes may be able to provide information
concerning the subject matter of the complaint, to appear before it. Should the Committee of Enquiry believe
that a case of misconduct has been established then the member or former member will be given 21 days
notice to answer the complaint. If no written representation is received, or if the committee is not satisfied
that the complaint has been answered, then the complaint will be referred to the Disciplinary Committee.
Should the complaint be found, by the Committee of Enquiry, to be without substance, the complainant will be
advised accordingly. Secondly: where the complaint is referred to the Disciplinary Committee a formal hearing
of the charge will be arranged. Witnesses may be called but no legal representation will be permitted at the
hearing and all proceedings will be held in camera. If found guilty of the charge, the member may be cautioned
or reprimanded, suspended from membership for a period or expelled from membership of the Society for
life. Where the sentence is a caution and reprimand, the Council shall circularise all members setting out the
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nature of the circumstances and the result of the hearing but not the name of the member. Where the
member has however been suspended or expelled, the Council shall, to the extend it deems expedient, advise
all members of the fact and name of the member, for their exclusive and confidential information.
THE CODE AS APPLIED TO A CONSULTANT
Advice given to a client can come from:
(a) Outside an organisation, either for a fee or as part of a supplier's marketing effort or after-sales support;
(b) Within the organisation from business analysts or system designers working directly or indirectly for a user.
Irrespective of conditions of employment, consultants are expected to give sound advice and honest opinions,
and to help the client to a successful planned conclusion. The following points amplify the notes for guidance
in respect for consultancy work. Members should hold themselves accountable for the advice given to their
client's, and should ensure that all known limitations of their work are fully disclosed, documented and
explained.
A member should not attempt to avoid the consequences of poor advice by making the language of any report
incomprehensible to the layman by the use of computer jargon.
A member should ensure that the client is aware of all significant contingencies and risks which could
adversely affect plans and the scale of the costs which may be incurred as a result of embarking on any
particular computer strategy. During the course of the work, the member should bring to the client's
attention, at the earliest possible time, any risk that the stated objectives may not be achievable or any risk
attaching to the objective of which the client may not be aware; and if the solution lies in the extension of the
contract, best efforts should be used to make the necessary time available at an equitable fee. Where it is
possible that decisions may be made as a result of a member's efforts which could adversely affect the social
benefits, work or career of any individual, the member should ensure that the clients are aware of their
responsibilities to mitigate the effects of their decisions.
Members should always have regard to any factors arising during a professional assignment which might
reflect adversely upon their integrity and objectivity. Members should declare to their client, before accepting
instructions, all interests which may affect the proper performance of their functions. For example:
(a) a directorship or controlling interest in any business which is in competition with the client;
(b) a financial interest in any goods or services recommended to the client;

(c) a personal relationship with any person in a client's employment who might influence, or be directly
affected by, advice given. When undertaking consultancy work, a written agreement must be provided which
clearly states the basis or amount of remuneration before undertaking the assignment. A member is expected
not to structure fees in any way so as to offset impartiality; examples which have in the past been regarded as
suspect include fee splitting, and payment by results.
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A member should not invite any employee of a client to consider alternative employment without prior
consent of that client. (An advertisement in the press is not considered to be an invitation to any particular
person for the purpose of this rule.)
THE CODE AS APPLIED TO SALESPERSONS
Almost everyone in computing is from time to time in the position of salesperson - either in direct contact with
clients and customers, or with those who, because they are dependent on results from computing, are in the
position of clients. Salespeople are normally direct employees of their companies, and it is implicit that
whatever they promise to a customer should be delivered by the company. Salespersons must therefore act
loyally and honestly as employees and should declare their status as representatives of the company. Payment
by results in the form of commission to a salesperson is an accepted business practice; but in the selling of a
continuing system it is probably desirable that some or all of such commission be tied to the proper
performance of the work and the long term satisfaction of the customer. The member should act in a manner
based on trust and good faith towards customers, to ensure that they receive lasting and profitable enjoyment
of their purchase. For example :
- members should accept only such work as they believe the organisation can produce and deliver;
- members should ensure that any agreement with the customer is explicit, unambiguous and complete;
-members should obey the spirit as well as the letter of any contract and of the law;
- members should secure after-sales service where appropriate commensurate with the kind of product
supplied and the price paid;
- members should ensure that the customer is aware of any contingencies under which supplementary charges
may be payable and the basis of such charges;
- members should ensure that customers are aware of any significant risks e.g. imminent obsolescence,
replacement or supercession of facilities, which could adversely affect their plans, and of any additional work
or expense they will or may incur in using the service or product which is being offered to them;
- with the prior consent of the client, members should sub-contract only to responsible practitioners and
organisations;
- members should avoid illegal "informal" price fixing and market sharing arrangements tending to falsify the
process of tendering and open competition;
- members should not be party to any practice which could lead to commercial or other corruption;
- members should not use products commissioned and paid for by one client for another client, without the
knowledge and agreement of the original client;
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- members should not denigrate the honesty or competence of a fellow professional or competitor with intent
to gain unfair advantage;
- members should not maliciously or recklessly injure or attempt to injure, directly or indirectly, the
professional reputation, prospects or business of others;
- members should not exploit customer relations by using either the existence of any contract or any
identifiable precis of work done in any advertising or publicity material without the permission of the client.
Activities
❖ Description identifies the codes of practice for the IT industry in South Africa.
❖ The description provides a brief explanation of the codes of practice identified.
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
Self-check

● 1. The description identifies the codes of practice for the IT
industry in South Africa.
● 2. The description provides a brief explanation of the codes of

practice identified.
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SPECIFIC OUTCOME 3:
Describe the code of ethics in the computer industry in South
Africa.
ASSESSMENT CRITERIA
❖ 1. The description confirms that the computer industry supports equality of opportunity.
❖ 2. The description confirms the understanding that the computer industry is against computer software
piracy.
❖ 3. The description identifies ways in which piracy is addressed in South Africa.
3.1 CODE OF ETHICS IN THE COMPUTER INDUSTRY IN SOUTH AFRICA
Codes of Ethics are concerned with a range of issues, including:
»Academic honesty
»Adherence to confidentiality agreements
»Data privacy
»Handling of human subjects
»Impartiality in data analysis and professional consulting
»Professional accountability
»Resolution of conflicts of interest
»Software piracy
1. Computerworld's first priority is the interest of its readers.
2. Editorial decisions are made free of advertisers' influence.
3. We insist on fair, unbiased presentation in all news and articles.
4. No advertising that simulates editorial content will be published.
5. Plagiarism is grounds for dismissal.
6. Computerworld makes prompt, complete corrections of errors.
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7. Journalists do not own or trade in computer industry stocks.
8. No secondary employment in the IT industry is permitted.
9. Our commitment to fairness is our defense against slander.
10. All editorial opinions will be clearly labeled as such.
A. Ethics
1. Ethics and Responsible Decison-Making
The foundation of all security systems is formed by moral principles and practices of those people involved and
the standards of the profession. That is, while people are part of the solution, they are also most the problem.
Security problems with which an organization may have to deal include: responsible decision making,
confidentiality, privacy, piracy, fraud & misuse, liability, copyright, trade secrets, and sabotage. It is easy to
sensationalize these topics with real horror stories; it is more difficult to deal with the underlying ethical issues
involved.
The student should be made aware of his individual responsibility in making ethical decisions associated with
information security.
2. Confidentiality & Privacy
Computers can be used symbolically to intimidate, deceive or defraud victims. Attorneys, government
agencies and businesses increasingly use mounds of computer generated data quite legally to confound their
audiences. Criminals also find useful phony invoices, bills and checks generated by the computer. The
computer lends an ideal cloak for carrying out criminal acts by imparting a clean quality to the crime.
The computer has made the invasion of our privacy a great deal easier and potentially more dangerous than
before the advent of the computer. A wide range of data are collected and stored in computerized files related
to individuals. These files hold banking information, credit information, organizational fund raising, opinion
polls, shop at home services, driver license data, arrest records and medical records. The potential threats to
privacy include the improper commercial use of computerized data, breaches of confidentiality by releasing
confidential data to third parties, and the release of records to governmental agencies for investigative
purposes.
Fraud & Misuse
The computer can create a unique environment in which unauthorized activities can occur. Crimes in this
category have many traditional names including theft, fraud, embezzlement, extortion, etc. Computer related
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fraud includes the introduction of fraudulent records into a computer system, theft of money by electronic
means, theft of financial instruments, theft of services, and theft of valuable data.
Patents and Copyright Law
A patent can protect the unique and secret aspect of an idea. It is very difficult to obtain a patent compared to
a copyright. With computer software, complete disclosure is required; the patent holder must disclose the
complete details of a program to allow a skilled programmer to build the program. Moreover, a United States
software patent will be unenforceable in most other countries.
Copyright law provides a very significant legal tool for use in protecting computer software, both before a
security breach and certainly after a security breach. This type of breach could deal with misappropriation of
data, computer programs, documentation, or similar material. For this reason the information security
specialist will want to be familiar with basic concepts of to copyright law.
Trade Secrets
A trade secret protects something of value and usefulness. This law protects the unique and secret aspects of
ideas, known only to the discoverer or his confidants. Once disclosed the trade secret is lost as such and can
only be protected under one of the following laws. The application of trade secret law is very important in the
computer field, where even a slight head start in the development of software or hardware can provide a
significant competitive advantage.
Sabotage
The computer can be the object of attack in computer crimes such as the unauthorized use of computer
facilities, alternation or destruction of information, data file sabotage and vandalism against a computer
system. Computers have been shot, stabbed, short-circuited and bombed.
WAYS IN WHICH PIRACY IS ADDRESSED IN SOUTH AFRICA-CASE STUDY
Software Piracy Rife in South Africa
Pirated computer software is currently costing legal resellers and the local computer industry millions of rands
a month through lost revenues – and leaving thousands of unsuspecting computer owners up the creek
without support.
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Microsoft South Africa’s Charl Everton says her company alone is currently busy investigating more than 60
computer dealers suspected of selling fake or illegally licensed software – and that’s “just the tip of the
iceberg,” she says.
Overall, the trade in counterfeit goods is costing South Africa millions of rands annually in lost revenues, says
Mandla Mnyatheli, chief director of company and IP enforcement with the Department of Trade and Industry
(DTI).
“The exact impact of counterfeiting is hard to quantify, but there’s no doubt this trend has been increasing.
We have an urgent challenge in South Africa to stem this tide,” said Mnyatheli.
The Deputy Minister of Trade and Industry, Ms Tobias-Pokolo, is spearheading a nationwide campaign to raise
awareness of the scourges of piracy and counterfeiting, says Mnyatheli. All relevant enforcement agencies and
government departments in the security cluster will be part of this campaign.
The biggest problem with piracy, though, says Ms Everton, is that there is growing evidence that many local
criminal organisations are now involved in counterfeiting to some degree – which effectively means that
people who buy pirated goods are funding organised crime.
“All indications are that local criminal syndicates are following the global trend of branching out into
counterfeit software as a low-risk, high-profit sideline to other activities like hijacking and drug trafficking,” she
said.
Ms Everton was speaking as part of Microsoft’s worldwide ‘Consumer Action Day’ – a drive across 70 countries
to protect consumers and increase awareness of the risks of counterfeit software.
She says that every year, thousands of consumers and businesses buy counterfeit products that either don’t
work or actually harm the users by opening the door to online spam, virus and fraud networks. Microsoft’s
tests of software on some popular sites have shown that up to 35 percent of counterfeit software contains
harmful code.
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Globally, Microsoft has had more than 300 000 voluntary reports in the past two years from people who
unknowingly purchased counterfeit software that was often riddled with viruses or malware. Victims risk
losing personal information, having their identities stolen, and wasting valuable time and money.
“Consumers everywhere are coming to us with complaints about counterfeit software,” said Dale Waterman,
Microsoft’s Corporate Attorney for Anti-Piracy for the Middle East and Africa region. “They’re asking what they
can do to protect themselves. They want facts. And they want industry and government to stand up and take
action. Our commitment is to do everything we can to help them.”
According to data released by Microsoft this week, based on the results of a broad consumer survey which
asked more than 38,000 men and women in 20 countries around the world about their perceptions of
counterfeit software, 80 percent of consumers polled worldwide have a range of concerns about the risks of
using counterfeit software, and 70 percent said they believe genuine software is more secure, more stable and
is easier to keep up-to-date.
But the presence of high-quality fakes in the market today makes distinguishing counterfeit from genuine a
continuing challenge for consumers. The majority of those polled — 73 percent — say they would choose
genuine software given the choice, and more than two-thirds believe that consumers in general have to be on
the lookout or they could mistakenly buy counterfeit software.
As part of its awareness activities, Microsoft this month launched its “Don’t Fake It” campaign, which drives
people to the www.dontfakeit.co.za website. There, they get to be part of a music video with popular local
band Prime Circle.
There has been no shortage of anti-piracy action by authorities this year. In the past month alone, there have
been more than 20 enforcement actions involving the SA Police Services, the DTi or Microsoft’s attorneys
against resellers offering pirated software in Bloemfontein and Gauteng. Numerous hard drives used to make
counterfeit copies of popular software suites were seized in the raids.
Several of the dealers have been served with ‘cease and desist’ letters by Microsoft’s attorney’s around the
sale of counterfeit software and PCs loaded with illegal software.
One of the men netted in the swoop, a prominent Bloemfontein IT consultant, has been charged with offences
under the Copyright Goods Act after being caught selling high-quality counterfeit software and product keys
on a popular online site.
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Self-check

● 1. The description confirms that the computer industry supports
equality of opportunity.
● 2. The description confirms the understanding that the computer

industry is against computer software piracy.
● 3. The description identifies ways in which piracy is addressed in

South Africa.
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Demonstrate an understanding of estimating
a unit of work and the implications of late
delivery (114059)
Unit Std # 114059
NQF Level 4
Notional hours 50
Credit(s) 5

48872- 131 CREDITS
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Table of contents
Specific Outcome 1 : Demonstrate the ability to interpret given cost/benefit analysis

documentation.
● 1. The demonstration identifies different parts of a cost/benefit analysis.

● 2. The demonstration explains the purpose of the different parts of a cost/benefit analysis.
Specific Outcome 2 : Prepare a time estimate for an element of work.

● 1. The time estimate is based on a breakdown of the component in the logical parts for
estimating.
● 2. The time estimate is based on an understanding that the estimate should include the
implementation/testing of interfaces to other components where applicable.
Specific Outcome 3 : Prepare a cost estimate for an element of work.

● 1. The cost estimate is based on a breakdown of the component in the logical parts for
estimating.
● 2. The cost estimate is based on an understanding that the estimate should include the
● 3. The cost estimate demonstrates an understanding that being assisted by other resources or
people could escalate the costs
● Specific Outcome 4 : Prepare a cost estimate for an element of work
● 1. The demonstration confirms the understanding that an element delivered is often a subset of
a bigger deliverable.
● 2. The demonstration explains the affect of late delivery on other related components.
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spread:
TIMEFRAME


Name:
Standard Title:

programme to your
learners:
specific programme:

Requirements:
10. Timeframe for Training: Theory content –Role play, Simulation, Group work, Pair work = 12hrs.
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The Learner guide
At the end of this unit standard you will be able to Demonstrate an understanding of
estimating a unit of work and the implications of late delivery
Purpose:
•To provide a conceptual knowledge of the areas covered
For those working in or entering the workplace in the area of systems development
Specific outcome:
● 1. Demonstrate the ability to interpret given cost/benefit analysis documentation

● 2. Prepare a time estimate for an element of work
● 3. Prepare a cost estimate for an element of work
● 4. Demonstrate an understanding of the affect of late delivery of an element of work
● Demonstrate an understanding of fundamental mathematics (at least NQF level 3)

