Introduction To Iron Ore Amp Iron Ore Mining Revision 1 PDF

Protective Coatings, Mining Concept
Protective Coating’s Mining Concept

- An Introduction to Iron Ore & Iron Ore Mining
AW / Introduction to Iron Ore & Iron Ore Mining / 2013

Overview
• Introduction to Iron Ore
• Top Iron Ore Producing Countries
• Iron Ore Mining
• Iron Ore Processing
− Direct Shipping Ore
− Hematite
− Magnetite
• Iron Ore Stockyards & Transportation
• Iron Ore Export/Transportation
• Supporting Infrastructure
• Supporting Slides
• Protective Coatings Cube systems
• References

INTRODUCTION TO IRON ORE

What is Iron Ore?

• Iron ores are rocks and minerals from which metallic iron can be economically
extracted
- The ores are usually rich in iron oxides and vary in color from dark grey, bright yellow,
deep purple to rusty red
• The iron itself is usually found in the following forms:

- Magnetite (Fe3O4)
- (72% Fe)
- Hematite (Fe2O3)
- (70% Fe)
- Goethite (Fe2O3s H2O)
- (63% Fe)
- Limonite (FeO(OH).n(H2O))
- a mixture of hydrated iron oxides (up to 60% Fe)
- Siderite (FeCO3)
• Hematite and Magnetite are the most common types of iron ores extracted by
mining companies, the latter being a variant of another iron deposit called Taconite
- (Taconite = BIFs (Banded Iron Formations))

What is Iron Ore?

• Iron (Fe) is one of the most abundant rock-
forming elements, constituting about 5% of the
Earth's crust
−It is the fourth most abundant element after oxygen,
silicon and aluminium
−And after aluminium, the most abundant and widely
distributed metal
• Iron is indispensable to modern civilization and

people have been skilled in its use for more than
3000 years
−However, its use only became widespread in the 14th
century, when smelting furnaces (the forerunner of
blast furnaces) began to replace forges
• About 98% of world iron ore production is used

to make iron in the form of steel

Banded Iron Formations
• Most of the world's important iron ore

resources occur in iron-rich
sedimentary rocks known as Banded
Iron Formations (BIFs)
−BIFs are almost exclusively of
Precambrian age (i.e. greater than 600
million years old)
−BIFs occur on all continents
• In many instances they are mined as

iron ores, but most importantly they
are the source rocks for most of the Example of BIFs
large high-grade concentrations of

iron ore currently mined throughout
the world

Iron ore mining – Rio Tinto‟s Pilbara operations

What is Iron Ore?

• Hematite and Magnetite deposits are most commonly found in banded
iron formations (BIFs)
– BIFs are a class of sedimentary rocks that can be dated as far back as the
Proterozoic Econ (2500-500 mill yrs ago), and are found ww. These ore deposits consist
of several layers alternating between hematite, magnetite, and many other
mineral quartzes such as chert and silica
– The amount of iron found in BIFs typically varies from 20% to 35%, but
percentages of more 55% do occur less frequently
• “Natural ore”/”Direct shipping ore” is the name for ores carrying very high
quantities of iron (usually Hematite)
– Means they can be fed directly into iron making blast furnaces
– Most reserves already depleted
– Magnetite and taconite ores experience a longer, more effortful separation
process
• Iron ore is the raw material used to make pig iron, which is one of the
main raw materials to make steel
– 98% of the mined iron ore is used to make steel

Magnetite I
• Magnetite is an iron oxide mineral generally black in colour and highly
magnetic, the latter property aiding which helps in the beneficiation of
magnetite ores
• Magnetite mineral contains 72.4% iron, which is higher than hematite but
the presence of impurities results in lower ore grade, making it more
costly to produce the concentrates used in steel smelters
• Magnetite mining is an emerging industry in Australia with large deposits

in the Pilbara region of WA being developed
• Like hematite ores, magnetite ores require initial crushing and screening,
but undergo a second stage of processing that relies on the magnetic
properties of the ore and involves magnetic separators to extract the
magnetite and produce a concentrate.
• Magnetite is increasing its presence in world production

Magnetite II
• The key economic parameters for magnetite ore being economic are the
crystallinity of the magnetite;
− the grade of the iron within the banded iron formation host rock and the
contaminant elements which exist within the magnetite concentrate
• The size and strip ratio of most magnetite resources is irrelevant

− A BIF can be hundreds of meters thick, extend hundreds of kilometers
along strike, and can easily come to more than three billion or more
tonnes of contained ore
• The typical grade of iron at which a magnetite-bearing banded iron

formation becomes economic is roughly 25% iron
− This can generally yield a 33% to 40% recovery of magnetite by weight, to
produce a concentrate grading in excess of 64% iron by weight
− The typical magnetite iron ore concentrate has less than 0.1% phosphorus,
3–7% silica and less than 3% aluminium

Magnetite

Hematite
• Hematite iron ore deposits are currently exploited on all continents except
Antarctica, with the largest intensity in South America, Australia and Asia
• Hematite is an iron oxide mineral

− It is non-magnetic and has colour variations ranging from steel silver to reddish brown.
Pure hematite mineral contains 69.9% iron
− The word comes from the Greek world „Haematite‟, meaning 'blood-stone„
• Been the dominant IO mined in Australia since the early 1960s and approximately
96% of Australia's iron ore exports are high grade hematite
• High grade hematite ore is referred to as direct shipping ore (DSO) because it is
mined and the ores go through a relatively simple crushing and screening process
before being exported for use in steel making. Australia's hematite DSO from the
Hamersley region in WA averages from 56% to 62% iron
• Hematite ores dominate the world production of iron ores and are sourced mainly
in Australia and Brazil

