Partial Discharge Measurement
and Interpretation
David A. Nattrass, Technical Consultant
he breakdown of insulation while in service can
T cause considerable damage to equipment and to
the system to which it is connected. It has been
recognized that failures of this type often may be related
to the occurrence and severity of partial dischargeswithin
voids and/or on the surface of the insulation.
The technique of measuring and analyzing partial
discharges occurring in insulation structures or assem-
blies can be used to detect weaknesses before they
lead to catastrophic failure.
Such diagnostic procedures normally should include
display of the partial discharges on an oscilloscope,
preferably in the form of an elliptical display representing
a sine wave. Once the position of the voltage peaks and
zeros are located, it is then possible to analyze the relative
magnitude and location of the partial discharges on each
half-cycle of the display.
Since the early 1940s,a considerablevolume of data has
been accumulated on the subject of partial discharge tests
as performed on equipment such as transformers,capaci-
tors, cables, etc., under direct and alternating voltage
stresses as well as impulse conditions. The changes that
have taken place since then in terms of test equipment
development and testing techniques have been tremen-
dous, but the interpretation of results, as well as the
development of remedial actions, are two subjectsin need
of further development.
The following overview of partial discharge patterns,
their evaluation and determination of origin, should help
today’s practitioners in the interpretation of results, as
well as the accurate discimination between true partial
discharges within an insulating structure and other
unwanted conduction or radiation-induced interference
signals.
Equipment
It is not the intention, neither is it possible within the
scope of this article, to discuss the many partial discharge
detectors that are commercially available.
The early techniques measured RIV-commonly re-
ferred to as “radio interference voltage” or “radio
influence voltage”- and values, were typically recorded
from an analog voltmeter in microvolts.
As more advanced equipment was developed, oscil-
loscopes, x-yautoplotters, location capabilities,and bridge
circuits were utilized to express partial discharges in
10 IEEE Electrical Insulation Magazine
Unfortunately, in addition to the classic
partial discharges observed. . . , there
may be present a generated interference
that must be found and suppressed or
removed.
terms of pico-coulombs, and this is now becoming
established in various IEC, IEEE, and CSA documents. At
the same time, there has been great progress in the
development of equipment in such areas as bandwidth
selection, calibration, and pulse discrimination so as to
allow the use of equipment in electrically noisy environ-
ments. There are many manufacturersof such equipment
who provide excellent literature on the subject, and many
papers have been published comparing types of equip-
ment. The reader is directed to the references accom-
panying this article for further information [ 1 ] - [ 611.
Some brief comparisons of test equipment considered
Of general interest will be made here.
Type I : NEMA and CSA standards refer to radio noise
measuring equipment in the frequency range of 150
kHz-400 MHz. Type 1 equipment is typically available
with a response from 150 kHz to 30 MHz, which covers
the 1 MHz referred to in some specifications. This
equipment usually has an analog meter and manual
adjustment of frequency.
Type 2: Bandwidth of 40-200kHz and CRO display in
the form of an ellipse, an output for an x-y autoplotter,
and a bridge circuit option for interference suppression.
Type 3: Selectable bandwidth of 50-500 kHz with
CRO display in the form of an ellipse, an output for x-y
autoplotter, and a bridge circuit option for interference
suppression.
Band 1-Range: 50-80kHz
Band 2-Range: 135-165 kHz
Band 3-Range: 40-400kHz
MaylJune 1988-Vol. 4, No. 3
 Type 4: The same equipment design as type 3 with the
same features plus discharge location features as follows:
Band 1-50-80 ~ H Z
Band 2-50-80 kHz with location feature
Band 3-135-165 ~ H Z
Band 4- 135- 165 kHz with location feature
Band 5- 140-400 ICHZ
Type 5: Bandwidth of 50-250 kHz with a selection of 12
coupling or matching boxes covering a total sample range
of 6-250 p.F. Equipped with a CRO and elliptical display.
Type 6: Broadband equipment capable of measuring
partial discharges in pic0 coulombs and RIV in microvolts.
In selecting equipment, it is assumed that consideration
is given to
0 The application (tests on bushings, cables, capacitors,
transformers).
0 The sensitivity level required.
0 The available options (CRO display, discharge loca-
tion, etc.)
0 The associated calibration required for measurement
correction.
Partial Discharge Interpretation
It is, of course, essential that the background level of
interference is as low as possible prior to the com-
mencement of a test. If interference is from the main
power supply, filters can be used to attenuate this
interference. If corona is present on the H.V. supply line,
the hardware must be improved to eliminate this source
(remove sharp edges, fit contoured terminations, etc.). If
there are interference signals on the HV supply line
coming from within the HV source, such as a transformer,
HV filters can be fitted into the line. Finally, there may be
airborne RFI or electromagnetic interference from weld-
ing equipment, cranes, rectifiers, etc.; if this is of a serious
level, two choices are often available. One is to test during
a “quiet time” when such equipment is not operating;the
other could be to produce a screened room, if justifiable.
Once appropriate action has been taken to obtain a low
Fig. 1.
IEEE Electrical Insulation Magazine
+
Fig. 2.
level of background noise, the test can commence. The
following examples were all obtained during a series of
applied ac tests using a wideband instrument [ 31. Because
of errors involved due to the persistance of the visual
image, the photographs produced were adjusted to one
cycle of the waveform.
Interpretation
The wideband discharge detector produces a display on
a sine-wave base, as shown in Fig. 1. The same display
when observed on an elliptical trace appears as shown in
Fig. 2.
It is very convenient to use an elliptical display, as will
be explained later; however, it is necessary to locate the
voltage peaks or zero positions on this trace. This can be
achieved electronically in some detectors by the use of
zero markers, as shown in Fig. 3 [61].
Alternatively, a sharp spike may be deliberately con-
nected to the HV termination, positioned so that it
discharges into the surrounding air. When corona incep-
tion voltage is reached, the corona display will be dis-
tributed close to the voltage -ve peak, as shown in Fig. 4.
Once this is established, the voltage may be lowered and
the spike removed. The +ve peak will be 180 opposite
the -ve, as shown in Fig. 4. [ 11.
Diagnosis of Origin of Discharge
Recognition of the source of the partial discharges
is often not possible from observation of the CRO alone.
,Zero Marker
Typical Discharges From a Sharp
Point Into Air at 5% Above Inception Voltage
(Corona Discharge).
Fig. 3.
MaylJune 1988-Vol. 4, No. 3 11
 .Metal or carbon