● Demonstrate PC competency skills (End-User Computing unit Standards, at least up
to NQF level 3.)
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Equipment needed:
● Visual aids
● White board
● Flip chart
● Equipment
● Training venue
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Assessments:
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SPECIFIC OUTCOME 1:
Demonstrate the ability to interpret given cost/benefit analysis

documentation.
ASSESSMENT CRITERIA
❖ 1. The demonstration identifies different parts of a cost/benefit analysis.
❖ 2. The demonstration explains the purpose of the different parts of a cost/benefit analysis.
1.1 What is cost benefit analysis?
Cost benefit analysis (CBA) is a technique for assessing the monetary social costs and benefits of a capital
investment project over a given time period. The principles of cost-benefit analysis (CBA) are simple:
● Appraisal of a project: It is an economic technique for project appraisal, widely used in business as well as
government spending projects (for example should a business invest in a new information system)
● Incorporates externalities into the equation: It can, if required, include wider

social/environmental impacts as well as ‘private’ economic costs and benefits so that externalities are
incorporated into the decision process. In this way, CBA can be used to estimate the social welfare effects
of an investment
● Time matters! CBA can take account of the economics of time – known as discounting. This is important
when looking at environmental impacts of a project in the years ahead
1.2 Cost Benefit Analysis Components
1. General description of the project
2. List of alternative scenarios
3. Identify Benefits and Costs
4. Schedule Benefits and Costs
5. Comparison of alternatives
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6. Sensitivity Analysis
A CBA application includes the following stages:
1. General description of the project: This part includes an explanation on the environment under which
each analysis is done such as the objectives, the assumptions, the project/decision life etc.
2. List of alternative scenarios: In order to decide which is the best option in the CBA we have to consider
the costs and the benefits for each of these options. This section lists the options considered during the
analysis.
3. Identify Benefits and Costs: In this part, the application lists the exact benefits and costs met in each of
the alternative scenarios. The application divides these into two kinds: The ones that are relatively
straightforward to be measured and the ones that are not very easy to be measured. Many factors must
be considered during the process of estimating the costs associated with competing alternatives in a CBA.
o All costs for the full system life cycle for each competing alternative must be included. The
following factors must be addressed: Activities and Resources, Cost Categories, Personnel Costs,
Direct and Indirect Costs (Overhead), Depreciation, and Annual Costs.
o Benefits are the services, capabilities, and qualities of each alternative system, and can be viewed
as the return from an investment. To estimate benefits, first identify the benefits for both the
customers and the organization that provides the service(s) to the customers. Benefits to
customers are improvements to the current IT services and/or the addition of new services.
Some possible benefits for the servicing organization are productivity gains, staffing reductions,
or improved organizational effectiveness. After the benefits are identified, the user has to
establish performance measures for each benefit. The final step is to estimate the value of the
benefits. If a benefit cannot reasonably be assigned a monetary value, it should be valued using a
more subjective, qualitative rating system (which assigns relative numerical values for the
competing alternatives). All benefits for the full system life cycle for each competing alternative
must be included.
4. Schedule Benefits and Costs: For each of the alternatives defined in step 2, the user now identifies the
value of each benefit and cost for each year through the life cycle of the decision beginning from Year 0,
which is the start of the decision life. After the costs and benefits for each year of the system life cycle
have been estimated, convert them to a common unit of measurement to properly compare competing
alternatives. That is accomplished by discounting future Euro values, which transforms future benefits and
costs to their "present value." The present value (also referred to as the discounted value) of a future
amount is calculated with the following formula = F (1/(1+I)n), where P = Present Value, F = Future Value, I
= Interest Rate, and n = number of years.
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5. Comparison of alternatives: In this part the application compares the alternative solutions. The
comparison is illustrated with tables and graphs so as to facilitate decision making. When the costs and
benefits for each competing alternative have been discounted, compare and rank the discounted net
value (discounted benefit minus discounted cost) of the competing alternatives. When the alternative
with the lowest discounted cost provides the highest discounted benefits, it is clearly the best alternative.
6. Sensitivity Analysis: In this part the application helps the user define how sensitive the results are to
changes in the costs and benefits. This sensitivity involves costs and benefits whose definition is not
straightforward or is not easy to be exactly defined. Sensitivity analysis tests the sensitivity and reliability
of the results obtained from the cost-benefit analysis. Since the CBA is normally the key document in the
investment review process, reviewers want assurance that the analysis is reliable. Sensitivity analysis
identifies those input parameters that have the greatest influence on the outcome, repeats the analysis
with different input parameter values, and evaluates the results to determine which, if any, input
parameters are sensitive. If a relatively small change in the value of an input parameter changes the
alternative selected, then the analysis is considered to be sensitive to that parameter. If the value of a
parameter has to be doubled before there is a change in the selected alternative, the analysis is not
considered to be sensitive to that parameter. The estimates for sensitive input parameters should be re-
examined to ensure that they are as accurate as possible.
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Prepare a time estimate for an element of work.
ASSESSMENT CRITERIA
❖ 1. The time estimate is based on a breakdown of the component in the logical parts for estimating.
❖ 2. The time estimate is based on an understanding that the estimate should include the
2.1 Why Estimate Time Accurately?
Accurate time estimation is a crucial skill in project management. Without it, you won't know how long your
project will take, and you won't be able to get commitment from the people who need to sign it off.
Even more importantly for your career, sponsors often judge whether a project has succeeded or failed
depending on whether it has been delivered on time and on budget. To have a chance of being successful as a
project manager, you need to be able to negotiate sensible budgets and achievable deadlines.
2.2 How to Estimate Time Accurately
Use these steps to make accurate time estimates:
Step 1: Understand What's Required
Start by identifying all of the work that needs to be done within the project. Use tools such as Business
Requirements Analysis , Work Breakdown Structures , Gap Analysis and Drill-Down to help you do this in
sufficient detail.
As part of this, make sure that you allow time for meetings, reporting, communications, testing and other
activities that are critical to the project's success. Step 2: Order These Activities
Now, list all of the activities you identified in the order in which they need to happen.
At this stage, you don't need to add in how long you think activities are going to take. However, you might
want to note any important deadlines. For example, you might need to get work by the finance department
finished before it starts work on "Year End."
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Step 3: Decide Who You Need to Involve
You can do the estimates yourself, brainstorm them as a group, or ask others to contribute.
Where you can, get the help of the people who will actually do the work, as they are likely to have prior
experience to draw upon. By involving them, they'll also take on greater ownership of the time estimates they
come up with, and they'll work harder to meet them.
Tip:
If you involve others, this is a good time to confirm your assumptions with them.
Step 4: Make Your Estimates
You're now ready to make your estimates. We've outlined a variety of methods below to help you do this.
Whichever methods you choose, bear these basic rules in mind:
● To begin with, estimate the time needed for each task rather than for the project as a whole.
● The level of detail you need to go into depends on the circumstances. For example, you may only
need a rough outline of time estimates for future project phases, but you'll probably need detailed
estimates for the phase ahead.
● List all of the assumptions, exclusions and constraints that are relevant; and note any data sources
that you rely on. This will help you when your estimates are questioned, and will also help you
identify any risk areas if circumstances change.
● Assume that your resources will only be productive for 80 percent of the time. Build in time for
unexpected events such as sickness, supply problems, equipment failure, accidents and emergencies,
problem solving, and meetings.
● If some people are only working "part-time" on your project, bear in mind that they may lose time as
they switch between their various roles.
● Remember that people are often overly optimistic, and may significantly underestimate the amount
of time that it will take for them to complete tasks.
Tip:
The most reliable estimates are those that you have arranged to be challenged. This helps you identify any
assumptions and biases that aren't valid.
You can ask team members, other managers, or co-workers to challenge your time estimates.
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2.3 Methods for Estimating Time
We'll now look at different approaches that you can use to estimate time. You'll probably find it most useful to
use a mixture of these techniques.
● Bottom-Up Estimating
Bottom-up estimating allows you to create an estimate for the project as a whole. To analyze from the
"bottom up," break larger tasks down into detailed tasks, and then estimate the time needed to complete
each one.
Because you're considering each task incrementally, your estimate of the time required for each task is likely
to be more accurate. You can then add up the total amount of time needed to complete the plan.
Tip 1:
How much detail you go into depends on the situation. However, the more detail you go into, the more
accurate you'll be.
If you don't know how far to go, consider breaking work down into chunks that one person can complete in
half a day, for example. Sure, this is a bit circular, but it gives you an idea of the level of detail you should aim
for.
Tip 2:
Yes, this does take a lot of work, however, this work will pay off later in the project. Just make sure that you
leave plenty of time for it in the project's Design Phase.
● Top-Down Estimating
In top-down analysis, you develop an overview of the expected timeline first, using past projects or previous
experience as a guide.
It's often helpful to compare top-down estimates against your bottom-up estimates, to ensure accuracy.
Note:
Don't assume that the bottom-up estimates are wrong if they differ widely from the top-down ones. In fact,
it's more likely that the reverse is true.
Instead, use the top-down estimates to challenge the validity of the bottom-up estimates, and to refine them
as appropriate.
● Comparative Estimating
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With comparative estimating, you look at the time it took to do similar tasks, on other projects.
● Parametric Estimating
With this method, you estimate the time required for one deliverable; and then multiply it by the number of
deliverables required.
For example, if you need to create pages for a website, you'd estimate how much time it would take to do one
page, and you'd then multiply this time by the total number of pages to be produced
● Three-Point Estimating
To build in a cushion for uncertainty, you can do three estimates – one for the best case, another for the worst
case, and a final one for the most likely case.
Although this approach requires additional effort to create three separate estimates, it allows you to set more
reasonable expectations, based on a more realistic estimate of outcomes.
Tip:
In the early stages of project planning, you often won't know who will do each task – this can influence how
long the task will take. For example, an experienced programmer should be able to develop a software module
much more quickly than someone less experienced.
You can build this into your estimates by giving best, worst, and most likely estimates, stating the basis for
each view.
2.4 Preparing Your Schedule
Once you've estimated the time needed for each task, you can prepare your project schedule . Add your
estimates to the draft activity list that you produced in the second step, above.
You can then create a Gantt Chart to schedule activities and assign resources to your project; and to finalize
milestones and deadlines.
Tip:
If your project is complex, you might find that identifying the critical path on your plan is helpful. This will
help you highlight the tasks that cannot be delayed if you're going to hit your deadline.
Key Points
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You need to estimate time accurately if you're going to deliver your project on time and on budget. Without
this skill, you won't know how long your project will take, and you won't be able to get commitment from the
people required to help you achieve your objective.
More than this, you risk agreeing to impossibly short deadlines, with all of the stress, pain, and loss of
credibility associated with this.
To estimate time effectively, follow this four-step process:
1. Understand what's required.
2. Prioritize activities and tasks.
3. Decide who you need to involve.
4. Do your estimates.
Use a variety of estimating methods to get the most accurate time estimates.
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SPECIFIC OUTCOME 3:
Prepare a cost estimate for an element of work.
ASSESSMENT CRITERIA
❖ 1. The cost estimate is based on a breakdown of the component in the logical parts for estimating.
❖ 2. The cost estimate is based on an understanding that the estimate should include the
❖ 3. The cost estimate demonstrates an understanding that being assisted by other resources or people
could escalate the costs.
3.1 Estimation involves answering the following questions:
1. How much effort is required to complete each activity?

2. How much calendar time is needed to complete each activity?
3. What is the total cost of each activity?
Project cost estimation and project scheduling are normally carried out together. The costs of development
are primarily the costs of the effort involved, so the effort computation is used in both the cost and the
schedule estimate. However, you may have to do some cost estimation before detailed schedules are drawn
up. These initial estimates may be used to establish a budget for the project or to set a price for the software
for a customer. There are three parameters involved in computing the total cost of a software development
project:
• Hardware and software costs including maintenance

• Travel and training costs
• Effort costs (the costs of paying software engineers).
For most projects, the dominant cost is the effort cost. Computers that are powerful enough for software
development are relatively cheap. Although extensive travel costs may be needed when a project is developed
at different sites, the travel costs are usually a small fraction of the effort costs. Furthermore, using electronic
communications systems such as e-mail, shared web sites and videoconferencing can significantly reduce the
travel required. Electronic conferencing also means that travelling time is reduced and time can be used more
productively in software development. Effort costs are not just the salaries of the software engineers who are
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involved in the project. Organisations compute effort costs in terms of overhead costs where they take the
total cost of running the organisation and divide this by the number of productive staff. Therefore, the
following costs are all part of the total effort cost:
1. Costs of providing, heating and lighting office space

2. Costs of support staff such as accountants, administrators, system managers, cleaners and technicians
3. Costs of networking and communications
4. Costs of central facilities such as a library or recreational facilities
5. Costs of Social Security and employee benefits such as pensions and health insurance.
However, for any software problem, there are many different solutions, each of which has different attributes.
One solution may execute more efficiently while another may be more readable and easier to maintain. When
solutions with different attributes are produced, comparing their production rates is not really meaningful.
Nevertheless, as a project manager, you may be faced with the problem of estimating the productivity of
software engineers. You may need these productivity estimates to help define the project cost or schedule, to
inform investment decisions or to assess whether process or technology improvements are effective.
Productivity estimates are usually based on measuring attributes of the software and dividing this by the total
effort required for development. There are two types of metric that have been used:
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1. Size-related metrics. These are related to the size of some output from an activity. The most commonly
used size-related metric is lines of delivered source code. Other metrics that may be used are the number of
delivered object code instructions or the number of pages of system documentation.
2. Function-related metrics. These are related to the overall functionality of the delivered software.
Productivity is expressed in terms of the amount of useful functionality produced in some given time. Function
points and object points are the best-known metrics of this type.
Estimation techniques
There is no simple way to make an accurate estimate of the effort required to develop a software system. You
may have to make initial estimates on the basis of a high- level user requirements definition. The software may
have to run on unfamiliar computers or use new development technology. The people involved in the project
and their skills will probably not be known. All of these mean that it is impossible to estimate system
development costs accurately at an early stage in a project. Furthermore, there is a fundamental difficulty in
assessing the accuracy of different approaches to cost-estimation techniques. Project cost estimates are often
self- fulfilling. The estimate is used to define the project budget, and the product is adjusted so that the budget
figure is realised. A controlled experiment would not reveal the cost estimate to the project manager. The
actual costs would then be compared with the estimated project costs. However, such an experiment is
probably impossible because of the high costs involved and the number of variables that cannot be controlled.
Nevertheless, organisations need to make software effort and cost estimates.
Some examples of the changes that may affect estimates based on experience include:
1. Distributed object systems rather than mainframe-based systems

2. Use of web services
3. Use of ERP or database-centred systems
4. Use of off-the-shelf software rather than original system development
5. Development for and with reuse rather than new development of all parts of a system
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If project managers have not worked with these techniques, their previous experience may not help them
estimate software project costs. This makes it more difficult for them to produce accurate costs and schedule
estimates. A top-down approach starts at the system level. You start by examining the overall functionality of
the product and how that functionality is provided by interacting sub-functions. The costs of system-level
activities such as integration, configuration management and documentation are taken into account. The
bottom-up approach, by contrast, starts at the component level. The system is decomposed into components,
and you estimate the effort required to develop each of these components. You then add these component
costs to compute the effort required for the whole system development.
The disadvantages of the top-down approach are the advantages of the bottom-up approach and vice versa.
Top-down estimation can underestimate the costs of solving difficult technical problems associated with
specific components such as interfaces to nonstandard hardware. There is no detailed justification of the
estimate that is produced. By contrast, bottom-up estimation produces such a justification and con- siders
each component. However, this approach is more likely to underestimate the costs of system activities such as
integration. Bottom-up estimation is also more expensive. There must be an initial system design to identify
the components to be costed.
Each estimation technique has its own strengths and weaknesses. Each uses different information about the
project and the development team, so if you use a single model and this information is not accurate, your final
estimate will be wrong. For large projects, therefore, you should use several cost estimation techniques and
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compare their results. If these predict radically different costs, you probably do not have enough information
about the product or the development process. You should look for more information about the product,
process or team and repeat the costing process until the estimates converge.
These estimation techniques are applicable where a requirements document for the system has been
produced. This should define all users and system requirements. You can therefore make a reasonable
estimate of the system functionality that is to be developed. In general, large systems engineering projects will
have such a requirements document. However, in many cases, the costs of many projects must be estimated
using only incomplete user requirements for the system. This means that the estimators have very little
information with which to work. Requirements analysis and specification is expensive, and the managers in a
company may need an initial cost estimate for the system before they can have a budget approved to develop
more detailed requirements or a system prototype.
Under these circumstances, “pricing to win” is a commonly used strategy. The notion of pricing to win may
seem unethical and unbusinesslike. However, it does have some advantages. A project cost is agreed on the
basis of an outline proposal. Negotiations then take place between client and customer to establish the
detailed project specification. This specification is constrained by the agreed cost. The buyer and seller
must agree on what is acceptable system functionality. The fixed factor in many projects is not the project
requirements but the cost. The requirements may be changed so that the cost is not exceeded.
Project duration and staffing

As well as estimating the effort required to develop a software system and the overall project costs, project
managers must also estimate how long the software will take to develop and when staff will be needed to
work on the project. The development time for the project is called the project schedule. Increasingly,
organisations are demanding shorter development schedules so that their products can be brought to market
before their competitor’s. The relationship between the number of staff working on a project, the total effort
required and the development time is not linear. As the number of staff increases, more effort may be needed.
The reason for this is that people spend more time communicating and defining interfaces between the parts
of the system developed by other people. Doubling the number of staff (for example) therefore does not mean
that the duration of the project will be halved.
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SPECIFIC OUTCOME 4:
Demonstrate an understanding of the effect of late delivery of an
element of work.
ASSESSMENT CRITERIA
❖ 1. The demonstration confirms the understanding that an element delivered is often a subset of a bigger
deliverable.
❖ 2. The demonstration explains the effect of late delivery on other related components.
4.1 Does late delivery affect our standing in any way?
It depends on the situation. Late deliveries do factor into your eligibility and status for some features. How
your buyer rates you has more weight than when you deliver. If you deliver late, but in the end your buyer is
happy with your work and leaves you positive feedback that will count more than the fact that it was delivered
late. In general it is important to coordinate with your buyer because once you're late, the buyer is free to
cancel or leave negative feedback which can negatively affect your status and ratings.
4.2 Delivery Performance
Monitoring Performance
Performance measures provide a management framework, facilitate communication, direct behaviours within
the organisation, foster improvement and assess positioning and operational capacity. There are a great
number of indicators for measuring the quality of services along the supply chain. These include time, scope,
service and cost. No single indicator allows measuring all aspects of supply chain management. They should be
interpreted and used in combination.
Performance of the supply chain should be measured regularly, consistently and systematically rather than
waiting until services have deteriorated below acceptable levels. Monitoring should be a key element of
running a logistics service. Actual performance should be compared with the goals and objectives established
for the program, which defines the level of service logistics tries to achieve.
Some aspects to monitor in logistics
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Supply chain response/lead time
Lead time is the time between placing an order and receiving the goods or service. Delivery too early or too
late may also incur unnecessary costs. Delivery too early can mean goods have to be stored until needed and
will incur costs whilst being stored in warehouses. Delivery too late can mean the costs of setting up facilities,
for example feeding stations and having people ready to distribute goods, is wasted because the goods have
not been delivered. It can cause the organisation to incur additional transport costs, for example,
aircraft/helicopters have to be used to move the goods more quickly along the next part of the supply chain. In
disaster/emergency relief situations, timing of delivery can have a serious impact on the relief operation and
on the beneficiaries.
Information on status of orders
The internal performance of the logistics function is dependent on the efficiency and effectiveness of each of
the logistics components. For example, one performance indicator for procurement, would be its ability to
disseminate information on the number of orders issued. This will enable the warehouse to provision for
storage space. Unexpected deliveries can disrupt operations and put the stock at risk of being stolen when left
in the open.
Efficiency
The measurement of efficiency is sometimes relative and dependant on what an entity defines as efficiency. In
this context, efficiency is the satisfactory delivery of a logistics service that enables the end user to fulfil the
intended purpose of the request. A good example is the request for malaria prevention medication ordered to
be pre-positioned before a malaria season. A late delivery would mean higher incidents of malaria and an
increase in the request for malaria treatment rather than malaria prevention drug.
Total supply chain costs
The total cost concept focuses on reducing the total cost of logistics rather than the cost of each activity. An
organisation should monitor the cost reduction across the board and evaluate the impact on each of the
logistics components. For example, purchasing in bulk may reduce the cost of the product but at the same
time increase the stock holding costs.
Inventory costs
Inventory carrying costs include:
● inventory service costs - insurance and taxes;
● storage space costs - leasing costs or land rates;
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● inventory risk costs - these are costs related to pilferage, the risk of goods being kept so long that they
become obsolete, the risk of damage, etc; and
● carrying costs - the cost of storing - labour, depreciation and other overheads.
Inventory value
The concept of value has shifted. In recent years the concept of value has become accepted as the difference
between the value a customer attributes to a product or service and the cost of acquiring value. Excessive
stock holding is not only a risk in emergencies in the event of an evacuation but also not cost effective when
millions are tied up in dormant stocks that may not all be utilised within reasonable time, or used at all due to
rapidly changing needs. Monitoring and collaborating closely with programs on distribution rates would help in
balancing the benefits.
Order management costs
Order management costs include those for issuing and closing orders, the related handling costs, and the
associated communications costs. It would be prudent to benchmark these and keep them under close
monitoring to ensure that service delivery is cost effective.
Cost of waste
The cost of waste covers the cost of disposing of packaging and damaged or unserviceable equipment. Waste
disposal costs have sharply increased due to environmental impacts. .
Reporting performance
Customers provide feedback on the performance of procurement. This feedback should be both qualitative
and quantitative. Qualitative - how they felt about the service they were given and how helpful people in
logistics were. Quantitative - is objective and measurable. This can be achieved by setting and agreeing service
standards with customers, for example the time it will take for a requisition to be processed. The customer can
provide how well this was met. Information and data can be recorded and kept within logistics. The analysis of
the information will provide feedback on performance. It is possible to measure performance in carrying out
the logistics process particularly if there are standards set.
For example:
● documents sent to accounts in time;
● goods delivered on the specified date or within the specified period of time;
● number of times a vendor has delivered the correct goods or how many times goods have been rejected;
and
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● number of requests rejected by procurement due to poor specifications.
In an emergency situation performance monitoring is a very important aspect and should be instantaneous
with immediate remedial measures taken. The reporting back should be more structured and targeted to get
immediate attention and action taken.
Some of the key indicators would be:
● on time delivery;
● delivery of exact specification requested;
● reliable transport services; and
● delivery of exact quantities requested.
Key Performance Indicators management tools
Key Performance Indicators (KPIs) can be defined as specific metrics used to monitor performance on an on
going basis. KPIs can only be useful if the metrics selected are targeted to achieving the organisations logistics
objectives. Some examples of KPIs are:
● percentage of Items returned/rejected;
● total dollar value of damaged/lost goods;
● percentage of on-time deliveries;
● inventory levels vs. forecasted need; and
● field distribution performance.
My notes
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Explain the principles of business and the
role of information technology (114050)
Unit Std # 114050