Hematite

DSO - Direct Shipping Ore

• DSO deposits (typically composed of hematite) are currently exploited on all
continents except Antarctica
− Largest intensity in South America, Australia and Asia
• The predominant minerals in DSO are usually the ferric iron oxides hematite
(Fe2O3), goethite (FeO(OH) and/or limonite (FeO(OH).nH2O)
− Most large hematite iron ore deposits are sourced from altered banded iron formations and
rarely igneous accumulations
• DSO deposits are typically rarer than the magnetite-bearing BIF or other rocks
which form its main source or protolith rock, but are considerably cheaper to mine
and process as they require less beneficiation due to the higher iron content
− DSO ores can however contain significantly higher concentrations of penalty elements,
typically being higher in phosphorus, water content (especially pisolite sedimentary
accumulations) and aluminum (clays within pisolites)
• Export grade DSO ores are generally in the 62–64% Fe range

Iron Properties
• Iron is unusual in being magnetic (magnetite)

− if you dangle a piece it will turn to face north-south
• Iron is a silver-grey metal which quickly corrodes or rusts (it forms

a red powder called iron oxide) when exposed to air and water.
• Iron is quite soft and easily worked, but when made into steel iron
is very strong
• Iron has the symbol Fe from the Roman word “ferrum”
• Iron has a very high melting point of 1535oC

Iron Ore Facts

• China consumes about 60% of the world‟s
iron ore
• Most IO mines are open cut

-World‟s largest underground IO mine is
Sweden‟s Kiruna mine
• Iron is the world's most commonly used

metal
– Steel, of which iron ore is the key ingredient,
representing almost 95% of all metal used each
year
– Other applications of iron include:
• Production of magnets
• Catalytic functions
• Medicinal purposes
• Pigmentation of inks, dyes, paints, make-up

Usage of Iron Ore I

From ore to produce:
1.Iron ore is extracted from surface rock, crushed and sorted
2.Transported to customers (smelters), usually by ship
3.Iron ore is smelted in by the customers in blast furnaces, by feeding the

furnace ore and coke and very hot air is blasted in
4.The chemical reactions that take place form a mixture of molten iron and
slag
5.The dense iron sinks to the bottom of the furnace and is tapped of – once
cooled it‟s called pig iron
6.Pig iron is used to produce steel or is further refined to produce

commercially pure iron

Usage of Iron Ore II

• Cast iron:
− Partly refined iron containing up to 5% carbon
− Is very hard, but brittle, and is ideal for molded parts like car engine blocks
• Wrought iron
− Nearly pure iron mixed with a glass-like material
− Is softer than cast iron and does not rust
− Used in outdoor furniture, railings and other decorations
• Steel
− The most common form of iron
− Contains around 1% carbon
• Stainless steel
− Contains chromium, making it very rust restistent
− Is ideal for vehicle parts, hospital equipment and cooking utensils
• Tool steel
− Extremely hard, heat treated steel that is used in metalworking tools

Iron “Fun” Facts I

• The earth's magnetic field is due to the iron (and nickel) in its core, so
when we use a compass we are making use of the iron underneath us
• Iron is amongst the oldest metals known to humans. Paleolithic Man used
finely ground haematite as rouge! Around 4000 BC, the Egyptians and
Sumerians first used iron from meteorites to make beads, ornaments,
weapons and tools
• The Iron Age was from 1300 - 1100 BC, when the Hittites were the first
to forge iron (they heated it, then hammered it, then cooled it quickly to
produce iron that was harder than bronze, which people had been using
before)
• By the time of the Roman Empire, iron was being used for beds, gates,
chariots, nails, saws, axes, spears, fishhooks and tools for sharpening

Iron “Fun” Facts II

• During the Middle Ages, with the introduction of the iron cannon and
cannon ball, the consumption of iron increased to overtake copper and
bronze as the most widely used metal
• In the late 19th century the Age of Steel began, with wooden ships giving
way to steel, machinery coming to the factories, and the invention of the
railroad
• Today we use 20 times more iron (in the form of steel) than all other
metals put together
• Steel is one of the world's most recycled products, with about 60% of
steel available for recycling going back into making new steel

Thabazimbi iron ore mine, South Africa
TOP IRON ORE PRODUCING

COUNTRIES

Top IO Producers in the World

• Vale, BHP and Rio Tinto, known as iron ore's “Big Three”, produce about 70% of
the world's sea-borne iron ore exports of about 1 billion tons a year
- Vale is the world‟s number 1 closely followed by Rio Tinto, with BHP Billiton on 3rd place
• Top 10 IO producing countries:

1. China
2. Australia
3. Brazil
4. India
5. Russia
6. Ukraine
7. South Africa
8. USA
9. Canada
10.Iran


Production & Reserves by Country
Note: The mine production estimate for China is based on crude ore, rather than usable ore, which is reported for the other countries

Top IO Producers by Company

• Mining iron ore is a high volume low margin business, as the value of iron is
significantly lower than base metals
• It is highly capital intensive, and requires significant investment in infrastructure

such as rail in order to transport the ore from the mine to a freight ship
− For these reasons, iron ore production is concentrated in the hands of a few major players

Iron Ore in China

• World‟s largest IO producer
− 2011 figures: 43% or 1200Mt
»
• The world‟s largest consumer of IO

− Estimated China imports more than 60% of the world‟s total iron ore
trade
− Used to fuel China‟s domestic steel production
• Used for domestic demand and overseas fabrication work
• High IO prices lessens China‟s competitiveness
• Chinese demand for iron ore whether imported or domestically

produced is the key determinant of the outlook for the global iron
ore market in the short run