Dielectric
Cavity

‘Metal or carbon
Fig. 4. Fig. 6.

The diagnosis must be made at the time of the test, not at

a later date. In performing the diagnosis, the discharge
pattern should be recorded first, attention should then be
directed toward the effects of time and voltage, after
which other action could be considered as appropriate,
such as replacing the sample under test with another
sample, etc. [ 11.

Case A: Internal discharges in a solid dielectric-bounded

cavity are illustrated in Figs. 5 and 6. This is typical of voids I I
found in solid sheet material and some cast components. The Fig. 7 .
discharges occur in advance of the voltage peaks on both the
positive and negative halves of the waveform. Discharges are
of the same amplitude and same number on both sides of the
ellipse, although differences of 3:l in magnitude from one
,
Metal or carbon
side of the display to the other are normal. It is normal to
notice a degree of random variation in amplitude or location
with time. The inception voltage is well defined and clearly
above the minimum detectable discharge (MDD). There is Dielectric
little or no variation in magnitude with increases in voltage,
Fissure
and the discharge extinction voltage (DEV) is equal to or
slightly below the discharge inception voltage (DIV). The
time of voltage application usually has little effect on the
discharge pattern displayed during a single test (up to 1O-min
\Metal or carbon
duration).
If a somewhat similar second discharge display occurs at a Fig. 8.
higher voltage, this can indicate the DIV of a second cavity.