NQF Level 5
Notional hours 40
Credit(s) 4
Qualification National Certificate: Business Analysis Support Practice LEVEL 5- SAQA-
63769-138 CREDITS
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The Learner guide
At the end of this unit standard you will be able to Explain the principles of business and
the role of information technology
Purpose:
This unit standard is intended:
To provide conceptual knowledge of the areas covered
For those working in, or entering the workplace in the area of Information Technology
As additional knowledge for those wanting to understand the areas covered
Specific outcome:
● Describe fundamental business concepts

● Describe systems theory with respect to information systems
● Explain how IT can be used in business
● Explain the relationship between a business and its data requirements
● The credit value of this unit is based on a person having the prior knowledge and
skills to:
● Demonstrate an understanding of fundamental Communication Skills at NQF Level 4
● Demonstrate an understanding of fundamental Mathematics (at least NQF Level 3)
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Equipment needed:
● Visual aids
● White board
● Flip chart
● Equipment
● Training venue
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Assessments:
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Table of contents
Specific Outcome 1 : Describe fundamental business concepts.
● 1. The description distinguishes types of business organisations.

● 2. The description outlines the common objectives within which businesses operate.
● 3. The description outlines the environment within which businesses operate..
Specific Outcome 2 : Describe systems theory with respect to information systems.

● 1. The description defines the concept of a system.
● 2. The description identifies theoretical components of a system.
● 3. The description distinguishes types of information systems.
Specific Outcome 3 : Explain how IT can be used in business.

● 1. The explanation identifies the purpose of computer applications in business.
● 2. The explanation outlines the functions of computer applications in business.
● 3. The explanation illustrates the effects of IT on business systems.
Specific Outcome 4 : Explain the relationship between a business and its information needs.
● 1. The explanation distinguishes data and information.
● 2. The explanation outlines the role of information in decision making.
● 3. The explanation identifies the main threats to data security and integrity.
● 4. The explanation identifies the sub-systems that make up a business and the information
needs associated with each sub-system.
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SPECIFIC OUTCOME 1:
Describe fundamental business concepts.
ASSESSMENT CRITERIA
❖ 1. The description distinguishes types of business organisations.

❖ 2. The description outlines the common objectives within which businesses operate.
❖ 3. The description outlines the environment within which businesses operate..
1.1 TYPES OF BUSINESS ORGANISATIONS.
Forms of Business Organization
From a legal point of view, there are four types of businesses:
1. Sole proprietorships;
2. Partnerships;
3. Corporations; and
4. Co-operatives.
A brief description of each type is followed by a summary of their advantages and disadvantages.
Sole Proprietorships
This is the simplest way to set up a business. A sole proprietor is fully responsible for all debts and obligations
related to his or her business. A creditor with a claim against a sole proprietor has a right against all of his or
her assets, whether business or personal. This is known as unlimited liability.
This type of business comes under provincial jurisdiction. If the proprietor chooses to carry on a business
under a name other than his/her own, he/she must register with the province. Your business name
registration, or renewal of registration, will be valid for a certain number of years. If a sole proprietor
establishes a business in his/her own name, without adding any other words, it is not necessary to register the
business.
Partnerships
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A partnership is an agreement in which two or more persons combine their resources in a business. In order to
establish the terms of the business and to protect partners/shareholders in the event of disagreement or
dissolution of the business, a partnership/shareholders agreement should be drawn up with the assistance of a
lawyer. Partners share in the profits according to the terms of their agreement.
General Partnership
All members share the management of the business and each is personally liable for all the debts and
obligations of the business. This means that each partner is responsible for and must assume the
consequences of the actions of the other partner(s).
Limited Partnership
Some members are general partners who control and manage the business and may be entitled to a greater
share of the profits, while other partners are limited and contribute only capital. Limited partners take no part
in control or management and are liable for debts to a specified extent only. A legal document, outlining
specific requirements, must be drawn up for a limited partnership.
Corporations
A corporation is a legal entity that is separate from its owners, the shareholders. No shareholder of a
corporation is personally liable for the debts, obligations or acts of the corporation. This type of business can
be incorporated at either the federal or provincial level.
A corporation is identified by the terms "Limited", "Ltd.", "Incorporated", "Inc.", "Corporation", or "Corp.".
Whatever the term, it must appear with the corporate name on all documents, stationery, and so on, as it
appears on the incorporation document.
Private Corporation
A private corporation can be formed by one or more people. A majority of its directors must be Canadian
residents. If none of the directors reside in the province in which it does business, the corporation must
appoint a Power of Attorney who reside in the province. A private corporation cannot sell shares or securities
to the general public.
Public Corporation
A "public corporation" is one that issues securities for public distribution. Besides filing incorporation
documents, a public corporation must file a prospectus with the appropriate Securities Commission in the
province, must employ outside auditors and must distribute semi-annual financial statements.
Cooperatives
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A co-operative is a corporation organized and controlled by its members, who pool resources to provide
themselves and their patrons with goods, services, or other benefits. A cooperative business structure
provides:
● democratic control based on one member one vote;
● open and voluntary membership;
● patronage dividends.
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF EACH FORM OF BUSINESS ORGANIZATION
Sole Proprietorship
Advantages Disadvantages
● relatively low start-up costs; ● unlimited liability;
● greatest freedom from regulation; ● lack of continuity in business organization in

absence of owner;
● owner in direct control of decision
making; ● difficulty raising capital.
● minimal working capital required;
● tax advantages to owner;
● all profits to owner.
Partnership
● ease of formation; ● unlimited liability;
● relatively low start-up costs; ● lack of continuity;
● additional sources of investment capital; ● divided authority;
● possible tax advantages; ● difficulty raising additional capital;
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● limited regulation; ● hard to find suitable partners;
● broader management base. ● possible development of conflict between

partners.
Corporation
● limited liability; ● closely regulated;
● specialized management; ● most expensive form to organize;
● ownership is transferable; ● charter restrictions;
● continuous existence; ● extensive record keeping necessary;
● separate legal entity; ● double taxation of dividends;
● possible tax advantage; ● possible development of conflict between

shareholders and executives.
● easier to raise capital.
Co-operatives
● owned and controlled by members; ● possibility development of conflict between

members;
● democratic control (i.e. one member,
one vote); ● longer decision-making process;
● limited liability; ● participation of members required for success;
● profit distribution (surplus earnings) to ● extensive record keeping necessary;

members in proportion to use of service;
● less incentive to invest additional capital.
surplus may be allocated in shares or
cash.
1.2 Common objectives within which businesses operate.
Increase Market Share
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In order to grow a business needs to increase their share of competitive markets. Marketing plans start with
the overall strategic business plan of a company, but explain further how specific aims will be carried out.
Marketing plans address this through defining product or service offerings, researching target markets,
analysis of competition, then strategically placing, pricing and promoting the company offering.
Strengthening Financial Resources
Included in the growth objectives of an organization is the availability of capital resources to invest in future
expansion projects. If a company's financial resources are strong, capital could conceivably come from cash
reserves. For many organizations, strengthening financial resources means to build cash flow or increase
assets in order to attract investors and court creditors to fund expansion.
Physical Resources
To companies that produce tangible products, physical resources could mean the plant, machinery and other
equipment integral to producing a product. Service businesses could define physical resources as office space
or computer equipment to enhance customer service and other business processes. In either respect, the goal
of increasing physical resources deals with using equipment or machinery to better produce a product, or offer
a service.
Productivity
Productivity for any organization means fine tuning a business process to achieve the best result for a
customer while increasing profit. A manufacturing organization that fine tunes a process could reduce waste,
reduce production time, and in the end, make a better product that gets to the customer faster. A service
business that changes the way customers are handled can decrease call times and increase customer
satisfaction and loyalty.
Innovation
Innovation is a goal that helps a business stay ahead of the competition. Placing resources into research and
development to create a new product, or into offering a better service, can pay dividends by entering a new
and unique product or service into the marketplace.
Action Planning
A business cannot move forward without defining specific action steps to take them toward their goals and
identified business objectives. Action planning involves identifying the top objectives for an organization, then
developing SMART goals -- goals are specific, measurable, achievable, realistic and timely. By setting and
meeting SMART goals, an organization will meet specific business objectives along the way.
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1.3 Environment within which businesses operate..
Business Environment
Environment refers to all external forces, which have a bearing on the functioning of business. Environment
factors “are largely if not totally, external and beyond the control of individual industrial enterprises and their
managements. The business environment poses threats to a firm or offers immense opportunities for
potential market exploitation. Environmental business solutions will give way to the environmental business
opportunities.
A. Internal environment
Internal environment includes all those factors which influence business and which are present within the
business itself. These factors are usually under the control of business. The study of internal factors is really
important for the study of internal environment. These factors are:
(i) Objectives of Business, (ii) Policies of Business, (iii) Production Capacity, (iv) Production Methods, (v)
Management Information System, (vi) Participation in Management, (vii) Composition of Board of Directors,
(viii) Managerial Attitude, (ix) Organisational Structure, (x) Features of Human Resource, etc.
Note:
All the above factors do influence the decisions of business, but since all these factors are usually under the
control of business, they cannot be wholly included in the business environment.
B. External Environment
External environment includes all those factors which influence business and exist outside the business.
Business has no control over these factors. The information about these factors is important for the study of
the external environment.
Some of these factors are those with which a particular company has very close relationship. However, there
are some other factors which influence the entire business community.
Micro environment means that environment which includes those factors with which business is closely
related. These factors influence every industrial unit differently. These factors are as under:
(i) Customers (ii) Suppliers (iii) Competitors (iv) Public (v) Marketing Intermediaries.
(i) Customers:
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Customers of an industrial unit can be of different types. They include household, government, industry,
commercial enterprises, etc. The number of different types of customers highly influences a firm.
For example, suppose a firm supplies goods only to the government. It means that firm has only one customer.
If because of some reason their relations get soured, the supply of goods will stop and in that case the closure
of that firm is certain.
This clearly indicates that the customers do influence business. Therefore, a firm should make efforts to have
different kinds of customers,
(ii) Suppliers:
Like the customers, the suppliers also influence business. If a business has only one supplier and he gets
annoyed because of some reason, the supply of goods can be stopped and the very existence of the business
can be threatened or endangered. Hence, efforts should be made to have various suppliers.
(iii) Competitors:
The competing firms can influence business in a number of ways. They can do so by bringing new and cheap
products in the market, by launching some sale promotion scheme or other similar methods.
(iv) Public:
Public has different constituents like the local public, press or media, etc. The attitude or behaviour of these
constituents can affect business units. For example, the local population can oppose some established firm
whose business is excessively noisy.
Similarly, if the media gives some favourable report about a particular company the price of its share can
register an increase on this count.
(v) Marketing Intermediaries:
The marketing intermediaries play a significant role in developing any business unit. They are those persons
who reduce the distance between the producers and agents.
For example, a company sells its goods with the help of agents and if because of some reason all the agents
get annoyed with the company and refuse to sell its goods, there can be a crisis for the company.
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Types of Business Environment
Environment includes such factors as socio-economic, technological, supplier, competitor and the government.
There are two more factors, which exercise considerable influence on business. They are physical or natural
environment and global environment.
Technological Environment
Technology is understood as the systematic application of scientific or other organized knowledge to practical
tasks. Technology changes fast and to keep pace with it, businessmen should be ever alert to adopt changed
technology in their businesses.
Economic Environment
There is close relationship between business and its economic environment.

Business obtains all its needed inputs from the economic environment and it absorbs the output of business
units.
Political Environment
It refers to the influence exerted by the three political institutions viz., legislature executive and the judiciary in
shaping, directing, developing and controlling business activities. A stable and dynamic political environment is
indispensable for business growth.
Natural Environment
Business, an economic pursuit of man, continues to be dictated by nature. To what extend business depends
on nature and what is the relationship between the two constitutes an interesting study.
Global or international Environment
Thanks to liberalization, Indian companies are forces to view business issues from a global perspective.
Business responses and managerial practices must be fine-tuned to survive in the global environment.
Social and culture Environment
It refers to people’s attitude to work and wealth; role of family, marriage,

religion and education; ethical issues and social responsiveness of business.
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Self-check

● 1. The description distinguishes types of business
organisations.
● 2. The description outlines the common objectives