Iron Ore in Australia

• Australia has some of the largest iron ore deposits of their type and has a
significant share of the world‟s Economic Demonstrated Resources (EDR) of
iron ore
• Australia‟s IO production is found in the state of Western Australia

−WA accounted for 97% of the nations total production and total exports in 2011 and
about 25% of the global production
−Markets: Asia, especially China, Japan & South Korea
• Australia‟s Economic Demonstrated Resources (EDR) of iron ore are around

28 billion tonnes with Western Australia accounting for about 98 per cent.
• Dominated by 3 main players:

−BHP Billiton
• 7 mines, 1 port and rail network
−Rio Tinto
• 13 mines, 3 shipping terminals at 2 ports and almost 1400km
of rail network
−Fortescue Metal Group (FMG)
• 3 mines, 1 port and rail network



Iron Ore in Brazil

• Main areas for iron ore mining is found in the states of
−Minas Gerais; the so called “Iron Quadrangle” or “Quadrilátero Ferrífero”
−Para: Carajás area (Serra Norte, Serra Sul, Serra Leste & Serra São Félix)
−Accounts for approx. 98% of Brazil‟s io production
• Brazil‟s reserves are known for their high metal content, which
frequently exceeds 60%
• Other important reserves:

−Corumbá in the state of Mato Grosso do Sul
−Rio do Peixe Bravo, Guanhães & Morro do Pilar in the state of Minas Gerais
• IO production dominated by Vale

−Vale holds approx. 31% of the world‟s sea-born iron ore market


Iron Ore Demand & Supply 2010-2018

Iron Ore in India

• The total recoverable reserves of iron ore in India are
about
−9,602 million tones of hematite
−3,408 million tones of magnetite
• Principal states producing IO:

−Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Jharkhand,
Odisha, Goa, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Kerala,
Rajasthan & Tamil Nadu
• India‟s IO export marketshare has declined the last

years:
−2007: 21%
−2011. 11%
−2012: ca. 5%
• Known for being an “unstable” exporter of IO

−Export bans (due to environmental issues like illegal
logging)
−Estimated that India will end 2013 as a net importer
of IO
• The largest steel producers, TATA Steel & Steel Authority

of India Ltd (SAIL), have their own IO mines

Iron Ore in Russia

• Russia is one of the few countries with a developed ferrous metallurgy that can
completely cover its domestic requirements for iron ore from its own resources
−This is due to the presence of significant reserves of iron ore in the country, amounting to
approximately 55Gt (55,000Mt) in 2011
• However, in contrast to Australia and Brazil, the average iron content in the
Russian iron ores is relatively low, less than 36%, and Russia‟s reserves of rich
iron ores are insignificant
−Also extremely uneven distribution of iron-ore reserves within the country
• IO deposits are located in the Urals and Siberia regions with the Kursk Magnetic
Anomaly (KMA) being Russia 's major iron ore mining region
• Production of crude iron ore in the country :

−Central Federal District (CFD) accounts for 44-47%
−Northwest Federal District (NWFD) is responsible for 21-23%
−Urals Federal District (UFD) for 22-23%
• Most of Russia 's iron ore mining companies form part of large steel enterprises
that are vertically integrated

World‟s IO Consumers
• The top consumer of all countries is China
− Being the largest importer and largest
producer of IO in the world
− China imported 687 Mt of iron ore in 2011,
accounting for 61% of global imports
• Australia was China‟s top source of iron

ore, with 296 Mt or 43% of its iron ore
imports coming from Australia
− Australia is also the dominant supplier to
Japan and South Korea, supplying 62% and
68% of those countries‟ iron ore imports
respectively
• Brazil supplies around a quarter of total

iron ore imports to China, Japan and
South Korea

World‟s Iron Ore Market

• Historically IO prices have been decided in closed-door
negotiations between the small number of miners and steelmakers
dominating both spot and contract markets
− Traditionally, the first deal reached between these two groups sets a
benchmark to be followed by the rest of the industry
• Today‟s system has moved away from the traditional ways to

market-based pricing
− Index-based quarterly pricing by the world‟s 3 largest IO miners;
Vale, Rio Tinto and BHP Billiton

Iron Ore Market: 2011-2013 trends

• Declining demand in China led to drops in
spot prices for iron ore, and the delay,
cancellation, or reorganization of major
production improvement projects
worldwide
• Global prices declined steadily since 2011,

and in September 2012, they reached the
lowest benchmark prices since 2009 at US
$86
• Mixed expectations to IO prices:

−Different scenarios: high vs low prices
Source: SEB Commodities Monthly 26th of March 2013
• Highly dependent on the Chinese economy
−Poor growth figures for China = lower IO price

World‟s Iron Ore Market

• Volatile market
- Price fluctuations
• 2007: less than $40/t
• 2012, Sept: $86/t
• 2013, March: $145/t
• Forecasts for 2013 averages

are:
− US$127/t and US$121/t

IRON ORE MINING

Surface & Underground Mining

Introduction to IO Mining & Processing
• Iron ore can, compared to some of the

other substances being mined like gold
and nickel, be relatively simple to
process
• Iron ore is extracted, sorted, blended

and washed before being transported to
customers (Direct Shipping Ore), but if
the grade of ore being mined is of
poorer quality it experience a longer,
more effortful beneficiation process

Iron Ore Mining

• Iron is mined almost exclusively in surface operations
−The most predominant surface mining methods used to extract iron ore
are open-pit and open-cut methods
• Underground IO mining does also exist