Case B: Internal discharges occur at fissures in elastomeric
insulation in the direction of the electric field. It also occurs
within a rounded cavity in thermoplastic insulation containing
inhibitors and/or placticizers in certain elastomers. This
phenomenon is typical of some cable problems that may be
encountered. Discharges occur in advance of the voltage
peaks and are often similar in number and magnitude,
although differences of 3:l are normal.
There is little or no variation in magnitude with a fairly
rapid increase and decrease in voltage, and the phenomenon
appears similar to case A. The affect of time of voltage
application is, however, quite different.
Ifa maximum voltage level is held for 30 min, the discharge
magnitude gradually decreases, and the extinction voltage
will be higher than the original inception voltage. If the
voltage is again raised to a maximum level and held for an
additional 20-24 hr, the discharge magnitude may fall even
lower and the extinction voltage may be higher than before.
(See Figs. 7 and 8.)

Case C: This case can be indicative of any one of three typical

cases as shown. First, internal discharges in a number of
I I
cavities of different shapes and sizes within a dielectric as
Fig. 5. shown. Second, discharges on external dielectric surfaces

12 IEEE Electrical insulation Magazine M a y l J u n e 1988-Vol. 4, No. 3

 +

-
~ ~~

Fig. 9. Fig. 11.

between two touching conductors as shown. Third, dis-
charges on an external dielectric surface at areas of high
tangential stress. This is typical of a badly designed bushing
resulting in an overstressed metal foil or a faulty foil. The
discharges are normally of the same magnitude on both f v e
and -ve voltage peaks and are located in advance of both
peaks; differences of 3:1 may be seen in magnitude on the two
half-cycles. The response is resolved at inception, but the
number of discharges increases, with increases in test voltage
eventually becoming unresolved as shown. The discharges
have a distinct inception, having a magnitude at inception
Metal or Carbon
Dielectric
Cavities
\Metal or Carbon
Metal or Carbon
normally clearly above the minimum detectable. Extinction
voltage is equal to or slightly below the inception level.
The time of voltage application (at least up to about 10
min) has little effect on the discharge display. (See Figs. 9 and
10.)
Case D: Faulty processing frequently produces voids in cast
resin insulation systems. The formation of electrically con-
ducting products can result from the action of discharge upon
the resin at these sites. The discharges occur in advance of the
voltage peaks and are often equal on both halves of the
waveform. The pattern is resolved at inception but can
quickly become unresolved as voltage is increased. The
inception voltage is normally clear and well defined, if the
voltage is held at a maximum level, the discharge magnitude
gradually decreases, the extinction and reinception voltages
will be much higher than the original. Upon resting for a
substantial period of time, the initial characteristics will be
restored. (See Figs. 11 and 12.)
Case E: This observation can typically be due to discharges in
laminar cavities as found in machine insulation containing
mica and other sheet material. Discharges occur in advance of
voltage peaks. Magnitudes often are similar on both half-
cycles, resolved at inception, becoming rapidly unresolved
with increase in voltage. There is a clear inception above
minimum detectable, with the magnitude increasing steadily
with increase in voltage. With inadequate sensitivity, the
discharges will appear to grow out of the noise. If voltage is
held at a maximum level, the magnitude gradually increases
and becomes stable after about 10 min. Extinction voltage is
then much lower than the original inception voltage. (See

U Figs. 13 and 14.)

Discharges
,Metal or carbon
Metal or
Carbon
- Dielectric Dielectric

'Cavities

\ Metal or Carbon 'Metal or carbon

Fig. 10. Fig. 12.

IEEE Electrical insulation M a g a z i n e M a y l J u n e 1988-Vol. 4, No. 3 13

 ~

+
+

l -

Fig. 13. Fig. 15.