within which businesses operate.
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Describe systems theory with respect to information systems.
ASSESSMENT CRITERIA
❖ 1. The description defines the concept of a system.
❖ 2. The description identifies theoretical components of a system.
❖ 3. The description distinguishes types of information systems.
2.1 Describe systems theory with respect to information systems.
Systems work is not as hard as you might think. However, we have a tendency in this business to complicate
things by changing the vocabulary of systems work and introducing convoluted concepts and techniques, all of
which makes it difficult to produce systems in a consistent manner. Consequently, there is a tendency to
reinvent the wheel with each systems development project.
THERE ARE THREE INHERENT PROPERTIES TO ANY SYSTEM
Regardless of the type of system, be it an irrigation system, a communications relay system, an information
system, or whatever, all systems have three basic properties:
A. A system has a purpose - such as to distribute water to plant life, bouncing a communications signal around
the country to consumers, or producing information for people to use in conducting business.
B. A system is a grouping of two or more components which are held together through some common and
cohesive bond. The bond may be water as in the irrigation system, a microwave signal as used in
communications, or, as we will see, data in an information system.
C. A system operates routinely and, as such, it is predictable in terms of how it works and what it will produce.
All systems embrace these simple properties. Without any one of them, it is, by definition, not a system.
For our purposes, the remainder of this paper will focus on "information systems" as this is what we are
normally trying to produce for business. In other words, the development of an orderly arrangement or
grouping of components dedicated to producing information to support the actions and decisions of a
particular business. Information Systems are used to pay employees, manage finances, manufacture products,
monitor and control production, forecast trends, process customer orders, etc.
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If the intent of the system is to produce information, we should have a good understanding of what it is...
2. INFORMATION = DATA + PROCESSING
Information is not synonymous with data. Data is the raw material needed to produce information. Data by
itself is meaningless. It is simply a single element used to identify, describe or quantify an object used in a
business, such as a product, an order, an employee, a purchase, a shipment, etc. A data element can also be
generated based on a formula as used in a calculation; for example:
Net-Pay = Gross-Pay - FICA - Insurance - City-Tax - Union-Dues - (etc.)
Only when data is presented in a specific arrangement for use by the human being does it become
information. If the human being cannot act on it or base a decision from it, it is nothing more than raw data.
This implies data is stored, and information is produced. It is also dependent on the wants and needs of the
human being (the consumer of information). Information, therefore, can be defined as "the intelligence or
insight gained from the processing and/or analysis of data."
The other variable in our formula is "processing" which specifies how data is to be collected, as well as its
retrieval in order to produce information. This is ultimately driven by when the human being needs to make
certain actions and decisions. Information is not always needed "upon request" (aka "on demand"); sometimes
it is needed once daily, weekly, monthly, quarterly, annually, etc. These timing nuances will ultimately dictate
how data is collected, stored, and retrieved. To illustrate, assume we collect data once a week. No matter how
many times during the week we make a query of the data base, the data will only be valid as of the last weekly
update. In other words, we will see the same results every day for one week. However, if we were to collect
the data more frequently, such as periodically throughout the day, our query will produce different results
throughout the week.
Our formula of "I = D + P" makes an important point: if the data is changed, yet the processing remains the
same, the information will change. Conversely, if the data remains the same, yet the processing changes, the
information will also change. This leads to a compelling argument to manage data and processing as separate
by equal resources which can be manipulated and reused to produce information as needed.
3. SYSTEMS ARE LOGICAL IN NATURE AND CAN BE PHYSICALLY IMPLEMENTED MANY DIFFERENT WAYS
An information system is a collection of processes (aka, "sub-systems") to either collect and store data, to
retrieve data and produce information, or a combination of both. The cohesive bond between these
components is the data which should be shared and reused throughout the system (as well as other systems).
You will observe we have not yet discussed the most suitable way to physically implement the processes, such
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as through the use of manual processes, computer programs, or other office technology. In other words, at
this stage, the sub-systems of the system simply define logically WHAT data must be processed, WHEN it must
be processed, and who will consume the information (aka "end-users"), but it most definitely does not specify
HOW the sub-system is to be implemented.
Following this, developers determine a suitable approach for physically implementing each sub-system. This
decision should ultimately be based on practicality and cost effectiveness. Sub-systems can be implemented
using manual procedures, computer procedures (software), office automation procedures, or combinations of
all three. Depending on the complexity of the sub-system, several procedures may be involved. Regardless of
the procedures selected, developers must establish the precedent relationships in the execution of the
procedures, either sequentially, iteratively, of choice (thereby allowing divergent paths). By defining the
procedures in this manner, from start to end, the developers are defining the "work flow" of the sub-system,
which specifies HOW the data will be physically processed (including how it is to be created, updated, or
referenced).
Defining information systems logically is beneficial for two reasons:
▪ It provides for the consideration of alternative physical implementations. How one developer designs
it may very well be different than the next developer. It also provides the means to effectively
determine how a purchased software package may satisfy the needs. Again, the decision to select a
specific implementation should be based on practicality and cost justification.
▪ It provides independence from physical equipment, thereby simplifying the migration to a new
computer platform. It also opens the door for system portability, for example; our consulting firm
helped a large Fortune 500 conglomerate design a single logical payroll system which was
implemented on at least three different computer platforms as used by their various operating units;
although they physically worked differently, it was all the same basic system producing the same
information.
These logical and physical considerations leads to our final concept...
4. A SYSTEM IS A PRODUCT THAT CAN BE ENGINEERED AND MANUFACTURED LIKE ANY OTHER PRODUCT.
An information system can be depicted as a four level hierarchy (aka, "standard system structure"):
LEVEL 1 - System
LEVEL 2 - Sub-systems (aka "business processes") - 2 or more
LEVEL 3 - Procedures (manual, computer, office automation) - 1 or more for each sub-system
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LEVEL 4 - Programs (for computer procedures), and Steps (for all others) - 1 or more for each procedure
Each level represents a different level of abstraction of the system, from general to specific (aka, "Stepwise
Refinement" as found in blueprinting). This means design is a top-down effort. As designers move down the
hierarchy, they finalize design decisions. So much so, by the time they finish designing Level 4 for a computer
procedure, they should be ready to write program source code based on thorough specifications, thereby
taking the guesswork out of programming.
The hierarchical structure of an information system is essentially no different than any other common product;
to illustrate:
LEVEL 1 - Product
LEVEL 2 - Assembly - 2 or more
LEVEL 3 - Sub-assembly - 1 or more for each assembly
LEVEL 4 - Operation - 1 or more for each sub-assembly
Again, the product is designed top-down and assembled bottom-up (as found in assembly lines). This process
is commonly referred to as design by "explosion" (top-down), and implementation by "implosion" (bottom-
up). An information system is no different in that it is designed top-down, and tested and installed bottom-up.
In engineering terms, this concept of a system/product is commonly referred to as a "four level bill of
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materials" where the various components of the system/product are defined and related to each other in
various levels of abstraction (from general to specific).
This approach also suggests parallel development. After the system has been designed into sub-systems,
separate teams of developers can independently design the sub-systems into procedures, programs, and
steps. This is made possible by the fact that all of the data requirements were identified as the system was
logically subdivided into sub-systems. Data is the cohesive bond that holds the system together. From an
engineering/manufacturing perspective it is the "parts" used in the "product." As such, management of the
data should be relegated to a separate group of people to control in the same manner as a "materials
management" function (inventory) in a manufacturing company. This is commonly referred to as "data
resource management."
This process allows parallel development, which is a more effective use of human resources on project work as
opposed to the bottleneck of a sequential development process. Whole sections of the system (sub-systems)
can be tested and delivered before others, and, because data is being managed separately, we have the
assurance it will all fit together cohesively in the end.
The standard system structure is also useful from a Project Management perspective. First, it is used to
determine the Work Breakdown Structure (WBS) for a project complete with precedent relationships. The
project network is then used to estimate and schedule the project in part and in full. For example, each sub-
system can be separately priced and scheduled, thereby giving the project sponsors the ability to pick and
chose which parts of the system they want early in the project.
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The standard system structure also simplifies implementing modification/improvements to the system.
Instead of redesigning and reconstructing whole systems, sections of the system hierarchy can be identified
and redesigned, thereby saving considerable time and money.
This analogy between a system and a product is highly credible and truly remarkable. Here we can take a time-
proven concept derived from engineering and manufacturing and apply it to the design and development of
something much less tangible, namely, information systems.
Types of information systems.
Transaction Processing System (TPS), Knowledge Work System (KWS), Management Information Systems(MIS),
Decision Support Systems(DSS), Management/Executive Support Systems(ESS) (any three types)
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Self-check

● 1. The description defines the concept of a system.
● 2. The description identifies theoretical components of a

system.
3. The description distinguishes types of information

systems.
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SPECIFIC OUTCOME 3:
Explain how IT can be used in business.
ASSESSMENT CRITERIA
❖ 1. The explanation identifies the purpose of computer applications in business.
❖ 2. The explanation outlines the functions of computer applications in business.
❖ 3. The explanation illustrates the effects of IT on business systems.
3.1 The purpose of computers in business
General
● The business use of computers depends on the organization. Many businesses use computers for creating
and processing letters, reports, spreadsheets, presentations and other documents. Computers offer an
effective tool for organizing and managing customer records and contacts. For a small business, a single
computer, with a few software programs, provides sufficient computing power.
Firms with numerous employees, and large volumes of transactions, require faster computers that are more
powerful and a wide range of software. Companies that have two or more computers, or a computer network,
enable staff to share files or make changes to records. A network also allows authorized staff and other
parties, such as customers or vendors, to gain access to the system.
Business Intelligence
● One of the most common uses of computers in business involves the accumulation of data about
customers and clients for analysis. This technique entails developing a database to record, manage,
retrieve or manipulate information. Most individuals associate this type of use with the marketing or sales
function of businesses, but it also invlves using the data to construct predictive models.
Inventory Management
● Large, mid-size and small companies employ computers for inventory control and management. This
includes the functions of manufacturing, warehousing, sales, orders and delivery. Computerized activities
include recording incoming goods, details on items, distribution inventory and storage information.
Generally, small retail operations rely on basic inventory management software to handle this area of the
business. Many large enterprises whose normal operations require huge volumes of raw materials for
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manufacturing, or the distribution of significant quantities of goods, have highly sophisticated
computerized inventory management applications at the core of their operations.
Enterprise Resource Planning
● Enterprise Resource Planning or ERP consist of implementing a comprehensive administrative software

system that merges or replaces single software applications. ERP software contains modules for each
business function, such as purchasing, accounting, payroll, human resources, inventory management and
other aspects of an organization. Many large business organizations have executed ERP strategies to gain
from the assimilation of information and department functions under a single umbrella.
Misconceptions
● Although companies receive many benefits from computers, a big misconception is that they are
unreliable and unable to provide consistent results. Training employees to properly manage company
software and back up essential information can limit these fears of computerized workplaces.
Internet
● Utilizing the Internet is a great aspect of computers in the workplace. Not only can companies reach
customers through websites, they can also use company intranets to connect all company locations via
computer software.
Explain the effects of IT on business systems
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
Self-check

● 1. The explanation identifies the purpose of
computer applications in business.
● 2. The explanation outlines the functions of

computer applications in business.
● 3. The explanation illustrates the effects of IT on

business systems.
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SPECIFIC OUTCOME 4:
Explain the relationship between a business and its information needs.
ASSESSMENT CRITERIA
❖ 1. The explanation distinguishes data and information.
❖ 2. The explanation outlines the role of information in decision making.
❖ 3. The explanation identifies the main threats to data security and integrity.
❖ 4. The explanation identifies the sub-systems that make up a business and the information
needs associated with each sub-system.
4.1 Data and information.
People often miss the subtle difference between data and information and use the words interchangeably.
Comparison chart
Data Information
Meaning Data is raw, unorganized facts that need to be When data is processed, organized,
processed. Data can be something simple and structured or presented in a given context so
seemingly random and useless until it is organized. as to make it useful, it is called Information.
Example Each student's test score is one piece of data The class' average score or the school's
average score is the information that can be
concluded from the given data.
Definition Latin 'datum' meaning "that which is given". Data was Information is in
the plural form of datum singular (M150 adopts the
general use of data as singular. Not everyone agrees.)
Data
o Facts, statistics used for reference or analysis.
o Numbers, characters, symbols, images etc., which can be processed by a computer.
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o Data must be interpreted, by a human or machine, to derive meaning
o "Data is a representation of information" *
o Latin 'datum' meaning "that which is given"
o Data plural, datum singular (M150 adopts the general use of data as singular. Not everyone agrees.)
Information
o Knowledge derived from study, experience (by the senses), or instruction.
o Communication of intelligence.
o "Information is any kind of knowledge that is exchangeable amongst people, about things, facts,
concepts, etc., in some context." *
o "Information is interpreted data" *
4.2 Role of information in decision making
Management information systems can help you make valid decisions by providing accurate and up-to-date
information and performing analytic functions. You have to make sure the management information system
you choose can work with the information formats available in your company and has the features you need.
Suitable management information systems can structure the basic data available from your company
operations and records into reports to present you with guidance for your decisions.
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Information
When you base your decisions on data available from management information systems, they reflect
information that comes from the operations of your company. Management information systems take data
generated by the working level and organize it into useful formats. Management information systems typically
contain sales figures, expenses, investments and workforce data. If you need to know how much profit your
company has made each year for the past five years to make a decision, management information systems can
provide accurate reports giving you that information.
Scenarios
The capability to run scenarios is a key decision-making tool. Some management information systems have this
feature built in, while others can provide the information required for running scenarios on other applications,
such as spreadsheets. Your decision is influenced by what happens if you decide a certain way. What-if
scenarios show you how different variables change when you make a decision. You can enter reduced staff
levels or increased promotion budgets and see what happens to revenue, expenses and profit for different
levels of cuts or increases. Management information systems systems play a critical role in making realistic
scenarios possible.
Projections
Any decisions you make result in changes in the projected company results and may require modifications to
your business strategy and overall goals. Management information systems either have trend analysis built in
or can provide information that lets you carry out such an analysis. Typical business strategies include
projections for all fundamental operating results. A trend analysis allows you to show what these results would
be in the current situation and how they will change once you have implemented the decisions you have
taken. The new values form the basis of your strategic approach going forward.
Implementation
While you make your decisions with specific goals in mind and have the documentation from management
information systems and trend analysis to support your expectations, you have to track company results to
make sure they develop as planned. Management information systems give you the data you need to
determine whether your decisions have had the desired effect, or whether you have to take corrective action
to reach your goals. If specific results are not on track, you can use management information systems to
evaluate the situation and decide to take additional measures if necessary.
4.3 Data security and integrity.
Refers to the validity of data. Data integrity can be compromised in a number of ways:
● Human errors when data is entered

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● Errors that occur when data is transmitted from one computer to another
● Software bugs or viruses
● Hardware malfunctions, such as disk crashes
● Natural disasters, such as fires and floods
Threats to Computer Security
Computer systems are vulnerable to many threats that can inflict various types of damage resulting in
significant losses. This damage can range from errors harming database integrity to fires destroying entire
computer centers. Losses can stem, for example, from the actions of supposedly trusted employees
defrauding a system, from outside hackers, or from careless data entry clerks. Precision in estimating
computer security-related losses is not possible because many losses are never discovered, and others are
"swept under the carpet" to avoid unfavorable publicity. The effects of various threats varies considerably:
some affect the confidentiality or integrity of data while others affect the availability of a system.
1. Errors and Omissions
Errors and omissions are an important threat to data and system integrity. These errors are caused not only by
data entry clerks processing hundreds of transactions per day, but also by all types of users who create and
edit data. Many programs, especially those designed by users for personal computers, lack quality control
measures. However, even the most sophisticated programs cannot detect all types of input errors or
omissions. A sound awareness and training program can help an organization reduce the number and severity
of errors and omissions.
Users, data entry clerks, system operators, and programmers frequently make errors that contribute directly
or indirectly to security problems. In some cases, the error is the threat, such as a data entry error or a
programming error that crashes a system. In other cases, the errors create vulnerabilities. Errors can occur
during all phases of the systems life cycle.
2. Fraud and Theft
Computer systems can be exploited for both fraud and theft both by "automating" traditional methods of
fraud and by using new methods. For example, individuals may use a computer to skim small amounts of
money from a large number of financial accounts, assuming that small discrepancies may not be investigated.
Financial systems are not the only ones at risk. Systems that control access to any resource are targets (e.g.,
time and attendance systems, inventory systems, school grading systems, and long-distance telephone
systems). Computer fraud and theft can be committed by insiders or outsiders. Insiders (i.e., authorized users
of a system) are responsible for the majority of fraud.
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Since insiders have both access to and familiarity with the victim computer system (including what resources it
controls and its flaws), authorized system users are in a better position to commit crimes. Insiders can be both
general users (such as clerks) or technical staff members. An organization's former employees, with their
knowledge of an organization's operations, may also pose a threat, particularly if their access is not terminated
promptly.
3. Employee Sabotage
Employees are most familiar with their employer's computers and applications, including knowing what
actions might cause the most damage, mischief, or sabotage. The downsizing of organizations in both the
public and private sectors has created a group of individuals with organizational knowledge, who may retain
potential system access (e.g., if system accounts are not deleted in a timely manner). The number of incidents
of employee sabotage is believed to be much smaller than the instances of theft, but the cost of such incidents
can be quite high.
Common examples of computer-related employee sabotage include:
● destroying hardware or facilities,

● planting logic bombs that destroy
● programs or data,
● entering data incorrectly,
● "crashing" systems,
● deleting data,
● holding data hostage, and
● changing data.
4. Loss of Physical and Infrastructure Support
The loss of supporting infrastructure includes power failures (outages, spikes, and brownouts), loss of
communications, water outages and leaks, sewer problems, lack of transportation services, fire, flood, civil
unrest, and strikes.
5. Malicious Hackers
The term malicious hackers, sometimes called crackers, refers to those who break into computers without
authorization. They can include both outsiders and insiders. Much of the rise of hacker activity is often
attributed to increases in connectivity in both government and industry. One 1992 study of a particular
Internet site (i.e., one computer system) found that hackers attempted to break in at least once every other
day. The hacker threat should be considered in terms of past and potential future damage. Although current
losses due to hacker attacks are significantly smaller than losses due to insider theft and sabotage, the hacker
problem is widespread and serious.
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6. Industrial Espionage
Industrial espionage is the act of gathering proprietary data from private companies or the government for the
purpose of aiding another company(ies). Industrial espionage can be perpetrated either by companies seeking
to improve their competitive advantage or by governments seeking to aid their domestic industries. Foreign
industrial espionage carried out by a government is often referred to as economic espionage. Since
information is processed and stored on computer systems, computer security can help protect against such
threats; it can do little, however, to reduce the threat of authorized employees selling that information.
7. Malicious Code
Malicious code refers to viruses, worms, Trojan horses, logic bombs, and other "uninvited" software.
Sometimes mistakenly associated only with personal computers, malicious code can attack other platforms.
Actual costs attributed to the presence of malicious code have resulted primarily from system outages and
staff time involved in repairing the systems. Nonetheless, these costs can be significant.
Malicious Software: A Few Key Terms
Virus: A code segment that replicates by attaching copies of itself to existing executables. The new copy of the
virus is executed when a user executes the new host program. The virus may include an additional "payload"
that triggers when specific conditions are met. For example, some viruses display a text string on a particular
date. There are many types of viruses, including variants, overwriting, resident, stealth, and polymorphic.
Trojan Horse: A program that performs a desired task, but that also includes unexpected (and undesirable)
functions. Consider as an example an editing program for a multiuser system. This program could be modified
to randomly delete one of the users' files each time they perform a useful function (editing), but the deletions
are unexpected and definitely undesired!
Worm: A self-replicating program that is self-contained and does not require a host program. The program
creates a copy of itself and causes it to execute; no user intervention is required. Worms commonly use
network services to propagate to other host systems.
8. Threats to Personal Privacy
The accumulation of vast amounts of electronic information about individuals by governments, credit bureaus,
and private companies, combined with the ability of computers to monitor, process, and aggregate large
amounts of information about individuals have created a threat to individual privacy. The possibility that all of
this information and technology may be able to be linked together has arisen as a specter of the modern
information age.
4.4 sub-systems that make up a business and the information needs associated with each sub-system.
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The Systems View
This idea of looking outward, of looking beyond the walls of the company office building is not new. What is
relatively new to many executives, is the idea of looking at the world as a collection of systems that create a
whole and examining the relationships between those systems to determine how they affect the
whole. Systems Theory, as applied to organizational management, puts forth the premise that all organizations
are systems, and all systems are part of larger systems. How a subsystem fits the needs of the larger system
ultimately determines if that subsystem prospers or is left to wither on the vine.
It’s this concept that the adept leader can use to get a more “holistic” view of his organization. Understanding
how the company relates to the larger system in which it exists and operates, and then how the company’s
internal systems contribute or detract from that larger relationship can provide a more relevant analysis.
It really isn’t as esoteric as it may sound. Once you grasp the concept it will be easy to see how it applies to
your organization. Let’s spend a moment on a definition and then we can address application.
In Systems Theory, a system is defined in two ways:
● Externally, by its purpose. Each system has a role that it plays in the higher-level system in which it
exists. Using the auto company example we can say that the auto company is a system whose role is
to provide cars to the next higher-level system, the auto market. The auto market in turn has its
multiple roles that it plays in the next higher-level systems of transportation and national economy
and so on.
● Internally, by its subsystems and internal functions. Each system is made up of components and sub-
systems that interrelate and contribute to the overall purpose of the parent system. In the auto
company those components might consist of engineering, production, marketing, finance, human
resources and sales all of which should be supporting the system’s purpose of providing cars to the
higher system, the auto market.
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Systems Theory in Managing Organizations
Defining the Higher-Level System and the Organization’s Role in It
So for a leader, the first step in developing a holistic view of the organization is to define the higher-level
system in which it exists/operates, and its role/purpose in that higher-level system. Where does it fit? What
kind of role does it play and what value does it bring to the purpose of the higher-level system? If a company
does not have a role to play in the higher-level system, then it does not belong in that system; and if it cannot
find a role in any higher-level system, it is in effect redundant and will ultimately die. Additionally, and sadly
more common, if a company cannot accurately define what its role is in the higher-level system, even if it has
something relevant to offer, it will be treated as if it had no role at all
Self-check

● 1. The explanation distinguishes data and information.
● 2. The explanation outlines the role of information in

decision making.
● 3. The explanation identifies the main threats to data

security and integrity.
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Write a technical report(US116389)
Unit Std # 116389
NQF Level 4
Notional hours 40
Credit(s) 4
Field Field - Manufacturing, Engineering and Technology
Sub-Field Manufacturing and Assembly

48872- 131 CREDITS
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The Learner guide
At the end of this unit standard you will be able to Write a technical report
Purpose:
• Write a clear, complete and correct technical report, which contains all the
necessary information and which is easy to understand.
Specific outcome:
● Plan the research of a computer topic

● Conduct the research of a computer topic using computer technology, and to
● Present the results of research of a computer topic using computer technology.
● Sufficient knowledge of the subject of the report and know how to interpret
technical drawings.
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Equipment needed:
● Visual aids
● White board
● Flip chart
● Equipment
● Training venue
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Assessments:
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Table of contents
Specific Outcome 1 : Collect information for writing the report.
● The purpose of the report is determined and clearly defined.