−Largest underground IO mine is Kiruna mine in Sweden w/ 26mill mtpa
(pictured below)

What to Consider Before Excavation Starts?
• What is the quality of the ore?
• Overburden and stripping ratios are important in determining

whether a deposit will be mined
− The stripping ratio describes the unit of overburden that must be
removed for each unit of crude ore mined
− Stripping ratios increase with the quality of the ore being mined and
cost factors related to beneficiation and transportation

Extraction Methods
• The decision to employ underground or surface mining techniques
is dependent on the proximity of the ore body to the surface
• Historically, underground mining methods, including caving and

stopping, were commonly used to extract iron ores
• Underground methods are very expensive compared to open-pit

and open-cut methods
− Can‟t compete with high volume surface mines (like those in WA), and
even if they can compete on cost, it‟s very difficult to extract the high
volumes required to make the development economically viable
− Open-pit and open-cut mining are considered to be the least
expensive extraction techniques

IO Surface Mining
• Surface mining methods are
designed to extract ore from
surface deposits
− Overburden, the soil and rock
material that overlies the mine
area, is removed to expose the
ore deposit
• The ore bench is drilled, blasted,

and hauled to a plant for
beneficiation
• Overburden may be continually

removed during the life of the
mine as the highwall is cut back
to permit deepening of the pit

Overview of Iron Ore Mining

Stage 1: Exploration, Evaluation & Planning

• Ore bodies are identified and quantified by
using a range of geological, geophysical and
metallurgical techniques
− Example being drilling for samples
• The data from the exploration activities are

logged, mapped, analyzed and interpreted
through models
• A detailed plan of which ore bodies to mine

in what sequence, to deliver the required
product quality at an appropriate cost, is
developed
− The process of mine planning commence many
years before a mine is developed and
continues on a day-to-day basis once the mine
is operational


Stage 2: Clearing of Overburden, Drilling & Blasting

1. Areas for open-pit mining are selected using the
mine plan
2. Overburden removed to expose the ore deposit

- Overburden is then loaded by large hydraulic shovels
into production trucks, which haul it to contour
dumps
3. Identified areas are tagged
4. Holes are drilled in an appropriate pattern by rigs
5. Drill holes are fitted with an explosive and

charged
− Most used explosive is ANFO (Ammonium Nitrate/Fuel
Oil)
6. The resulting blast breaks the material to a size

required for digging

Tagged and drilled holes

Video: http://www.minesurveyor.net/ssblast.php

Stage 3: Loading & Hauling

• The broken material is loaded for
transport by face shovels, excavators
or front-end loaders into haul trucks
• Haul truck will then bring the ore

material to the processing plant
• Though haul trucks are commonly

used, overland conveyors are
sometimes used to transport partially
crushed feed at sites where there are
long distances between the pits and
process plants

Equipment Used for Surface Mining of IO
Drilling Rigs


Loaders: Front-end Loaders


Face Shovels / Excavators

Dump/Haul Trucks



IRON ORE PROCESSING

Iron Ore Processing: Intro

• Although iron is the fourth most abundant element in the Earth's crust,
comprising about 5%, the vast majority is bound in silicate or more rarely
carbonate minerals
− The amount of forces it takes to separate pure iron from these minerals are
formidable and energy intensive, therefore all sources of iron used by human
industry exploit comparatively rarer iron oxide minerals, primarily hematite and
magnetite
• Historically, much of the iron ore utilized by industrialized societies has been
mined from predominantly hematite deposits with grades in excess of 70% Fe
− These deposits are commonly referred to as "direct shipping ores" or "natural ores“
• Increasing iron ore demand, coupled with the depletion of high-grade

hematite ores WW and led to development of lower-grade iron ore sources,
principally the utilization of magnetite and taconite(BIFs)

Iron Ore Processing II
• Historically, most iron ore was simply crushed and shipped directly
to a blast furnace
• Currently, some ores are high enough in iron content (greater than
50 percent) to be sent directly to furnaces without beneficiation
activities other than crushing and washing
• Most ores extracted today, however, must undergo a number of

beneficiation procedures to upgrade the iron content and prepare
the concentrate for the blast furnace

Iron Ore Processing II

• Very low grade Iron ore cannot be used in metallurgical plants and needs to be
upgraded to increase the iron content and reduce the gangue content
− Gangue is the unwanted minerals which are an intrinsic part of the ore rock itself
• A process adopted to upgrade ore is called Beneficiation;

− Iron ore is upgraded to a higher iron content through a variety of processes whereby
extracted ore from mining is separated into mineral and gangue, the former suitable for
further processing or direct use
• Iron ore is being beneficiated all round the world to meet the quality requirement
of Iron and Steel industries. However, each source of Iron ore has its own peculiar
mineralogical characteristics and requires the specific beneficiation and
metallurgical treatment to get the best product out of it
− Choice of the beneficiation treatment depends on the nature of the gangue present and its
association with the ore structure
− Several techniques such as washing, jigging, magnetic separation, advanced gravity
separation and flotation are being used to enhance the quality of the Iron ore

Iron Ore Processing III

• Processing of IO ranges from simple crushing and screening to a standard
size, through to processes that beneficiate or upgrade the quality of the
iron ore products
• The process the ore goes through depends on the

grade of ore being mined!
• Beneficiation or upgrade is done by physical processes, which remove
impurities by differences in particle density or size gravity or size
separation
• The processing may be wet or dry

Iron Ore Processing IV

• The required Size for Pellet Plant feed differs from the different
types of iron ore:
− DSO: <32mm >6mm
− Hematite: <6mm
− Magnetite: 25-35µm
• Implications of this is that the lower quality of ore the more

rigorous the processing will be  more expensive
• To reach the specified grind size the ore material goes through
several processes
− The smaller the size, the longer the process!