Case F: Partial discharge may take place in gas bubbles in an

insulating liquid in contact with moist cellulose (e.g., oil-
impregnated paper) often in capacitor structures. The bubbles
are generated by the action of electric stress on the moist Dielectric
cellulose. The bubbles increase in size and number under the
Liquid
action of discharges, but dissolve in the liquid and disappear
upon removing the stress for a period of time. The discharges
are of the same magnitude on each half-cycle,and, in advance
of the voltage peaks, there can be some random variation in
amplitude and location on the test waveform. The response is
resolved at inception, but if the discharges are allowed to
grow, the response rapidly becomes unresolved. There is a ' Metal or Carbon
well-defined inception voltage with a steep rise in magnitude
with increase in voltage. Extinction will be slightly below Moist
inception. If the voltage is held above inception, the magni- Cellulose
tude of the partial discharge display increases in a few minutes
by a hundred times or more, with extinction and reinception Dielectric
about three times less than the original values. Allowing the Liquid
insulation to rest for a day or so will restore the high initial
Gas
inception voltage. (See Figs. 15 and 16.)
Bubbles
Case G: This display is observed when a cavity exists between Metal
metal or carbon or one side and dielectric material on the or Carbon
other side. The discharge phenomenon is in advance of the Fig. 16.
voltage peaks and is asymmetrical, i.e., unequal magnitude and
number on the two half-cycles usually in the ratio of 3:1, but
approximately 1O:l is needed to clearly distinguish it from
case A previously described. If the display is as shown in Fig.
17, with a small number of large discharges at the negative
peak and a large number of small discharges at the positive +
peak, the void is usually located in a position where the metal
face is at ground potential and the other face is dielectric, as
shown in Fig. 18.
If this pattern is reversed, the indication is that the metal is
at high potential and the other face is dielectric. The DW is

,Metal or carbon h
Fig. 17.

well defined, and the magnitude remains unaltered as the test

Dielectric voltage is increased. The time of application (up to 10 min)
has little effect on the display.
Laminar
Cavity Case H: The display discussed here is a good illustration of
partial discharges occurring in cavities of various sizes
bonded by metal on one side and dielectric on the other. The
\Metal or carbon display often will appear as a resolved display but will become
Fig. 14. unresolved as voltage is increased. An alternative source of

14 IEEE Electrical Insulation Magazine MaylJune 1988-Vol. 4, No. 3

 Metal or carbon

.Dielectric
Dielectric
Cavity Cavities

\Metal or carbon 2 Metal or Carbon

Fig. 18.
/ Metal or Carbon
Discharges
such discharges could be surface discharges taking place
between external metal and dielectric surfaces.
The description of the effect of voltage and time is similar Dielectric
to case G. The inception is well defined, with magnitude
differences on each half-cycle of 1O:l. Magnitude increases
slowly as the voltage is raised; extinction voltage is usually a
little lower than inception. The time of voltage application
(10 min) has little effect. (*e Figs. 19 and 20.)
Metal or Carbon
Case I: This is a rather unusual case, as it can be most
Fig. 20.
frustrating until the source is diagnosed, as will be described.
There are two common causes, the first could be due to an
airgap between a metallic conductor such as a loose
connection to a shield or a screen, as shown in Fig. 21 (a).
Alternatively,it may be due to a gap between two independent
metal objects across which a voltage is produced by electro-
static induction from the test circuit, such as ungrounded H
metallic objects lying on the ground in the test area. For test
voltages above about 30 kV, it is essential that the test area is
well cleaned and that objects that cannot be moved are well
grounded. This is a practice that should become a habit prior
to testing. Discharges of the same magnitude and number
occur on both half-cycles and in advance of the voltage Fig. 21(a).
peaks. As the voltage is raised, the discharge pulses cover an p r a y Capacitance
increasingly greater portion of the waveform. The discharge
inception is well defined above the noise level with no change
in magnitude as the voltage is increased, the extinction
voltage coincideswith the inceptionvoltage, and the response
is unaffected by the time of application of the test voltage.
(See Figs. 21 and 22.) H

Case J: Active growth of a carbon track by localized

overheatingof organic material in a manner shown in Fig. 23.
The discharges are located symmetrically about both voltage
Fig. 21(b).

+ +

Fig. 19. Fig. 22.

IEEE Electrical Insulation Magazine MaylJune 1988-Vol. 4, No. 3 15

 Fig. 30.
Fig. 28.

reduced the level to the general background of a few

pic0 coulombs.
7. This final example is of mechanic movement of an
electrode under the influence of an electric field such as
r---
metallic foil in defective capacitors. The display ob-
served is as shown in Figs. 36 and 37.