● All facts, which have a bearing on the report are ascertained.
● The correct equipment and/or tools required to ascertain the facts is selected.
● Those facts to be presented in the report are selected and put in the order of
presentation.
● The order of presentation is logical.
● The consequences of providing incorrect information are listed and explained.
Specific Outcome 2 : Plan the writing of the report

● The demonstration explains overflow errors found in computers.
● The demonstration explains underflow errors found in computers.
● The demonstration explains conversion errors found in computers.
● The demonstration explains errors found in computers because of advancement in
processor word-sizes.
Specific Outcome 3 : Demonstrate how mistakes and computer errors can be minimised
● The demonstration explains how mistakes can be minimised.
● The demonstration explains how errors can be minimised.
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SESSION 1.
Collect information for writing the report.
Learning Outcomes
● The purpose of the report is determined and clearly defined.
● All facts, which have a bearing on the report are ascertained.
● The correct equipment and/or tools required to ascertain the facts is selected.
● Those facts to be presented in the report are selected and put in the order of presentation.
● The order of presentation is logical.
● The consequences of providing incorrect information are listed and explained.
Writing technical reports

In Engineering, one of the major forms of communication is the technical report. This is the conventional
format for reporting the results of your research, investigations, and design projects. At university, reports are
read by lecturers and tutors in order to assess your mastery of the subjects and your ability to apply your
knowledge to a practical task. In the workplace, they will be read by managers, clients, and the construction
engineers responsible for building from your designs. The ability to produce a clear, concise, and professionally
presented report is therefore a skill you will need to develop in order to succeed both at university and in your
future career. While reports vary in the type of information they present (for example, original research, the
results of an investigative study, or the solution to a design problem), all share similar features and are based
on a similar structure.
Note: This document contains general engineering report-writing guidelines only. For specific departmental
requirements, see your unit or study guide.
Key features of reports

Reports:
● are designed for quick and easy communication of information
● are designed for selective reading
● use sections with numbered headings and subheadings
● use figures and diagrams to convey data.
Structure
A technical report should contain the following sections;
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Section Details
Title page Must include the title of the report. Reports for assessment, where the word
length has been specified, will often also require the summary word count
and the main text word count
Summary A summary of the whole report including important features, results and
conclusions
Contents Numbers and lists all section and subsection headings with page numbers
Introduction States the objectives of the report and comments on the way the topic of the
report is to be treated. Leads straight into the report itself. Must not be a
copy of the introduction in a lab handout.
The sections which make up Divided into numbered and headed sections. These sections separate the
the body of the report different main ideas in a logical order
Conclusions A short, logical summing up of the theme(s) developed in the main text
References Details of published sources of material referred to or quoted in the text
(including any lecture notes and URL addresses of any websites used.
Bibliography Other published sources of material, including websites, not referred to in
the text but useful for background or further reading.
Acknowledgements List of people who helped you research or prepare the report, including your
proof-readers
Appendices (if appropriate) Any further material which is essential for full understanding of your report
(e.g. large scale diagrams, computer code, raw data, specifications) but not
required by a casual reader
Collect your information. Sources include laboratory handouts and lecture notes, the Library, the reference
books and journals in the Department office. Keep an accurate record of all the published references which
you intend to use in your report, by noting down the following information;
Activity
Explain the consequences of providing incorrect information in a report

__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________.
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SESSION 2.
Plan the writing of the report.

Learning Outcomes
● The order of presentation of the facts is determined.
● Appropriate headings are selected for the report.
● Only those facts, which are necessary for the report to achieve its purpose are selected.
● All facts and figures are put together in a way the reader will be able to understand.
Planning the report
Creative phase of planning. Write down topics and ideas from your researched material in random order. Next
arrange them into logical groups. Keep note of topics that do not fit into groups in case they come in useful
later. Put the groups into a logical sequence which covers the topic of your report.
Structuring the report. Using your logical sequence of grouped ideas, write out a rough outline of the report
with headings and subheadings.
Audience
As a student, you might assume that your technical report's audience is your instructor, however, this may not
always be the case. Your instructor may ask you to produce a report for your peers or for other engineers.
However, you shouldn't always assume that your audience has a strong engineering background or is familiar
with the engineering terminology you use. Always check with your instructor to know who your audience is.
As an engineer in the field, the most likely audience for the technical reports you produce is other engineers
with a background similar to yours. This audience is more likely to understand the terminology you use.
However, you should always evaluate who your readers will be before assuming they will understand your
jargon. Consider how your readers will use your report. For instance, you might submit a technical report to a
publication or your technical report may present a specific design. The audiences in each situation have
different needs. Audiences may read the publication for information and insight while audiences reading
about your specific design may critique your design or make decisions based on its content.
General Format
Technical Reports have an organized format because a majority of your audience may not read the entire
report in one reading. This specific format allows readers to quickly locate the information they need. Most
technical reports include the parts listed below. However, you may be required to include or exclude specific
sections. Be sure to check with your instructor before using the format outlined here.
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Transmittal Letter
Transmittal letters often accompany reports and inform readers of a report's context. Typically, the letter
includes information not found in the report. For example, the letter contains information about the particular
project and/or due dates. A Transmittal Letter is a business letter and should be formatted accordingly; that is,
you should include the recipient's address, your address, a salutation and closing. Depending on the project,
you may also need to include contact information. Always check with your instructor to determine whether or
not you should attach a transmittal letter to your report.
Title Page
A technical report should always include a title clearly identifying the report. A title should be descriptive and
accurate, but not wordy, verbose or too terse.
Abstract
The Abstract is extremely important because it helps readers decide what to read and what to pass over. The
idea of the Abstract is to give readers an honest evaluation of the report's content, so they can quickly judge
whether they should spend their valuable time reading the entire report. This section should give a true, brief
description of the report's content. The most important purpose of the Abstract is to allow somebody to get a
quick picture of the report's content and make a judgment. Since an Abstract is a brief summary of your
report, its length corresponds with the report's length. So, for example, if your report is eight pages long, you
shouldn't use more than 150 words in the Abstract. Generally, Abstracts define the report's purpose and
content.
Executive Summary
Typically, Executive Summaries are written for readers who do not have time to read the entire technical
report. An executive summary is usually no longer than 10% of the report. It can be anywhere from 1-10 pages
long, depending on the report's length. In the executive summary, you should summarize the key points and
conclusions from your report. You might include an executive summary with your report, or the summary can
be a separate document. Some reports only include an abstract while others include an executive summary.
Always check with your instructor to determine which to include or if you should include both.
Table of Contents
A Table of Contents includes all the headings and subheadings in your report and the page numbers where
each of these begins. When you create a Table of Contents, one of the most important decisions you have to
make involves design. A good Table of Contents distinguishes headings from subheadings and aligns these with
the appropriate page numbers. This also means you should pay attention to capitalization, spacing, and
indentation.
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List of Figures & List of Tables
These two separate lists assist readers in locating your photos, drawings, tables, graphs and charts. Like the
Table of Contents, you need to present both of these in an organized, appealing format. Typically, you can
shorten a figure or table's title when you create these lists.
Report Body
In a technical report, the body typically presents an Introduction, various other sections, depending on your
topic, and a Conclusion. Throughout the body, you should include text (both your own and research from
other sources), graphics, and lists. Whenever you cite information or use graphics from another source, you
must credit these sources within your text. Check with your instructor to know which reference style to use.
References
Whenever you cite information (this includes graphics) from another source, you must credit the source in
your References. Always check with your instructor to determine which reference style to use.
Appendices
Appendices include information that is too large to fit within your report, yet information necessary to your
report. For example, large graphics, computer print-outs, maps, or sample codes are best placed in
Appendices. When making decisions about what to place in an Appendix, consider whether or not the material
interrupts the reading flow. For instance, six pages of calculations would obviously cause readers to loose their
train of thought. Appendices always appear at the end of a report.
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SESSION 3.
Write the report.
Learning Outcomes
● The wording and phraseology is appropriate for the recipient.
● The layout of the report is correct.
● The report contains the correct headings.
● The report is unbiased and factual.
● The report is readable.
Writing the first draft

Who is going to read the report? For coursework assignments, the readers might be fellow students and/or
faculty markers. In professional contexts, the readers might be managers, clients, project team members. The
answer will affect the content and technical level, and is a major consideration in the level of detail required in
the introduction.
Begin writing with the main text, not the introduction. Follow your outline in terms of headings and
subheadings. Let the ideas flow; do not worry at this stage about style, spelling or word processing. If you get
stuck, go back to your outline plan and make more detailed preparatory notes to get the writing flowing again.
Make rough sketches of diagrams or graphs. Keep a numbered list of references as they are included in your
writing and put any quoted material inside quotation marks Write the Conclusion next, followed by the
Introduction. Do not write the Summary at this stage.
The report layout

The appearance of a report is no less important than its content. An attractive, clearly organised report stands
a better chance of being read. Use a standard, 12pt, font, such as Times New Roman, for the main text. Use
different font sizes, bold, italic and underline where appropriate but not to excess. Too many changes of type
style can look very fussy.
Headings
Use heading and sub-headings to break up the text and to guide the reader. They should be based on the
logical sequence which you identified at the planning stage but with enough sub-headings to break up the
material into manageable chunks. The use of numbering and type size and style can clarify the structure as
follows;
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3 Methods of harnessing wave energy
3.1 Shore-based systems

3.2 Deep-water systems
3.2.1 "Duck" devices
3.2.2 Rafts
Diagrams, graphs, tables and mathematics

It is often the case that technical information is most concisely and clearly conveyed by means other than
words. Imagine how you would describe an electrical circuit layout using words rather than a circuit diagram.
Here are some simple guidelines;
Diagrams Keep them simple. Draw them specifically for the report. Put small diagrams after the text
reference and as close as possible to it. Think about where to place large diagrams.
Graphs For detailed guidance on graph plotting,
Tables Is a table the best way to present your information? Consider graphs, bar charts or pie charts.
Dependent tables (small) can be placed within the text, even as part of a sentence.
Independent tables (larger) are separated from the text with table numbers and captions.
Position them as close as possible to the text reference. Complicated tables should go in an
appendix.
Mathematics Only use mathematics where it is the most efficient way to convey the information. Longer
mathematical arguments, if they are really necessary, should go into an appendix. You will be
provided with lecture hand-outs on the correct layout for mathematics.
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SESSION 4.
Revise the report.
Learning Outcomes
● The report is checked to ensure it is clear, concise, complete and correct.
● The report is written or typed.
Revising the first draft

This is the stage at which your report will start to take shape as a professional, technical document. In revising
what you have drafted you must bear in mind the following, important principle;
● The essence of a successful technical report lies in how accurately and concisely it conveys the intended
information to the intended readership.
Use what you learn and the recommended books to guide you. Most importantly, when you read through
what you have written, you must ask yourself these questions;
● Does that sentence/paragraph/section say what I want and mean it to say?
If not, write it in a different way.
● Are there any words/sentences/paragraphs which could be removed without affecting the information
which I am trying to convey?
If so, remove them.
Proofreading
This refers to the checking of every aspect of a piece of written work from the content to the layout and is an
absolutely necessary part of the writing process. You should acquire the habit of never sending or submitting
any piece of written work, from email to course work, without at least one and preferably several processes of
proofreading. In addition, it is not possible for you, as the author of a long piece of writing, to proofread
accurately yourself; you are too familiar with what you have written and will not spot all the mistakes. When
you have finished your report, and before you staple it, you must check it very carefully yourself. You should
then give it to someone else, e.g. one of your fellow students, to read carefully and check for any errors in
content, style, structure and layout. You should record the name of this person in your acknowledgements.
Word processing / desktop publishing

Word processing and desktop publishing packages offer Word processing and desktop publishing packages
great scope for endless revision of a document. This never make up for poor or inaccurate content
includes words, word order, style and layout.
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They allow for the incremental production of a long They can waste a lot of time by slowing down
document in portions which are stored and combined writing and distracting the writer with the
later mechanics of text and graphics manipulation.
They can be used to make a document look stylish and Excessive use of 'cut and paste' leads to tedious
professional. repetition and sloppy writing.
They make the process of proofreading and revision If the first draft is word processed, it can look so
extremely straightforward stylish that the writer is fooled into thinking that it
does not need proofreading and revision!
Two useful tips;
● Do not bother with style and formatting of a document until the penultimate or final draft.
● Do not try to get graphics finalised until the text content is complete.
Summary technical Report
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Analyse feedback contexts and apply
constructive feedback techniques (115431)
Unit Std # 115431
NQF Level 5
Notional hours 30
Credit(s) 3

48872- 131 CREDITS
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Table of contents
Specific Outcome 1 : Provide constructive feedback.
● The provision is selected in terms of type and channel

● The provision ensures that the language, content and tone of feedback fit the situation, the
occasion, the subject matter and the audience
● The provision describes the behavior or event which is the focus of feedback, in neutral terms,
with the absence of reference to character or personality of the recipient The provision identifies
legal and ethical requirements that impact on the time and place where feedback is provided
● The provision ensures that the content of the message meets the objectives set for providing
feedback
● The provision ensures that constructive feedback incorporates listening, open questions,
paraphrasing and responding to receiver reactions
Specific Outcome 2 : Analyse feedback contexts and/ or situations

● The analysis identifies issues related to providing feedback in terms of context/ situation
● The analysis identifies the purpose and/ or outcomes for specific feedback contexts/ situations
● The analysis identifies consequences and/ or anticipated reactions for specific feedback
contexts/ situations
● The analysis ensures that the content and tone of feedback fit the situation, the occasion, the
subject matter and the audience
● The analysis identifies the legal and organisational requirements that impact on the type and
manner of feedback provided
Specific Outcome 3 : Respond constructively to feedback.