Beneficiation
• Beneficiation is defined as “a variety of processes whereby extracted ore from
mining is reduced to particles that can be separated into mineral and waste, the
former suitable for further processing or direct use”
• Beneficiation means the following as applied to iron ore: milling (crushing and
grinding); washing; filtration; sorting; sizing; gravity concentration; magnetic
separation; flotation; and agglomeration (pelletizing, sintering, briquetting, or
nodulizing)
− Milling and magnetic separation are the most common methods used
− Flotation is primarily used to upgrade concentrates from magnetic separation by reducing
the silica content of the concentrate
• Most beneficiation operations will result in the production of three materials:

− a concentrate
− a middling or very low-grade concentrate, which is either reprocessed (in modern plants)
or stockpiled
− a tailing (waste), which is discarded in tailings dams

General Processing of Iron Ore

• First step in iron ore processing is always liberation with the goal
of to free iron-bearing particles
− This process consists mostly of crushing and grinding
• The ore must be ground to a particle size sufficiently close to the

grain size of the iron-bearing mineral to allow for a high degree of
mineral liberation
− ref. required size for pellent plant feed for the different types of ore
• Prior to grinding, the ore is crushed in up to six stages, depending

on the hardness of the ore
− One or two stages of crushing might be done at the mine before being
shipped to the processing facility(primary & secondary crushing)

General Processing 1: Crushing

• Initial/Primary crushing
−Primary crushed iron ore is typically “nominal” 350mm in size
−The crusher systems used are usually gyratory or jaw crushers
−Cone crushers and High Pressure Grinding Roll are usually used for secondary and
tertiary fine crushing
• After going through the primary crushing the

ore is stored in a crushed ore stockpile
(COS)
• In certain processed we also find Secondary

and even Tertiary crushing happening after
the initial crushing
−Often making use of cone crushers or jaw
crushers
−The crushers are usually feed using vibrating
feeders

Crushers
Gyratory Crusher

Crushers II
• Primary crushing plant with

gyratory crusher for iron ore
and overburden
• The crusher is directly fed

from two sides by means of
dump/haul trucks

From Sino Iron project, WA, Australia

Crushers III
Jaw Crushers Cone Crusher
• Primary crushing machine used • Mainly used in secondary or
for coarse crushing plant in mine tertiary stone crushing process
ore mining process

High Pressure Grinding Roll

• Consists out of two rollers with the same
dimensions, which are rotating against
each other with the same
circumferential speed
• The special feeding of bulk material

through a hopper leads to a material
bed between the two rollers
• The bearing units of one roller can move

linearly and are pressed against the
material bed by springs or hydraulic
cylinders
• The pressures in the material bed are

greater than 50 Mpa
−In general they achieve 100 to 300 MPa.
−By this the material bed is compacted to a
solid volume portion of more than 80%

Feeders
• Feeders are in charge of

feeding material to the
different units in the
processing of iron ore:
Vibrating feeder
−Crushers
−Screens
• Different forms of feeders

dependent on the need of the
process/material
Apron feeder

General Processing 2: Screening

• Main purpose of using screens is to remove undersize material
from the feed to the next crusher and allow for a closed-circuit
operation of the fine crushers
− As a result screening is carried out at various stages in the crushing
process
• Screens are basically box frames into which sheets of screen

meshes of the required apertures are inserted, clamped and
tensioned
− Screens are usually "multi-deck", i.e. two or more screen meshes are stacked
vertically within the screen frame
− The whole screen is coupled to its support frame by springs or resilient rubber
mountings and are made to vibrate by a rotating transverse shaft. The shaft is
machined to be unbalanced, and when driven by an electric motor by v-belts,
the required vibratory motion to agitate the aggregate is imparted.

Vibrating screens Linear vibrating screen
Screening in operation

General Processing 3: Further Crushing/Grinding/Milling
• After crushing and screening the material is further reduced by wet

grinding in rod mills or ball/pebble mills
− The rod and ball mills are in closed-circuit with classification systems such as
cyclones
• An alternative to crushing (after primary crushing) is to feed some coarse

ore directly to a wet or dry semi-autogenous or autogenous grinding mills
− Followed by pebble/ball mills, rod mills or tower mills
• The liberated particles should be removed from the grinding circuits as

soon as they are formed/freed, with larger particles returned for further
grinding/milling
• It should be noted that the grinding/milling solutions available

are numerous, dependent on what is most economical and
beneficial for the ore being processed

Autogenous Grinding/Semi-Autogenous Grinding Mills

• Autogenous Grinding (AG) are so-
called due to the self-grinding of the
ore:
−a rotating drum throws larger rocks of
ore in a cascading motion which causes
impact breakage of larger rocks and
compressive grinding of finer particles
• Semi-autogenous grinding mills

(SAG) are essentially autogenous
mills, but utilize grinding balls to aid
in grinding like in a ball mill
• A SAG or AG mill is generally used as

a primary or first stage grinding
solution

Principle of SAG mill operations

Rod & Ball/Pebble Mills

• Both rod mills and ball mills are fine
grinders
− Ball mills being the most used
• Ball mills:
− A slightly inclined or horizontal
rotating cylinder is partially filled
with balls, usually stone or metal,
which grinds material to the
necessary fineness by friction and
impact with the tumbling balls
• Rod mills:
− A rotating drum causes friction and
gradual reduction of particle size
between steel rods and ore particles