Fig. 31.

Fig. 29. Fig. 32.

16 IEEE Electrical Insulation M a g a z i n e M a y l J u n e 1988-Vol. 4, No. 3

 shown in Fig. 30. The magnitude was 10,000 pC with
high oscillation.
A/ Metal Or 3. The asymmetrical display shown in Fig. 31 led to the
final discovery of blisters from overheated organic
insulation, as shown in Fig. 32. The magnitude was 500
pC and the pattern was resolved and stable.
4. Sparking from ungrounded core steel into surrounding
3on Track
oil in a transformer resulted in the display shown in Fig.
33. The magnitude was present in two levels: 8,200 pC
Dielectric and 500 pC.
5. Ungrounded metal in a high electric field discharged
into the surrounding oil, resulting in the pattern shown
in Fig. 34. The magnitude was 4,800 pC.
6. This example (Fig. 3 5 ) is of an ungrounded metal drive
Metal or Carbon shaft of a tap-changer mechanism into oil. The magni-
Fig. 23. tude measured was 7 , 2 0 0 pC, and proper grounding

+ +
J. J.

-
Fig. 24. Fig. 25.

peaks, as shown in Fig. 24, or could resemble Fig. 25. The

location can be somewhat erratic as can the magnitude. The
pattern can be resolved at lower test voltages, rapidly +
becoming unresolved as the test voltage is increased. The
inception voltage is variable with extinction below inception.
Observed magnitude increases rapidly with voltage, large and
unrepeatable changes in magnitude may occur particularly at
the higher voltages. If the display is similar to that presented
in Fig. 24, the magnitude is likely to remain stable for minutes
or longer.
If the display is similar to that shown in Fig. 25, then the
-
pattern is likely to be erratic, with rapid and substantial
changes in magnitude in the course of a few minutes. Fig. 26.

Case K: The tracking of contaminated organic insulation

resulting from discharges that originated within a cavity that Metal or Carbon
degenerated into a track no longer actively growing as shown
in Fig. 27 would result in a display as shown in Fig. 26.
Discharges are of the same magnitude on both half-cycles of
the test waveform. As the voltage is raised, the pattern spreads
over more of the waveform but with little change in
magnitude. The response is unaffected by the time of voltage Track
application.
Examples !lectriC
1. Fig 28 shows a practical example of case D and was
traced to tracking on a bushing surface as shown. The
magnitude was 5 0 0 pC. The pattern was stable and
resolved.
2 . The display shown in Fig. 29 resulted in the discovery of Metal or Carbon
an open-circuit bushing tap that had started to erode as Fig. 27.

IEEE Electrical Insulation Magazine MaylJune 1988-Vol. 4, No. 3 17

 / Metal or Carbon

Metal or Carbon
Fig. 37.
Fig. 33.

Interference Patterns
Unfortunately, in addition to the classic partial dis-
charges observed, which can be indicative of structural
weaknesses,a generated interference may be present that
must be found and suppressed or removed. The following
examples may help in this diagnosis.
Example 1: Contact noise due to imperfect metal to
metal contacts or semiconducting screens in cables.
Other common causes can be within capacitors where
metallic inserts are used to make contact with the foil. In
some cases, such noise can be eliminated by charging the
I I
Fig. 34. system and then short-circuiting it, which will weld the
contact. The resultant display is most frequently centered
near the voltage zeros (or maximum current) of the
waveform, as shown in Fig. 38, which is very typical of a
display from a contact problem. As the voltage is raised,
the display may cover an increasing proportion of the
display. The display will be coarse and response may
disappear completely at a particular voltage level and
would then be absent for aU voltages above that level.This
may be due to contacts suddenly fusing together at that
particular voltage level.
Example 2: This example is indicative of interference
resulting from harmonics. The source could be from
magnetic saturation of the steel core of a transformer or
reactor running at too high a flux density in the test
circuit, i.e., the test transformer, isolating transformer,
regulating transformer, shunt or series reactor, filter
Fig. 35. reactor, coupling transformer to the discharge detector,

+ I +
$.