● The response ensures that the medium, language, content and tone fits the situation, the
occasion, the matter and the audience
● The response clarifies feedback received, in terms of the objectives and issues raised
● The response evaluates feedback received, in terms of its applicability to the objectives and
issues raised
● The response incorporates identifying options and/ or strategies for further action
● The response evaluated the outcome of feedback to determine if the objectives are met, or
require further action
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spread:
TIMEFRAME


Name:
Standard Title:

programme to your
learners:
specific programme:

Requirements:
10. Timeframe for Training: Theory content –Role play, Simulation, Group work, Pair work = 9 hrs.
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The Learner guide
At the end of this unit standard you will be able to Analyse feedback contexts and apply
constructive feedback techniques
Purpose:
● People credited with this unit standard are able to:

To provide fundamental knowledge of the areas covered
● For those working in, or entering the workplace in the area of Business and
Organisational Communication
● As additional knowledge for those wanting to understand the areas covered
Specific outcome:
● Give constructive feedback

● Respond constructively to feedback
● Operate a personal computer

● Produce presentation documents for business
● Demonstrate ability to use the World Wide Web.
Equipment needed:
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● Visual aids
● White board
● Flip chart
● Equipment
● Training venue
Assessments:
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SPECIFIC OUTCOME 1:
PROVIDE CONSTRUCTIVE FEEDBACK.
ASSESSMENT CRITERIA
❖ The provision is selected in terms of type and channel

❖ The provision ensures that the language, content and tone of feedback fit the situation, the occasion, the
subject matter and the audience
❖ The provision describes the behavior or event which is the focus of feedback, in neutral terms, with the
absence of reference to character or personality of the recipient
❖ The provision identifies legal and ethical requirements that impact on the time and place where feedback is
provided
❖ The provision ensures that the content of the message meets the objectives set for providing feedback
❖ The provision ensures that constructive feedback incorporates listening, open questions, paraphrasing and
responding to receiver reactions
1.1 GIVING CONSTRUCTIVE FEEDBACK

Feedback is an essential element for everyone in an organization's workforce. Giving feedback is a task you
perform again and again as a manager or supervisor, letting people know where they are and where to go next
in terms of expectations and goals - yours, their own, and the organizations. Feedback is a useful tool for
indicating when things are going in the right direction or for redirecting problem performance. Your objective
in giving feedback is to provide guidance by supplying information in a useful manner, either to support
effective behavior, or to guide someone back on track toward successful performance.
Some situations which require giving constructive feedback include:

• Ongoing performance discussions
• Providing specific performance pointers
• Following up on coaching discussions
• Giving corrective guidance
• Letting someone know the consequences of their behavior
Some clues that constructive feedback is needed are when:

• Someone asks for your opinion about how they are doing
• Unresolved problems persist
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• Errors occur again and again
• An employee's performance doesn't meet expectations
• A peer's work habits disturb you
1.2 SIX WAYS TO MAKE FEEDBACK CONSTRUCTIVE

Part of being an effective manager or supervisor is knowing what feedback to give. The trick is learning how to
give it constructively so that it has some value. constructive feedback is a tool that is used to build things up,
not break things down. It lets the other person know that you are on their side.
1. If you can't think of a constructive purpose for giving feedback, don't give it at all.
2. Focus on description rather than judgement.
Describing behavior is a way of reporting what has occurred, while judging behavior is an evaluation of what
has occurred in terms of "right or wrong", or "good or bad". By avoiding evaluative language, you reduce the
need for the individual to respond defensively.
For example: "You demonstrate a high degree of confidence when you answer customer questions about
registration procedures, "rather than, "Your communication skills are good."
3. Focus on observation rather than inference.
Observations refer to what you can see or hear about an individual's behavior, while inferences refer to the
assumptions and interpretations you make from what you see or hear. Focus on what the person did and your
reaction.
For example: "When you gave that student the Financial Aid form, you tossed it across the counter," rather
than describe what you assume to be the person's motivation, "I suppose you give all forms out that way!"
4. Focus on behavior rather than the person

Refer to what an individual does rather than on what you imagine she or he is. To focus on behavior, use
adverbs, which describe action, rather than adjectives, which describe qualities.
For example: "You talked considerably during the staff meeting, which prevented me from getting to some of
the main points," rather than "You talk too much."
5. Provide a balance of positive and negative feedback

If you consistently give only positive or negative feedback, people will distrust the feedback and it will become
useless.
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6. Be aware of feedback overload.
Select two or three important points you want to make and offer feedback about those points. If you overload
an individual with feedback, she or he may become confused about what needs to be improved or changed.
For example: "The number of applicants and the time it takes you to enter them are both within the expected
ranges. The number of keying errors you are currently making is higher than expected."
Giving feedback constructively benefits everyone. You, as the manager or supervisor, use the ongoing
exchange of information as a way of getting to know your people and providing them with valuable guidance
in their work. The employee, manager, supervisor, or peer receives data that makes that makes her or his job
go easier. The organization gains in improved productivity of its workforce.
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1.3 THE SIX STEP METHOD FOR GIVING CONSTRUCTIVE FEEDBACK
Step 1: State the constructive purpose of your feedback.
State your purpose briefly by indicating what you'd like to cover and why it's important. If you are initiating
feedback, this focus keeps the other person from having to guess what you want to talk about. If the other
person has requested feedback, a focusing statement will make sure that you direct your feedback toward
what the person needs.
For example: "I have a concern about."

"I feel I need to let you know." "I want to discuss."
"I have some thoughts about."
Step 2: Describe specifically what you have observed.

Have a certain event or action in mind and be able to say when and where it happened, who was involved, and
what the results were. Stick to what you personally observed and don't try to speak for others. Avoid talking
vaguely about what the person "always" or "usually" does.
For example: "Yesterday afternoon, when you were speaking with Mrs. Sanchez, I noticed that you kept
raising your voice."
Step 3: Describe your reactions.

Explain the consequences of the other person's behavior and how you feel about it. Give examples of how you
and others are affected. When you describe your reactions or the consequences of the observed behaviors,
the other person can better appreciate the impact their actions are having on others and on the organization
or team as a whole.
For example: "The staff member looked embarrassed and I felt uncomfortable about seeing the episode."
"Shouting at our students is not acceptable behavior in this department."
Step 4: Give the other person an opportunity to respond.
Remain silent and meet the other person's eye, indicating that you are waiting for answer. If the person
hesitates to respond, ask an open ended question.
For example: "What do you think?"
"What is your view of this situation?" "What are your reaction to this?"
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"Tell me, what are your thoughts?"
Step 5: Offer specific suggestions.

Whenever possible make your suggestions helpful by including practical, feasible examples. Offering
suggestions shows that you have thought past your evaluations and moved to how to improve the situation.
Even if people are working up to expected standards, they often benefit from ideas that could help them to
perform better.
If your feedback was offered supportively or neutrally, in the "for your information" mode, or depending on
the situation's circumstances, suggestions may not be appropriate. Use your common sense and offer an idea
if you think the other person will find it useful. Don't drum up a suggestion for improvement just for the sake
of it.
For example: "Jennifer, I sometimes write myself notes or put up signs to remind myself to do something."
"Jill, rather than telling Ed that you're not interested in all the details, you might try
asking him specific questions about the information you are most interested in."
Step 6: Summarize and express your support

Review the major points you discussed. Summarize the Action items, not the negative points of the other
person's behavior. If you have given neutral feedback, emphasize the main points you have wanted to convey.
For corrective feedback, stress the main things you've discussed that the person could do differently. End on a
positive note by communicating confidence in the person's
ability to improve the situation.
For example: "As I said, the way the group has figured out how to cover phone calls has really lessened the
number of phone messages to be returned. You've really followed through on a tough problem. Please keep
taking the initiate on problems like that.
By summarizing, you can avoid misunderstandings and check to make sure that your communication is clean.
This summary is an opportunity to show your support for the other person—a way to conclude even an
negative feedback situation on a positive note.
For example: "At least we understand each other better since we've talked. I'll do what I can to make sure
your priorities are factored into the schedule, and I'll expect you to come straight to me if the schedule is a
problem.
Summary -The Purpose of Feedback
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For supervisors to improve and make appropriate decisions concerning their behavior and management
practices, they need accurate information about how their employees currently see them functioning. As in
guided missile systems, feedback allows people to check how "on target" their actions and behavior are and
thus enables them to modify or correct their actions.
Feedback is communication from others that presents data to a person about what the others are
experiencing and how this is impacting upon them.
Given this feedback, a new awareness is created within the receiver. It is up to the receiver to decide what he
or she learns from the feedback and what he or she chooses to do with that knowledge.
When giving or receiving feedback, it’s essential to remember that that what people are experiencing does not
necessarily make it true that it happened that way. Perceptions are very important data – but not necessarily
reality.
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Analyse feedback contexts and/ or situations.
ASSESSMENT CRITERIA
❖ The analysis identifies issues related to providing feedback in terms of context/ situation
❖ The analysis identifies the purpose and/ or outcomes for specific feedback contexts/ situations
❖ The analysis identifies consequences and/ or anticipated reactions for specific feedback contexts/ situations
❖ The analysis ensures that the content and tone of feedback fit the situation, the occasion, the subject matter
and the audience
❖ The analysis identifies the legal and organisational requirements that impact on the type and manner of
feedback provided
2.1 The Situation – Behavior – Impact Feedback Tool
Providing Clear, Specific Feedback
Imagine that you recently gave some feedback to a member of your team. You told him that his meeting
agendas looked great, but he needed to improve his presentation skills.
You follow up a few weeks later to find out why he hasn't made any changes. You discover that he didn't
understand what he could do to improve – your feedback simply prompted more questions.
He was left thinking "What's good about my agendas that I can transfer to other documents?" and "What's
wrong with my presentation skills?"
The Situation – Behavior – Impact (SBI) Feedback tool helps you deliver more effective feedback. It focuses
your comments on specific situations and behaviors, and then outlines the impact that these behaviors have
on others
About the Tool
Developed by The Center for Creative Leadership, the SBI Feedback Tool outlines a simple structure that you
can use to give feedback (SB1)
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1. Situation.
2. Behavior.
3. Impact.
When you structure feedback in this way, your people will understand precisely what you are commenting on,
and why. And when you outline the impact of their behavior on others, you're giving them the chance to
reflect on their actions, and think about what they need to change.
The tool also helps you avoid making assumptions that could upset the other person and damage your
relationship with them.
Applying the Tool
Let's look at each part of the SBI Feedback tool, and discuss how to use it to structure feedback.
1. Situation
When you're giving feedback, first define the where and when of the situation you're referring to. This puts
the feedback into context, and gives the other person a specific setting as a reference.
For example:
● "During yesterday morning's team meeting, when you gave your presentation..."
● "At the client meeting on Monday afternoon..."
2. Behavior
Your next step is to describe the specific behaviors that you want to address. This is the most challenging part
of the process, because you must communicate only the behaviors that you observed directly.
You must not make assumptions or subjective judgments about those behaviors. These could be wrong, and
this will undermine your feedback.
For example, if you observed that a colleague made mistakes in a presentation, you should not assume that
they hadn't prepared thoroughly. You should simply comment that your colleague made mistakes – and,
ideally, you should note what the mistakes were.
Don't rely on hearsay, as this may contain others' subjective judgments. Again, this could undermine your
feedback and jeopardize your relationship.
The examples below include a description of behavior:
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● "During yesterday morning's team meeting, when you gave your presentation, you were uncertain
about two of the slides, and your sales calculations were incorrect."
● "At the client meeting on Monday afternoon, you ensured that the meeting started on time and that
everyone had handouts in advance. All of your research was correct, and each of the client's
questions was answered."
Tip:
Aim to use measurable information in your description of the behavior. This helps to ensure that your
comments are objective.
3. Impact
The last step is to use "I" statements to describe how the other person's action has affected you or others.
For example:
● "During yesterday morning's team meeting, when you gave your presentation, you were uncertain about
two of the slides and your sales calculations were incorrect. I felt embarrassed because the entire board
was there. I'm worried that this has affected the reputation of our team."
● "At the client meeting on Monday afternoon, you ensured that the meeting started on time and that
everyone had handouts in advance. All of your research was correct, and each of the client's questions
was answered. I'm proud that you did such an excellent job and put the organization in a good light. I feel
confident that we'll get the account, thanks to your hard work."
2.2 Remember the following when giving feedback
For feedback to be most useful, it must be presented in such a way that the receiver does not feel threatened
or attacked by the information. Listed below are some guidelines for giving constructive feedback:
● Direct feedback toward behavior one can do something about, not the person.
Information about what a person does helps that person make choices about that behavior. On other
hand, assessments about a person’s "personality traits" or "personal qualities" usually increase their
defensiveness. (E.g., “You arrived ten minutes late” vs. “You’re irresponsible.”)
● Take the needs of the receiver into account first.

Focus the feedback on the value and usefulness it may provide to the receiver rather than the
"release" it provides the giver, i.e., you.
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● Make use of “I” Statements to let the receiver know how you perceive, experience or feel about the
behavior. Avoid “we” or “most people” statements. By saying, “I get upset when you…,” you help
promote a productive dialogue. No one can dispute that that’s how you feel! Whereas saying “You make
me upset” is more likely to lead to an argument and less communication.
● Focus on what was said and done (actions) rather than why it was said or done (motives).
Feedback that relates to what, how, when, and where is based on observable events; while opinions
or judgments about the other's motive or intent relates to interpretations and conclusions drawn from what
was observed.
● Make feedback descriptive rather than evaluative and judgmental.

By giving an objective description of what occurred and your reactions to the situation, you leave the
receiver free to use the feedback as he/she sees appropriate. Being judgmental entails a subjective evaluation
of the other based on your personal values.
● Make feedback specific rather than general and abstract.

Feedback is generally more useful if it can be tied to a specific time, place and action. It is far more
useful to say, “I noticed that you broke in twice while I was speaking during the meeting” than “You are always
interrupting people.” Give examples.
● Share information rather than give advice.

To give advice takes away a person's freedom of choice as well as responsibility for future actions.
● Be sensitive to timing and selection.

It is important that the giver of feedback be sensitive to both when it is appropriate to give feedback
and how much to give the receiver. The receiver needs to be ready to hear and deal with the data. Only give
an amount a person can use.
● Check whether the receiver understood your feedback.

One way of doing this is to ask the receiver to rephrase the feedback to see if it corresponds to what
the sender had in mind.
● Request what you’d like them to do differently.

Your request let’s them know exactly what you are asking them to do. They are free to accept, decline, or
counter-propose. You can’t change them, but by asking you help them see what you think they could do to
help the organization
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SPECIFIC OUTCOME 3:
Respond constructively to feedback.
ASSESSMENT CRITERIA
❖ The response ensures that the medium, language, content and tone fits the situation, the occasion, the matter
and the audience
❖ The response clarifies feedback received, in terms of the objectives and issues raised
❖ The response evaluates feedback received, in terms of its applicability to the objectives and issues raised
❖ The response incorporates identifying options and/ or strategies for further action
❖ The response evaluated the outcome of feedback to determine if the objectives are met, or require further
action
3.1 Receiving and Responding to Feedback Constructively
● Accept and Manage Your Emotions

Most people tend to react to constructive feedback, especially if it is feedback they don’t particularly like, with
a little surprise or shock, quickly followed by anger and then rejection or denial. We’re all humans in here!
Observe your emotions and give yourself time to let them move through you. Talk with someone about your
feelings, if that helps you. After denial, we usually shift into acceptance and even contentment. Don’t try to
respond to the feedback giver until your “fight or flight” response has settled down!
● Reflect on the Feedback

Take time to analyze the feedback and determine what you think it means for you.
● Talk With the Feedback Giver(s)

Talking with the person(s) who gave you feedback is the most important part of the process. This is because
feedback is part of building and maintaining healthy working relationships. By showing the feedback giver(s)
that you care about their perceptions and needs and that you’re committed to making changes that help them
do their work better, you’ll do a lot to strengthen the trust, respect, and confidence in your relationship with
them.
o Tell the feedback giver(s) that you’d like to discuss their feedback with them. Set a time and
place, and follow through.
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o Demonstrate your openness by sharing your feedback results with your workgroup as well as
your interpretation of what the data means to you. This will help open the lines of
communication between you and your workgroup.
o Show them that you are interested in listening to whatever they want to say. Below are four
responses to feedback that demonstrate you are listening:
▪ Paraphrase: After listening carefully to a person, paraphrase or summarize their ideas in
your own words.
▪ Summarize: Restate in a succinct fashion the information you gathered. This is used to
confirm a shared understanding of what has been said or decided. It gives a feeling of
closure to a conversation.
▪ Ask Open-ended Questions: Open-ended questions usually begin with words like: What,
Who, Where, When, and How and are difficult to answer with a simple “yes” or “no”
response. E.g., “What do you think about that?” Open-ended questions indicate your
interest in learning more about the issues, ideas, and reasoning that are important to
the feedback giver(s). Avoid asking “why” type questions that can put a person on the
spot, e.g., “Why do you think that way?”
▪ Use Silence: Wait for the other person to respond and finish talking. Then pause rather
than respond right away. These pauses are not intended to be embarrassing. By not
filling the vacuum, you let the other person know you are listening and are interested in
what he/she is saying and that you are making space for more.
o Listen for understanding and information, without thinking about your response. Avoid
countering, judging or evaluating what is being said. “Seek first to understand, then to be
understood” (Stephen R. Covey).
o Don’t try to read minds. A lot of our anxiety comes from what we read into things and not from
what people actually say. Your goal is to remain unaffected by the criticism directed at you so
that you can discover what needs to be done to improve the situation.
o Admit ignorance or confusion when you do not understand what is being said or are somewhat
confused. Nothing is gained if you don’t understand what is being said and do nothing about it.
You gain people’s respect by being “big enough” to admit that you are not quite on top of the
conversation.
o Avoid getting defensive. If others attack or criticize you or your actions, calmly acknowledge the
possibility that there may be some truth in the criticism or their point of view. This allows you to
receive any criticism without becoming anxious or defensive. Yet, it still allows you to be the final
judge of what you are going to do next.
● If You Believe You Were In Error, Admit It.
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If a problem was caused by you or by something you said or did, admit it and move on. Don’t get defensive
over something that you did or something that did not work out as you expected. By stating your errors you
will be able to recognize and accept your errors as errors, and once you accept the error, you can move
forward, rather than becoming bogged down in self-criticism. At the same time, don’t be overly apologetic.
Treat it as another learning experience.
● Find Out What Changes On Your Part Would Most Help The Feedback Giver(s) Be More Effective In Their
Work.
Be sure to get clear from the givers exactly what they are asking you to do differently. If there are several
things, ask them which are the most important.
● Consider What Changes You Will Commit To

After you’ve taken in the feedback and become more aware, it’s up to you to choose what action you will take
– if any. You will be more likely to follow through if
o You select only a few changes (up to three)
o You select changes you believe are in the interests of your
o You genuinely want to make them.
● Commit Yourself to Specific Actions by Specific Dates

The most powerful action you can take to strengthen an atmosphere of trust and confidence in your
workgroup is to make your commitment publicly to your workgroup, and then demonstrate that you have
fulfilled it.
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Present information in a public setting
(US 13925)
Unit Std # 13925
NQF Level 4
Notional hours 30
Credit(s) 4

48872- 131 CREDITS
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SESSION 1.
Research and plan the content of the presentation in relation to the
target audience.
Specific Outcomes
● Understanding of a presentation is demonstrated
● Researching and analyzing the target audience
What is a presentation?
Presentation is the practice of showing and explaining the content of a topic to an audience or learner.
Presentations come in nearly as many forms as there are life situations. In the business world, there are sales
presentations, informational and motivational presentations, first encounters, interviews, briefings, status
reports, image-building, and of course, the inevitable training sessions, therefore consider the following points
the process of offering for consideration or display:
● A social introduction, as of a person at court
● A demonstration, lecture, or welcoming speech
● A manner or style of speaking, instructing, or putting oneself forward
● The manner of presenting, esp. the organization of visual details to create an overall impression
● The formal introduction of a person, as into society or at court; debut
There are three types of presentations:-
● Informative
● Analyzing
● Persuading
Audience
There are far more types of audiences than there are types of presentations because audiences are made up
of people and people come in innumerable flavors. Individuals could be invited to speak to groups all across
the country. What the individual says and how they may say it depends on the makeup of those groups. They
may ask you the individual to address a room full of factory operations managers who have no choice but to
attend their talk, you they may go before a congressional committee looking into various environmental
issues. When an individual stands up to deliver a presentation before an audience, its essential that the
audience know who the presenter is, why they are there, what specifically they expect to get from your
presentation, and how they will react to your message. You will not always be able to determine these factors,
but you should try to gather as much background information as possible before your presentation. There will
be times, especially with presentations that are open to the public, when you will only be able to guess.
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Audiences can be classified into four basic categories:
● Captives
● Pragmatists
● Socially motivated
● Committed
Visuals
A study showed that the use of visuals reduced meeting times by 28 percent. Another study found that
audiences believe presenters who use visuals are more professional and credible than presenters who merely
speak. And still other research indicates that meetings and presentations reinforced with visuals help
participants reach decisions and consensus in less time.
A presentation program, such as Microsoft PowerPoint, Apple Keynote, OpenOffice.org Impress or Prezi, is
often used to generate the presentation content. Modern internet based presentation software, such as the
presentation application in Google Docs and Slide Rocket also allow presentations to be developed
collaboratively by geographically disparate collaborators.
Analyze your Target Audience