Tower Mills
• As with ball and rod mills, tower mills can
be used for dry or wet grinding applications
− often called vertical mills, stirred mills or
regrind mills
• Are a more efficient means of grinding

material at smaller particle sizes, and can
be used after ball mills in a grinding
process
• Like ball mills, grinding (steel) balls or

pebbles are often added to stirred mills to
help grind ore, however these mills contain
a large screw mounted vertically to lift and
grind material
− In tower mills, there is no cascading action
as in standard grinding mills

General Processing 4: Blending

• Blending is the process of blending different grades of ores in order to
achieve the required final quality and consistency required by the
consumers
− The raw material that you get from any mine is never consistent in terms of
quality
• At an iron ore mine, the ore going into the blast furnaces must be blended
so that the process can be controlled and the required minimum quality of
iron produced
− It is impossible to get an even quality of any mined ore if you simply use it as it
comes out of the mine
− As a result, the blending process is a key function of most stacker/reclaimer
stockyard systems
• To achieve the required level of blending from a particular mine for a

particular process, one must first determine the most appropriate
combination of stacking system and reclaiming system
General Processing 4: Blending II

• Type of stockyard equipment:
−Stackers: −Combination:
• Slewing/luffing stackers • Bucket wheel reclaimers
• Wing stackers • Bridge bucket wheel
• Overhead stackers reclaimers
• Circular • Halfbridge bucket wheel
reclaimers
• Radial stackers
• Combination stacker/bucket
−Reclaimers: wheel reclaimers
• Drum reclaimers
−Multi-directional:
• Portal reclaimers
• Circular stackers
• Side scraper reclaimers
• Uni- and bidirectional
• Plough reclaimers reclaimers
• Circular reclaimers
• Bridge scraper reclaimers

• Dense Media Separation

Further − High operating cost
• Efficient separation
Processing −
−
Depends on bottom size
Near density material
To maximize the recovery of − Optimize yield and recovery
− Lower tailings grades
iron-bearing minerals sometimes • Density Separation
additional gravity separation − Small effect on size
processes are used:
• Jigging
•Jigging − Low operating cost
• Less efficient separation
− Narrow size classes
•Dense Media Separation (DMS) − Recovery losses
− Higher tailings grades
• Size and density
separation

Dense Media Separation

• To maximize the recovery of iron-
bearing minerals a Dense Media
Separation (DMS) process is
sometimes used
−Heavy media or dense media separation
include, baths, drums, larcodems, dyana
whirlpool separators and dense medium
cyclones
• DMS is a process where a suspension of dense powder in water is used to form a

type of „heavier liquid‟ to separate mineral particles in a sink-float process
−Many modern dense media plants use this technology because it is both flexible and
allows upgrading of resources thereby increasing overall profitability of the resource
• The correct application of the DMS technology can increase the recovery of iron
ore and increase the separation efficiency of the scrap metal recycling process

Dense Media Separation

Dense Media Separation cont.

Jigging
• Main purpose of jigging is to separate particles within the ore body, based
on their specific gravity (relative density)
− The particles would usually be of a similar size, often crushed and screened
prior to being fed over the jig bed
• There are many variations in design; however the basic principles are
constant:
− The particles are introduced to the jig bed (usually a screen) where they are
thrust upward by a pulsing water column or body, resulting in the particles
being suspended within the water
− As the pulse dissipates, the water level returns to its lower starting position and
the particles once again settle on the jig bed
− As the particles are exposed to gravitational energy whilst in suspension within
the water, those with a higher specific gravity (density) settle faster than those
with a lower count, resulting in a concentration of material with higher density
at the bottom, on the jig bed
− The particles are now concentrated according to density and can be extracted
from the jig bed separately

Dewatering
• The main processes that are used in dewatering include dewatering screens,
sedimentation, filtering, and thermal drying
− These processes increase in difficulty and cost as the particle size decreases
• Dewatering screens operate by passing particles over a screen. The particles pass
over the screen while the water passes through the apertures in the screen
− Only viable for coarse ores that have a close size distribution as the apertures can allow
small particles to pass though and are not able to be produced for small particles
• Sedimentation operates by passing water into a large thickener or clarifier

− In these devices, the particles settle out of the slurry under the effects of gravity or
centripetal forces
− These are limited by the surface chemistry of the particles and the size of the particles. To
aid in the sedimentation process, floculants and coagulants are added to reduce the
repulsive forces between the particles. This repulsive force is due to the double layer
formed on the surface of the particles. The floculants work by binding multiple particles
together while the coagulants work by reducing the thickness of the charged layer on the
outside of the particle


Iron Ore Processing
Processing of Direct Shipping Ore

Processing of Iron Ore; DSO
• Processing of Direct Shipping Ore (DSO) is the simplest form of

iron ore processing:
− DSO passes through a simple crushing, screening and blending
process (beneficiation) before it is shipped for steel production
• Direct shipping ores, when mined, typically have iron (Fe) content
of between 56% Fe and 64% Fe
− The predominant minerals in DSO are usually the ferric iron oxides
hematite (Fe2O3), goethite (FeO(OH) and/or limonite (FeO(OH).nH2O)
• As they require less beneficiation due to the higher iron content,

DSOs are considerably cheaper to mine and process compare to
Hematite and Magnetite

Iron Ore Processing
Processing of Hematite

Processing of Hematite
• Due to the high density of hematite relative to silicates, ore separating
line usually involves a combination of crushing and milling as well as
heavy liquid separation
• Heavy liquid separation is achieved by passing the finely crushed ore over
a bath of solution containing bentonite or other agent which increases the
density of the solution
− When the density of the solution is properly calibrated, the hematite will sink
and the silicate mineral fragments will float and can be removed
• Hematite goes through the following processes:

− Crushing & Screening (several processes)
− Milling & Grinding
− Heavy Liquid Separation / Dense Media Separation / Jigging

Processing of Hematite: Milling & Grinding

• Milling is the process of reducing the size of the ore material
further before it can enter the grinding stage
• The ore comes from the crushers (primary/secondary crushers)

and enters the milling and grinding equipment
− Grinding mills: autogenous grinding mill (AGM), cyclones, pebble mill,
ball mill, high pressure grinder roll,
• AGM are often found in closed circuit with cyclones and pebble
crushers/mills
• Grinding equipment: processing mill, energy-saving ball mill fine

sieve grading equipment, vibrating screen, spiral classifier

Processing of Hematite: Heavy Liquid Separation/Floatation

• Main purpose of floatation is to add additional recovery
− Cleaning the material further
− Can be reversed or direct floatation
• One method of processing hematite relies on passing the finely crushed ore over a
bath of solution containing bentonite or other agent which increases the density of
the solution
− When the density of the solution is properly calibrated, the hematite will sink and the
silicate mineral fragments will float and can be removed
• The basics principles of floatation:

− The finely powdered ore is mixed with water to form a slurry
− The desired mineral is rendered hydrophobic by the addition of a collector chemical. The
particular chemical depends on which mineral is being refined.
− This slurry (more properly called the pulp) of hydrophobic particles and hydrophilic
particles is then introduced to a water bath which is aerated, creating bubbles
− The hydrophobic particles attach to the air bubbles, which rise to the surface, forming a
froth
− The froth is removed and the concentrate is further refined

Floatation
• Types of floatation:
−Flash floatation
−Conventional floatation
−Tank cells
−Column cells
−Reagent Plants

Iron Ore Processing
Processing of Magnetite

Processing/Beneficiation of Magnetite
• Compared to Hematite, Magnetite goes through a more rigorous

processing
− This to ensure the iron ore reaches the quality required by the end users
• The beneficiation of magnetite typically involves grinding to a particle size

where magnetite is liberated form its silicate matrix
• The typical grade of iron at which a magnetite-bearing banded iron

formation becomes economic is roughly 25% iron, which can generally
yield a 33% to 40% recovery of magnetite by weight to produce a
concentrate grading in excess of 64% iron by weight
• The typical magnetite iron ore concentrate has less than 0.1%
phosphorus, 3–7% silica and less than 3% aluminium

Processing/Beneficiation of Magnetite - Overview
Animation from Sino Iron Project in WA

Processing/Beneficiation of Magnetite
• Magnetite is magnetic, and as a result:
− Easily separated from the gangue minerals
− Capable of producing a high-grade concentrate with very low levels of
impurities
• The grain size of the magnetite and its degree of commingling with the
silica groundmass determine the grind size to which the rock must be
comminuted to enable efficient magnetic separation to provide a high
purity magnetite concentrate
− This again determines the energy inputs required to run a milling operation
• Mining of magnetite bearing BIFs involves coarse crushing and screening,

followed by rough crushing and fine grinding to pulverize the ore to the
point where the crystallized magnetite and quartz are fine enough that
the quartz is left behind when the resultant powder is passed under a
magnetic separator

Processing/Beneficiation of Magnetite II
• After the coarse and fine crushing,

milling and screening the next step is to
concentrate
− Only around 30-35% of the crude
magnetite becomes a shippable produce
for iron making and a large amount of
gangue is created
• Magnetite is concentrated through the

use of several techniques:
− Magnetic separation
− Floatation


Processing/Beneficiation of Magnetite III; Magnetic

Separation
• Magnetic separation is a process in which magnetically susceptible material is
extracted from a mixture using a magnetic force
− Very useful in mining of magnetite due to its magnetic properties
• The magnetite ore usually goes through several stages of magnetic separation
(mostly 1 & 2)
1. Rougher Magnetic Separation
2. Cleaner Magnetic Separation
3. Second Cleaner Magnetic Separation
• Magnetic separators available:

− Wet and dry, low-intensity magnetic separation (LIMS)
− Wet, high-intensity magnetic separation (WHIMS)
− Roll magnetic separators

Magnetic Separation;
Wet Process

Magnetic Separation; Dry Process

Processing/Beneficiation of Magnetite IV; Floatation

• Flotation in iron ore beneficiation sometimes happen in addition to the magnetic
separation, in order to clean the magnetite it from the silica
− This to meet the silica and alumina specifications of the end product
− In some cases, siderite, an iron carbonate may occur in the magnetite-bearing BIFs and
could warrant recovery by flotation if present in high enough amounts
• Flotation systems for removing silica from magnetite ores have to be designed
differently compared to the systems for treatment of hematite ore. There are
several reasons for this but in all magnetite flotation, the collector must have the
capability to float mixed magnetite-silica grains
− In hematite flotation, the most normal case is to float fully liberated quartz from hematite
• Example: The flotation phases for magnetite can employ conventional large-size
mechanical cells, in addition to flotation columns
− This process uses starch (depressant) and amine (quartz collector) as reagents to promote
the separation of the contaminant mineral (quartz) from the iron-bearing mineral

Example of process flow for Samarco‟s Alegria and Fazendao mines ore produce, Brazil

Processing of Magnetite: Sino Iron Example

• Once operating the project will:
− Mine ca. 140 mill tonnes each year
− Process ca. 80 mill tonnes through the
processing plant
• Ore processing stages:

1. Ore into in-pit crushers
2. Crushed ore enters giant grinding mills
where fine ore stream will be produced
• Using 44 MW of power, over 17m tall
3. The ore stream enters the magnetic
separators to become concentrate
4. The concentrate will be then be
thickened and stored before being
pumped 25km to the port Jotun’s supply to the Sino Iron
5. Arriving the port the concentrate is project is ca. 1,8 mill USD. Supplied
filtered to reduce moisture and stacked by Jotun China and Jotun Australia
before loaded for export

Thickener Tank/Tailings Thickener

• One step in the refining process
of the iron ore occurs in thickener
tanks
• Iron particles, heavier than the

waste material or gangue, settle
into the bottom of these tanks
and are recovered in the
underflow
• The concentrated iron ore slurry

(approximately 70% solids, by
volume) is pumped from the
underflow, mixed with calcium
Typical tailings thickeners
oxide (CaO)

Iron Ore Tailings

• Tailings are non-toxic and non-acid
generating
• Tailings are the waste silica and quartz

particles, as well as fine-grained ore that
are unable to be recovered within the
existing concentration processes
• Tailing discharges are typically 15-20%

solids, with a fine colloidal fraction of iron
stained quartz
• Iron stained quartz is responsible for the

reddish hue that is produced when
tailings come into contact with water

Iron Ore Tailings

Iron ore mine

layout example
Mine: Sangan IO mine,

North-eastern Iran

Further processing of Iron Ore
• Further processing involves the agglomeration and thermal treatment of

the concentrate to produce pellets which can be used directly in blast
furnaces, or in direct reduction steel making plants
• The pellets contain 65% to 70% iron
• Additionally, when compared to hematite DSO, the magnetite pellets

contain lower levels of impurities, particularly phosphorous, sulphur and
aluminium
− These pellets are premium products which attract higher prices from steel
makers, offsetting the higher costs of producing magnetite pellets
NOTE: Further processing of io will not be covered as this is not part of the concept

IRON ORE STOCKYARDS &

TRANSPORTATION
Iron Ore Stockyards

• Stockyards are found at different stages of the
mining and processing of iron ore
− Crushing & Processing plant
− Export port
• Stockyards are used to store, separate/blend the

different sizes and qualities of material before
export
• Machinery found:
− Stackers
− Reclaimers
− Stacker reclaimers
− Conveyor belts
• Stockyards are fed iron ore by either conveyors or

trains dependent on where the stockyard is located
(crushing, processing plant or port)


Iron Ore Stockyards: Rail Load-out

• In the stockyard the processed ore is stockpiled and blended to meet the
quality requirements set, before being reclaimed and conveyed to rail
load-out
• The ore is then loaded into ore carriers for transportation to the port
facilities


IRON ORE EXPORT /

TRANSPORTATION
Iron Ore Transportation
• Transportation of iron ore from mine to port is

most often done by train
− Can also be done by conveyors, trucks or via pipelines
• A typical rail train for iron ore export in Australia

can consist of:
− 9 locomotives
− 230 ore cars
− Over 2,4 km long!
• Once the train arrives the port the ore cars go

through the car-dumper:
− The ore cars are rotated and the ore flows into bins
and then is discharged onto conveyors


Iron Ore Export/Transportation: Slurry Transportation
• If the iron ore is transported as a

slurry from the processing facility
to the port, some extra
equipment is needed:
−Slurry tank (mixing of the water
and iron ore material)
−Pipeline for slurry transportation
−Dewatering plant at port site

Overview of slurry tank

Iron Ore Export/Transportation: Export Terminal
• Export terminals usual have

facilities for:
−train unloading
−product stockpiling and blending
−ship loading
• The port is often purpose built

for the exportation of iron ore


Iron Ore Export Ports: Examples
Dampier export terminal, AUS
Port Headland, AUS

Iron Ore Export/Transportation: Stockyard

• When the ore has been unloaded from
the chosen mode of transport, it is
stockpiled in accordance to product
type and the quality plan
• The ore will later be reclaimed and

conveyed to the ship loader
• Main machinery found will be the

same as for the stockyard;
− Stackers
− Stakers/reclaimers
− Conveyors
Rotary bucket-wheel reclaimer
− Auxiliary equipment

Iron Ore Export/Transportation: Ship-loading
• The ore that‟s been reclaimed

travels out the jetty/wharf on
conveyors to the ship-loader
• Vessels located along the berth

will then be loaded by travelling,
slewing and/or luffing ship loaders

SUPPORTING
INFRASTRUCTURE
Supporting Infrastructure
• Supporting infrastructure found in iron ore mines depends greatly on the
set-up and demand form the mine itself and the processing process
• Examples of supporting infra:

− Accommodation facilities
− Storage facilities
− Airport
− Desalination plant
− Dewatering plant
− Power plant
− Pelletizing plant
• Note: pelletizing plant is not in focus for the concept unless part of the total mining project

Supporting Infrastructure Examples
Desalination plant
Concentrator & pellet plant

SUPPORTING SLIDES

Key Future Risks For IO Miners
• Main challenge is the challenge inherent in building mines on time

and budget
• Other challenges are:

− Increasing government intervention through fiscal regimes and
resource nationalization
− Declining grades and rising costs
− Unstable market, very much dependent on the Chinese economy
• Unstable prices and demands

Pelletizing of Iron Ore – Example from Samarco




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Protective Coatings, Mining Concept

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AW / Introduction to Iron Ore & Iron Ore Mining / 2013

AW / Introduction to Iron Ore & Iron Ore Mining / 2013