Analysis is the first phase of the content creation process. This phase creates the foundation for all following
steps and plays an important role in ensuring that you develop a quality product that meets your target
audience needs.
In this phase, you identify your audience characteristics and learning need by defining the following
information:
Who is your intended audience?
What do they already know about your topic?
What do they need to know about your topic?
What is their interest level and motivation to participate in your presentation?
What are their characteristics and learning styles?
What information do you want them to take away from your presentation? If the analysis phase is skipped,
you run the following risks with your presentation: Your presentation may have a wrong focus and level of
detail for your audience. Your content may be incomplete, redundant or not the correct content for your
audience.
The audience analysis information helps you determine the correct focus and required level of detail in your
presentation which you will start creating in the design phase.
Design your Content
After gathering your audience information, you now have an idea of what they know about your presentation
topic and the prerequisite information they need to have to benefit from your presentation. The next step is
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to create a basic “blueprint” that describes your selected content and the presentation strategy you will use to
move your audience from what they already know to what you want them to learn. A normal tendency may
be to skip over this phase and move directly into creating your presentation, however performing this step
ensures that your presentation content is cohesive, complete and has the correct focus for your target
audience.
In this phase, you basically lay out your presentation by defining the following information:
What are the goal and objectives of your presentation?
What are the ideas you want to present (your content topics)?
What is the best way to organize your topics for clarity and flow?
What visual aids should be used to support your presentation content (e.g., graphics, tables, visuals)?
What types of audience interaction/activities you would like to incorporate into your presentation to support
the understanding and retention of your content?
What is the best session format for your presentation?
How will you measure the effectiveness of your presentation?
Develop your Content

In this phase, you draw on the audience information gathered in the analysis phase and the specifications laid
out in the design phase to create your presentation. If you were thorough in the work you did in the previous
two phases, development will proceed smoothly.
However, if you were not thorough, as you start developing, you may notice that problems or details that were
not identified (or considered) in the previous two phases become obvious. For example, when you start adding
details to your presentation, you may realize that your scope is not on target for the audience, additional
content may be beneficial to incorporate into your presentation or other resources may be needed.
The main activities you perform in this phase consist of the following:
Create an initial draft of your presentation.
Verify the soundness of your initial draft.
Perform a test run of the presentation and then update your presentation as needed based on the results of
your test run.
Evaluate your Presentation

Typically, the SOA includes external online and written evaluations of sessions. This workbook presents you
with “internal” behavioral measures of how well your presentation is being received that you can implement
by observing your audience while you speak. These measures include the following:
Are participants engaged in your presentation?
Does your presentation have the correct detail-level and focus?
Is your presentation flowing and transitioning smoothly between topics?
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How well are the presentation objectives you specified being achieved?
Appropriate knowledge your Target Audience
All of us are born with a dominant learning style. This style affects how we filter and integrate information into
memory, apply what we learn to our daily interactions and on-the-job responsibilities, and communicate with
others. Understanding your target audience‟s characteristics and learning styles will help you better target
your presentation to meet their informational needs. Doing this affects the way the presented information is
understood and retained. Individual learning differences is a broad topic that encompasses a variety of
individual factors impacting learning such as:
● Personality (extraversion/introversion).
● Primary language.
● Interest and motivation.
● Information organizational preferences (information presented as facts/figures vs. concepts).
● Sensory modalities in perceiving information (visual representation vs. written or spoken information).
● How individuals process information (sequential vs. “big picture” thinkers).
● Occupations/Professions
● Familiarity with your topic.
What are Audience Characteristics?

Audience characteristics are individual attributes that shape how individuals perceive and interact with their
world. Audience characteristics work in conjunction with individual learning styles to impact how information
is processed and include the following:
● Primary language
● Occupation/profession
● Interest/motivation to participate in your presentation
● Knowledge of your presentation topic
Primary Language
Our primary language influences the way we view our world in terms of understanding communication and
meaning. In our global economy, it is likely that you will have participants in your audience for whom English is
not a primary language.
Consider
It is important to be very conscious about the use of grammar, jargon and humour in your presentation.
Supporting your presentation with written materials, such as presentation handouts and PowerPoint slides
used in conjunction with your presentation that identify the key points to which you are speaking.
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Occupation/Profession
When creating your presentation, it is important to consider whether you are presenting to a group of your
peers or will you have a mix of different professions in the audience. Your presentation should be targeted to
the informational needs of your audience.
Consider the Topic
What are your audience‟s practical perspectives and experience with your topic? Is their need for information
different from that of your own?
What is the appropriate level of detail for your potential audience? Do they need an overview of your topic, a
detailed discussion or an emphasis on the practical day-to-day application of your topic?
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SESSION 2.
Prepare and organize presentation material.
Specific Outcomes
● Preparing and organize the material to be used in the presentation is demonstrated
● Characteristics of a poor and unorganised presentation
Preparing the material for presentation

Start with the end in mind
It is important to know what the real purpose of your talk is. Why is it that you were asking to speak? What
does the audience expect? In your opinion, what are the most important parts of your topic for the audience
to take away from your, say, 50-minute presentation? Remember, even if you've been asked to share
information, rarely is the mere transfer of information a satisfactory objective from the point of view of the
audience. After all, the audience could always just read your book (or article, handout, etc.) if information
transfer were the only purpose of the meeting, seminar, or formal presentation.
Know your audience as well as possible

Before you begin to formulate the content of your presentation, you need to ask yourself many basic
questions with an eye to becoming the best possible presenter for that particular audience. At the very least,
you need to answer the basic "W questions."
Who is the audience? What are their backgrounds? How much background information about your topic can
you assume they bring to the presentation?
What is the purpose of the event? Is it to inspire? Are they looking for concrete practical information? Do they
want more concepts and theory rather than advice?
Why were you asked to speak? What are their expectations of you?
Where is it? Find out everything you can about the location and logistics of the venue. When is it? Do you
have enough time to prepare? What time of the day? If there are other presenters, what is the order (always
volunteer to go first or last, by the way). What day of the week? All of this matters.
Content, content, content
No matter how great your delivery, or how professional and beautiful your supporting visuals, if your
presentation is not based on solid content, you can not succeed. Don't get me wrong, I am not saying that
great content alone will carry the day. It almost never does. Great content is a necessary condition, but not a
sufficient one. But your presentation preparation starts with solid content (appropriate for your audience)
which you then build into a winning story that you'll use to connect with your audience.
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A word of caution: Though the importance of content is emphasized, spare your audience a "data dump." A
data dump all too common unfortunately is when a presenter crams too much information into the talk
without making the effort to make the information or data applicable to the members of the audience. A data
dump also occurs when data and information do not seem to build on the information that came earlier in the
presentation. Sometimes it almost seems that the presenter is either showing off, or more likely, is simply
afraid that if he does not tell the "whole story" by giving reams of data, the audience will not understand his
message.
Do not fall into the trap of thinking that in order for your audience to understand anything, you must tell them
everything.
Keep it simple
Simple does not mean stupid. Frankly, thinking that the notion of simplifying is stupid is just plain, well,
"stupid." Simple can be hard for the presenter, but it will be appreciated by the audience. Simplicity takes
more forethought and planning on your part because you have to think very hard about what to include and
what can be left out. What is the essence of your message? This is the ultimate question you need to ask
yourself during the preparation of your presentation. Here's a simple
Outlining your content
I suggest you start your planning in "analog mode." That is, rather than diving right into PowerPoint (or
Keynote), the best presenters often scratch out their ideas and objectives with a pen and paper. Personally, I
use a large whiteboard in my office to sketch out my ideas (when I was at Apple, I had one entire wall turned
into a whiteboard!). The whiteboard works for me as I feel uninhibited and freer to be creative. I can also step
back (literally) from what I have sketched out and imagine how it might flow logically when PowerPoint is
added later. Also, as I write down key points and assemble an outline and structure, I can draw quick ideas for
visuals such as charts or photos that will later appear in the PowerPoint. Though you may be using digital
technology when you deliver your presentation, the act of speaking and connecting to an audience to
persuade, sell, or inform is very much analog.
More on "planning analogue"

Use a legal pad and pen (or a whiteboard if there is enough space) to create a rough kind of storyboard. The
analog approach stimulates my creativity a bit more as I said.
Have a sound, clear structure
Presentation structure is paramount. Without it, your wonderful style, delivery and great supporting visuals
will fall flat. If you took the time in the first step to outline your ideas and set them up in a logical fashion, then
your thinking should be very clear. You can visualize the logic of your content and the flow of the presentation.
If your ideas are not clear first, it will be impossible to design the proper structure later when you create
visuals and/or supporting documents. Your audience needs to see where you are going. And it is not enough to
simply have an "agenda" or "road map" slide in the beginning that illustrates the organization of your talk. If
you do not actually have a solid road of logic and structure, then an outline slide will be of no use. In fact, the
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audience may become even more irritated since you made the promise of organization in the beginning, but
then failed to deliver the promise with a presentation which is muddled and lacks focus.
Confidence- How to get it
The more you are on top of your material the less nervous you will be. If you have taken the time to build the
logical flow of your presentation, designed supporting materials that are professional and appropriate, there is
much less to be nervous about. And, if you have then actually rehearsed with an actual computer and
projector (assuming you are using slide ware) several times, your nervousness will all but melt away. We fear
what we do not know. If we know our material well and have rehearsed the flow, know what slide is next in
the deck, and have anticipated questions, then we have eliminated much (but not all) of the unknown. When
you remove the unknown and reduce anxiety and nervousness, then confidence is something that will
naturally take the place of your anxiety.
Characteristics of a poor and unorganized presentation
One of the most common presentation mistakes made by new facilitators and old parochial school teachers is
the Talking Head. Adults want to dig in, participate, interact, and apply concepts. To be a good presenter you
need to engage the audience: Don’t read to them.
● Don’t preach to them.
● Excite them.
● Make them do something that gives them an opportunity to put into practice what they just
learned. There is a time to talk and present information and concepts but it has to be skilfully interspersed
with stories and opportunities for interaction with material and each other. Adults really prefer to learn
when they can apply a presented concept to their business practices. They want to know how they can
specifically take XYZ technique and use it.
● Apply the KISS principle (Keep It Simple Silly) when presenting information to a group.
● Never have more than three to four points to make about your topic.
● New knowledge must be built on old knowledge.
● It takes time to make those links and build the connections.
● You only have a limited amount of time to get your audience’s attention and keep them engaged with the
topic. Don’t waste it on talk that does not engage and motivate your audience.
Tried and tested material is critical to the success of a presentation. While Beta testing is not always
possible, it is important that the presenter is well acquainted with the material to be presented and
has practiced what they are now preaching!
Nothing is worse than a presenter who has memorized the material but lacks a true understanding
of how to implement the strategies they are introducing to others! They cannot divert from their
script and answer a question of any depth about the material. The panic on their face is evident as
they shuffle through their stacks of notes hoping and praying that there is an answer in there
somewhere...anywhere.
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A presenter should know their material so they can easily conduct the presentation. Have a good
handle on the information and a solid working outline but know how to implement what you talk
about so you are not just throwing out key words and phrases that are disjointed and make little or
no sense.
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SESSION 3.
Apply technical presentation techniques with or without technical
equipment.
Specific Outcomes
● Apply technical presentation techniques with technical equipment
● Apply technical presentation techniques without technical equipment
● How to become a better presenter
Apply technical presentation techniques with technical equipment

Technical Presentation Tips
A well prepared technical presentation can show viewers that you are skilled in your subject area. A technical
presentation should be clear, concise and effective in providing the audience with key information. Thoroughly
prepare for your presentation and to help eliminate any errors, be sure to arrive early before your
presentation to set up equipment, such as computers and projectors.
Terms
If you are including technical terms or phrases in your presentation or slides, be sure that you use the terms
correctly. Consult technical resources if needed to research technical definitions or key phrases that should or
shouldn't be abbreviated. For example, if referring to a computer's central processing unit, you may use the
abbreviation "CPU" because it is be generally recognized by a technical audience. If you are using more
complex terms like "hydrofluoric acid" that may not be recognized by abbreviations, spell out the entire word.
Resources like the McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms provide useful information
regarding the proper usage of technical terms.
Equipment
When giving a technical presentation that involves multiple PowerPoint slides or other visual information, use
projections and pointers. Pointers allow you to stand a short distance from the computer and point to areas of
your presentation using the pointer's LED light. This is helpful if you wish to highlight details in your
presentations without being required to punch keys on your computer. Connecting your computer to a
projector will allow you to perform functions on your PC so that the actions are visible on the projector. This is
a useful tool if your presentation involves showing viewers how to navigate complete a procedure or navigate
software.
Visual Aids
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Include charts or graphs to illustrate technical concepts that you're emphasizing or if your presentation
includes statistical data, such as the technical support department's weekly customer call volume. Be sure that
the graphs or charts are labelled properly so that the audience understands the concept of the illustration.
Apply technical presentation techniques without technical equipment
Nothing is worse than a well-prepared presentation riddled with preventable mishaps. A well thought out
presentation can be ruined by simple technical errors with presentation equipment, but there are ways to
minimize the chances of error. Learning how to better use the available presentation equipment makes
presentations more effective, entertaining and informative.
Available Equipment
Before embarking on a presentation, it is important to know what equipment is available to you. Once you
know the venue for your presentation, call ahead to find out what equipment may be in the room or available
for loan. Make an early request to reserve the proper materials for your presentation. If no materials are
available, it may be possible to find local companies that rent presentation equipment.
Flip Charts and White Boards
Visual aids help audiences comprehend and retain information at higher rates than an oral presentation alone.
White boards and flip charts are another helpful tool for effective presentations. Buy a fresh pack of markers
for your presentation to avoid running out of ink. Using multiple colours will also increase the visual appeal of
your presentation and keep your audience interested in the material. Write neatly and in large letters to
ensure that your entire audience can see the information you display.
Projectors
Digital projectors can be your best friend or worst enemy, as they are complex to set up and prone to
mechanical failure. It is always best to arrive early for your presentation to set up the projector and ensure it is
in working order. You should run through your projection slides to make sure they are easily visible to your
audience. If any text is difficult to see, take a moment to increase the font size. Projector bulbs can burn out
unexpectedly, so it is always a good idea to have a back up plan for your presentation. Have some handouts
ready or rely on available white boards or flip charts to keep your presentation on the right track.
Audio and Video
If working with a large audience, you may be required to use a microphone. If you are supplied with a lapel
microphone, position it near the neck of your shirt, and make sure it has been charged fully to avoid accidental
loss of audio. If you bring audio samples or video, cue any tapes or discs to the exact moment you want them
to begin; this will keep your presentation smooth.
Arrive and Plan Ahead
On the day of your big presentation, you should arrive early to test any equipment used in your presentation.
If any equipment malfunctions, you may have enough time to seek repair. If repair is impossible, you must find
alternatives to your original plan. For important presentations, having a back-up plan is necessary.
How to become a better presenter
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Make this year the one that defines you as a wonderful presenter. These ten tips will help you to make a
lasting impression as a skilled presenter using PowerPoint or other presentation software.
Know Your Stuff
Your comfort level with presenting will be high if you know everything about your topic. After all, the audience
is looking to you to be the expert. However, don't overload the audience with your complete toolkit of
knowledge about your topic. Three key points is just about right to keep them interested, allowing them to ask
questions if they want more.
Make it clear what you are there to Share with Them
Use the tried and true method that skilled presenters have used for eons.
Tell them what you are going to tell them:
● Outline briefly the key points you will talk about.
Tell them:
● Cover the topic in depth.
Tell them what you told them:
● Summarize your presentation in a few short sentences.
A Picture Tells the Story
Keep the audience's attention with pictures rather than endless bulleted slides. Often one effective picture
says it all. There is a reason for that old cliché - "a picture is worth a thousand words".
You Can't Have Too Many Rehearsals
If you were an actor, you would not be performing without first rehearsing your part. Your presentation should
be no different. It is a show too, so take time to rehearse -- and preferably in front of people so that you can
see what works and what doesn't. An added bonus of rehearsing is that you will become more comfortable
with your material and the live show will not come off as a recitation of facts.
Practice in the Room
What works while rehearsing at home or the office may not come off the same in the actual room where you
will present? If at all possible, arrive early enough so that you can become familiar with the room setup. Sit in
the seats as if you were an audience member. This will make it easier for you to judge where to walk about
and stand during your time in the spotlight. And don't forget to test out your equipment in this room long
before its show time. Electrical outlets may be scarce, so you may need to bring extra extension cords. And
you brought an extra projector light bulb, right?
Podiums are Not for Professionals
Podiums are "crutches" for novice presenters. To be engaging with your audience you have to be free to walk
among them if you can, or at least vary your position on stage, so that you will appear to be approachable to
everyone in the room. Use a remote device so that you can change slides easily on the screen without having
to be stuck behind a computer.
Speak to the Audience
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How many presentations have you witnessed where the presenter either read from his notes or worse read
the slides to you? The audience doesn't need you to read to them. They came to see and hear you speak to
them. Your slide show is just a visual aid.
Pace the Presentation
A good presenter will know how to pace his presentation, so that it flows smoothly, while at the same time he
is prepared for questions at any time -- and -- going back to Item 1, of course, he knows all the answers. Make
sure to allow for audience participation at the end. If no one asks questions, have a few quick questions of
your own ready to ask them. This is another way to engage the audience.
Learn to Navigate
If you are using PowerPoint as a visual aid to your presentation, get to know the many keyboard shortcuts that
allow you to quickly navigate to different slides in your presentation if the audience asks for clarity. For
example, you may wish to revisit slide 6, which contains a wonderful picture illustrating your point.
Always Have a Plan B
Unexpected things happen. Be prepared for any disaster. What if your projector blew a light bulb (and you
forgot to bring a spare) or your briefcase was lost at the airport? Your Plan B should be that the show must go
on, no matter what. Going back to Item 1 once again you should know your topic so well that you can make
your presentation "off the cuff" if need be, and the audience will leave feeling that they got what they came
for.
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SESSION 4.
Display optimal presentation skills.
Specific Outcomes
● Outline optimal presentation skills and areas for training and development of presentation skills
Optimal presentation skills

Good presentation skills are within everyone's reach. For many people, if not most, presenting can be a
daunting and unpleasant experience. It needn't be so, and here we'll give you some simple tips to help you
hone more effective presentation skills. Presentations are an effective way to communicate to large numbers
of people at the same time. However, it is not just about communicating information, but more importantly,
to have advanced presentation skills you should be able to create interest and excitement in your subject and
trust and enthusiasm in you.
Essential presentation skills
● Preparation
● Developing Presentation Style
● Dealing with Presentation Nerves
● Working your Audience
● Structuring Effective Presentations
● Developing as a Presenter
Preparation
● Practise your presentation skills
Practice on a colleague or friend. Think about whom your audience is and what you want them to get out of an
effective presentation. Think about content and style. If you video yourself get someone else to evaluate your
performance and highlight your best skills; you will find it very difficult to be objective about those skills
yourself. Prepare, prepare, prepare.
● Reconnoitre
Go into the presentation room before the event; practice any moves you may have to make, e.g. getting up
from your chair to the podium. Errors in the first 20 seconds can be very disorientating.
● Avoid 'Blue peter syndrome'
Try not to over prepare. Trust those skills you know you have. Don't rehearse the whole thing right through
too often. Your time is better spent going over your opening beginning and your finish. Pick a few choice bits
to learn by heart.
● Technical support
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Test the equipment before the presentation; get familiar with it before you start. PowerPoint and OHPs often
seem as though they're out to get you, so make sure you have enough technical skills or backup so that you
look like you're in charge.
● Visual aids
The skill with visual aids is to use them to give a big picture quickly. Graphics, pictures, cartoons bar charts etc;
you can then use words to elaborate. Slides with words on are of limited value. If you seem to have a lot you
may find you are showing your audience your speaker notes!
Presentation style
● Be yourself
Your most useful presentation skills are the skills you already have. Use any personal gestures or vocal
inflections to your advantage. It's very hard to change the way you express yourself. More effective
presentations are ones where you actual put the energy into the presentation (this is a message you will hear
again). Similarly, do not try to be anyone else or copy another presenter's style.
● Wave
Be more expressive rather than less. These days 'good communicators' are more and more frequently seen on
TV and held up as models. When you are giving a presentation is not TV. This is you communicating live.
Gestures help understanding and convey your enthusiasm for the topic.
Dealing with presentation nervousness
● Be nervous
A certain amount of nervousness is vital for a good presentation. You need the extra energy to communicate:
What you feel when you stand up in front of people is the urge to either run away or fight. If you endeavor to
stifle those feelings you will be inhibited, restricted, artificial and wooden. The added adrenaline will keep your
faculties sharp and your presentation skills ready to engage with your audience.
● Breathe
Extra adrenaline, however, can result in shallow upper chest breathing and tension. Taking a slow, deep
breath, breathing fully out and then in again, will relax you. Strangely having something to pick up and put
down tends to release your breathing.
● Get something else to do
It may seem an odd idea, but our bodies seem to feel better when they have some sort of displacement
activity to occupy them. It's the reason people hold pens and fiddle with things. A limited amount of this sort
of activity will not be too obtrusive and can make you feel a lot more secure.
● Hold on to something
When you start your presentation you are at your most insecure. Avoid all the well-meant advice about what
you are and are not allowed to do. Until you feel settled do anything you can find to make yourself feel secure.
This includes holding on to a lectern. Even just standing next to something solid will make you feel less wobbly.
● Go slow
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The breathing tip above will help you to slow down your presentation. Go more slowly than you think
necessary to avoid gabbling. Your audience needs the time to assimilate and interpret what you are saying. It's
a fact that when adrenaline is flowing your sense of time is distorted and what seems OK to you may look like
fast forward to your audience.
Working your audience
● Presentation as Conversation
Make your presentation a conversation with your audience. They may not actually say anything, but make
them feel consulted, questioned, challenged, argued with; then they will stay awake and attentive. One of
your best presentation skills is the ability to stimulate your audience into wanting to get more of the
information you have, not just to present that information at them.
● Interact
Engage with your present audience, not the one you have prepared for. Look for reactions to your ideas and
respond to their signals. If the light bulbs are not going on find another way to say it. Monitor their reactions;
it's the only way you'll know how you're doing and what you should do next. If you don't interact you might as
well send a video recording of your presentation. It's why you came.
● Show conviction
Give an expressive presentation and an enthusiastic presentation and your audience will respond, which is
what you want. At the very bottom line disagreement is preferable to being ignored. Use your excitement,
pace yourself to give an exciting presentation, use something you know you feel strongly about to build up to
an important point or as a springboard to another idea.
● Get some perspective
The odds are that someone in the audience will not like your presentation, or may disagree with you. There
will probably be someone else out there for whom you can do no wrong. As a rule of thumb, the majority of
most audiences want to like you and what you have to say - they want you to be good. They didn't come
hoping to be bored or irritated by your presentation.
Structuring effective presentations
● Use metaphors
Metaphors and analogies are vital presentation skills to develop. 'It's like climbing a greasy pole', for example,
conveys far more than just literal meaning. It conveys image and feeling and enables others to empathies
through similar experiences of their own. And remember the light bulbs - if they're not lighting up try a
different metaphor.
● Examples
Effective presentations are full of examples. Giving an example always helps your listeners to see more clearly
what you mean. It's quicker and more colourful.
● The point
Stick to the point using three or four basic ideas. For any detail that you cannot present in 20 minutes, try
another medium such as handouts or brochures.
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● Your Presentation Finale
End as if your presentation has gone well. Do this even if you feel like you've presented badly. First, you're
probably the worst judge of your presentation, and second, if you finish well you'll certainly fool some of the
people into thinking it was all pretty good. And anyway a good finish to a presentation will get you some
applause - and you deserve it!
Developing as a presenter
● Trust yourself and your skills
If you do not think you are up to a particular presentation either get help (do training courses and rehearsals),
or get someone else to do it (there's no shame in recognizing your limits). However, most people have better
presentation skills that they think they do. Recognise what skills you have. If you doubt your ability to think on
your feet, for example, then defer questions till after the presentation. Similarly, do not use a joke as an ice
breaker if you are not good at telling them.
● Success is the best presentation training
Don't over reach yourself. Several short presentations that you feel went well will do you far better than one
big one that makes you sick with nerves and leaves you feeling inadequate.
● Feedback
Encourage those around you to tell you the things you did well. Very few of us make progress by being told
what was wrong with our presentation. When we're up in front of an audience we all have very fragile egos.
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SESSION 5.
Perform self-monitoring and adapt the presentation.
Specific Outcomes
● Adjusting speech rate and volume and complexity of the content.
● Observe the response from the audience and adjust if necessary.
● Evaluate performance through the use of feedback tools.
Adjusting speech rate and volume and complexity of the content

Effective spoken communication requires being able to express your ideas and views clearly, confidently and
concisely in speech, tailoring your content and style to the audience and promoting free-flowing
communication.
● Be clear and concise: Vary your tone, pace and volume to enhance the communication and encourage
questions
● Persuading and Negotiating Arriving: at an agreement that is agreeable to both sides: a win: win
situation. Back up your points with logic. Show tact to those you disagree with.
● Making a speech in front of an audience: presenting your message in an interesting way, structuring your
presentation, using audio-visual aids effectively and building a rapport with your audience.
● Communicating effectively in a team
● Ask for help when you need it: Research suggests that asking for help with something (within reason)
makes you more liked by the person you ask!
Listening
● Make effective use of body language and speech. Be sensitive to the other person's body language as well
as what they say: eye contact, gestures, appropriate humour and analogies.
Use appropriate body language yourself: faces the person with an open, attentive posture and maintain good
eye contact (look at the speaker a lot, but don't stare all the time), smiling and nod your head from time to
time.
● Interest in what people are saying and don't interrupt them.
● Be aware of any prejudices or misconceptions you or the speaker may have.
● Good listening builds a rapport and understanding with the speaker and allows them to freely express
their views. It motivates them to say more.
● Poor listening makes assumptions, creates resistance and hostility, demotivates the speaker, inhibits their
development and creates dependence on the listener.
● Use ACTIVE LISTENING.
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● These reflect back what the speaker is saying in other words to clarify understanding: you paraphrase
and repeat back key points.
● They may summarise and bring new interpretations to the speaker’s words.
● They show you're listening carefully and checks you understand correctly what they are saying
allowing the speaker to confirm or correct your feedback.
● They encourage the speaker to elaborate and to define their problems.
● It is often the most useful way of giving positive feedback to someone: "I hear what you're saying and
take it seriously". You can't keep saying "uh-huh" or "yes" for too long without it sounding false.
Empathy
● Empathy means being open to the ideas of others and sensitive to their values and feelings: trying to see
things from the other person's perspective.
● It is about demonstrating that you understand, that you can listen from other person's point of view and
reflect their meaning
● Each individual has a unique perspective which should be valued. We each occupy our own private world
and never completely know what's going on inside other people's minds.
● Be prepared to disclose your own feelings and beliefs to encourage others to do the same: be open with
other people.
Observe the response from the audience and adjust if necessary
To create a winning presentation, you need to know how to tailor it for your audience - and then how to
present it effectively.
The first step is to decide on your content. All the bells and whistles in a presentation program can make you
forget that you still have to say something that will influence your audience. Using fancy graphics with whiz-
bang animation doesn't relieve you of the responsibility to carefully plan and organize the text. Believe me,
your audience will see right through you if you don't.
Basically, all presentations should follow this structure:
● Attention-getting opener
● Brief overview of the topic
● Describe what your audience needs, that is, the problem
● Explain how your solution meets that need
● Tell how your audience can implement your solution - that is, action steps
● Brief summary and conclusion
Of course, in order to describe what your audience needs, you need research your audience. A cardinal rule of
presenting is to find out as much as you can about your audience-before you create your presentation. In a
worst-case scenario when no information is available in advance, chat with your audience as they enter the
room to learn as much as you can- and adjust your presentation on the fly. In order to explain how you can
meet their needs, you have to know your product, service, or solution thoroughly. Then, leave most of your
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knowledge out and include only the most important points. People can only comprehend and remember a few
points in one sitting.
By organizing a presentation into this six-step structure, you can ensure a logical flow that your audience can
easily follow. Also, the material in each step must be simple and organized. The best way to put together a
presentation in PowerPoint is to create the text using the outline pane or view. In other words, start creating
your presentation without thinking about the visuals or effects. By concentrating on your text in outline form,
you can easily write down your ideas, see the flow of the entire presentation at once, and move ideas from
one place to another so they flow more logically. Don't forget to add examples and anecdotes as you go. Once
you have completed this process, you not only have a meaningful presentation, but PowerPoint has created
your entire presentation for you, slide by slide.
You're not finished yet! Now you need to add visual elements that pack a punch. Research has shown that
high-quality visual effects add to the effectiveness and influence of the presentation. Visual impact contains
three elements and they are all important: colour, graphic images, and layout.
Consider colour first because your colour choice affects the background or template that you use for the entire
presentation. When choosing a set of colours for your presentation, think about the overall impression you are
trying to make. Do you want to evoke boldness, comfort, authority, or some other quality? Then take the
following into account:
● Whichever colour your choose, make sure that all your text contrasts enough with your background to be
easily legible.
● Traditionally, dark backgrounds are used for on-screen presentations (compared to overhead
transparencies) because light colours are too bright and make your audience uncomfortable. However,
medium backgrounds can also work when you want a softer impact. Just make sure that the text is clearly
visible.
● Avoid certain colour combinations which may be difficult to look at or which some people cannot
distinguish: red/green, brown/green, blue/black, and blue/purple.
● Use red with care because it has certain undesirable connotations, such as financial loss. However, it can
be used sparingly for contrast.
● Blue is the most common colour for business presentations. To avoid the "bland blues, use a background
with some variations." Green is believed to stimulate interaction and is often used by trainers and
educators to generate a response.
Evaluate performance through the use of feedback tools
Feedback is essential in communication so as to know whether the recipient has understood the message in
the same terms as intended by the sender and whether he agrees to that message or not.
There are a lot of ways in which company takes feedback from their employees, such as: Employee surveys,
memos, emails, open-door policies, company news letter etc. Employees are not always willing to provide
feedback. The organization has to work a lot to get the accurate feedback. The managers encourage feedback
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by asking specific questions, allowing their employees to express general views, etc. The organization should
be receptive to their employee’s feedback.
Feedback should:
● Focus on a particular behaviour - It should be specific rather than being general.
● Impersonal - Feedback should be job related, the manager should not criticize anyone personally.
● Goal oriented - If we have something negative to say about the person, we should always direct it to the
recipients’ goal.
● Well timed - Feedback is most effective when there is a short gap between the recipients’ behaviour and
the receipt of that feedback.
● Use “I” statements - presenter should make use of statements with the words like “I”, “However” etc. For
example instead of saying “You were absent from work yesterday”, manager should say “I was annoys
when you missed your work yesterday”.
● Ensure understanding - For feedback to be effective, the presenter should make sure that the recipients
understand the feedback properly.
● While giving negative feedback to the recipient, the presenter should not mention the factors which are
not in control of the recipient.
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SESSION 6.
Determine and measure the outcome of the presentation.
Specific Outcomes
● Determine and measure the outcome of the presentation.
Determine and measure the outcome of the presentation.

You delivered your slides perfectly. Your timing was impeccable. Your audience was fully engaged at all times. Even
your old, outdated laptop – which often fails you at the most inopportune times performed flawlessly.
Everything seemed to go as smoothly as possible.
How are you measuring presentation success?
But, can your presentation really be considered a success? Here are some of the best ways to decide:
Track Views and/or Downloads
This can be an extremely valuable performance metric if your presentation was made available “on-demand” via the
Web. How many times was it viewed, and by how many different people? Those numbers will help you
determine whether or not your slide deck, and its key messages, is resonating with your target audience.
Count the “Drop Offs”
Every speaker can expect to lose an audience member or two during the course of their presentation, especially if it is
being broadcast over the Web, where attendees are subject to countless distractions. But, an unusually high
number of “drop offs” is a clear indicator that your presentation, or its central theme or topic, is lacking
something, and may need more fine-tuning.
The Call to Action – The Ultimate Test
Did your audience do what you wanted or asked them to do after your session was over? For example, if you were
conducting a training course for an upcoming exam, how many of your students passed the test? If you were
pitching a new product, how many customers requested more information, scheduled a demo, or made a
purchase? The actions attendees take immediately after a presentation – and whether or not those were the
desired or intended outcomes – is one of the best ways to gauge how successful it truly was.
Measure the Business Impact
Although you likely had a specific “call to action” in mind when delivering your presentation, there are also other,
secondary benefits that can be achieved – benefits that can have a profound impact on your business. Did you
build stronger customer loyalty? Win new business? Generate awareness in your market? Help your audience
learn and grow? These factors can also be used to help evaluate the success of your presentation.
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LEARNER GUIDE

Unit Standard 114076

Unit Std # 114076

Field Field 03 - Physical, Mathematical, Computer and Life Sciences

Sub-Field Information Technology and Computer Sciences

Qualification National Certificate: Information Technology (Systems Development) LEVEL 5- SAQA-

Specific Outcome 2 : Conduct research of a computer topic using computer technology

Total Notional Hours Contact Time Non-contact-

1. Learning Programme REFER TO COVER PAGE

7. PURPOSE for offering this REFER TO NEXT PAGE

8. TARGET AUDIENCE for this REFER TO NEXT PAGE

9. Entry/Admission REFER TO NEXT PAGE

People credited with this unit standard are able to:

• To provide a competent knowledge of the areas covered

• As additional knowledge for those wanting to understand the areas covered

● Plan the research of a computer topic

Learning assumed to be in place:

● Operate a personal computer

Learning material, Learner workbook, Pen, Ruler.

PLEASE NOTE: THE USE OF PENCILS OR TIPPEX IS NOT ALLOWED.

Venue, Date and Time:

Refer to your timetable.

The given exercises can contain one or more of the following:

● Information for you to read

● Exercises that require you to have a problem-solving approach to communication

● Questions for you to answer

● Case studies with questions that follow

How to do the exercise:

● Always remember to give reasons for your answers

Plan the research of a computer topic.

1.1 Planning steps of research

STEP 1: Identify the problem or topic

STEP 2: Review prior research

Explore – an attempt to generate ideas about educational phenomenon

Describe – an attempt to describe the characteristics of educational phenomenon

Predict – an attempt to forecast an educational phenomenon

Explain – an attempt to show why and how an educational phenomenon operates

1.2 Introduction to computer research

Reasons for Qualitative Research

Research Questions and Evaluation Goals

• How has it come to happen in this particular way?

• What do the people involved think is happening?

• How are these people responding to what is happening?

• Why are these people responding that way?

1.3 Other considerations to make in planning a research project

2.0 What do we mean by collecting data?

● Gathering together information from all sources and observations

2.1 Ethics for gathering data

Human subject research

2.2 Data Collection in computer science

Open-Ended Interviews and Survey Questions

Documents and Texts

The systematic examination of oral, written, or visual communication.

An ordered series of questions administered to individuals in a systematic manner.

2.4 When and by whom should data be collected and analyzed?

● If possible, use a randomized or closely matched control group for comparison

3.1 Data Analysis using computer technology

We briefly discuss each of the four techniques.

Contextual and Narrative Analysis

Feedback or Member Checking

Searching for Discrepant Evidence and Negative Cases

3.2.1 Reporting observation results

Analyze the data