Fig. 36. Fig. 38.

18 IEEE Electrical Insulation Magazine MaylJune 1988-Vol. 4, No. 3

 Fig. 39.

etc. This condition should not occur in a properly

designed unit. It could also be due to an accentuation of
harmonics caused by resonance with the capacitive load,
or even from inadequate attenuation provided by the
discharge detector toward the frequencies below the
lower limit of the passband. The response is as shown in
Fig. 39, with low-frequency oscillations located at the
voltage peaks. The response grows with voltage and is
absent when the voltage is removed. The display is steady
and reproducible, and is not affected by the time of
voltage application.
E x u q l e 3: This is an example of the classic “corona”
or discharge into air or other gas from a sharp point or
edge at high potential. As shown in Fig. 40, the pattern is
well defined and uniformly distributed around the nega- Fig.
tive voltage peak, an extreme example is shown in Fig. 4 1.
If the pattern is reversed with the display around the
positive voltage peak, this indicates an overstressed metal
edge or point at ground potential. As the voltage is
increased, the number of discharges increase and, if the +
voltage is raised high enough, it is possible to find initially J.
the discharges around the negative peak followed by an
inception of discharges around the positive peak.
Exumple 4: This case is similar to example 3 above, but
the edge or point is in an enclosed insulating liquid rather
than a medium of air or other gas. In this case, the
phenomenon is exhibited as displayed in Fig. 42. In this
case, the larger discharges appear first, as the voltage is
4
lowered the extinction coincides with inception. The Fig. 42.
inception may take a short time to stabilize from the time
the voltage is established (a few seconds). After this, it is

I I

Fig. 40. Fig. 43.

IEEE Electrical Insulation M a g a z i n e M a y l J u n e 1988-Vol. 4, No. 3 19

 I 1

Fig. 44. Fig. 46.

unaffected by the time of voltage application. There may

be a change in magnitude in time caused by erosion due
to the discharges.
Exumple 5: Unfortunately, these interference patterns
can be quite varied, but some examples are presented
here in order that they may be representative of some of
the problems frequently encountered.
a. Mercury-arcor thyristor rectifier or control circuit
will have “firingpulses” that produce a high level of
interference. A typical pattern of a “six-valve mer-
cury-arcrectifier” is shown in a formalized pattern in Fig. 47.
Fig. 43 and an actual observed pattern from thyristors
is shown in Fig. 44.
b. Fluorescent lamps can be a severe source of inter-
ference (see Fig. 4 5 ) .
c. Asynchronous machines can cause considerable in-
terference (see Fig. 4 6 ) .
Example 6: Unfortunately, some industries or labora-
tories are located near high-frequencygenerators of some
type or other, and without always realizing it, this can
create a high level of interference.
a. Reception of radio transmission or radiation from a
high-frequencypower amplifier or oscillator and the Fig. 48.
display would be typically as shown in Fig. 47.
b. Radio or broadcast transmitters produce a different
display and typically can be of the type shown in Fig.
48.
c. The third of this type can be from industrial high-
I .------
frequency equipment, such as induction heaters and

1
ultrasonic generators, and can produce an inter-
ference band as shown in Fig. 49.
These responses have no relation to the applied test
Fig. 45. voltage and are present with the voltage reduced to

20 IEEE Electrical Insulation M a g a z i n e M a y l J u n e 1988-Vol. 4, No. 3

 zero. It is possible to eliminate them by using a
sharply tuned filter to the input circuit of the
discharge detector, or, if practical, by providing a
high-quality shielded room.
A summary is presented in Table I, which follows.
TABLEI.
INTERFERENCE
Problem Source of Disturbance
Main interference
Pickup from HV supply
External Sources
Radio signals and
electromagnetic waves
HV source
Discharges in
Test Circuit
Coupling capacitor
Noise in test circuit.
Between foils and
Contact Noise terminals in capacitors.
Noise in bushings, tap
changers, trancore.
Concluding Comments
This is an extensive overview of the interpretation
and significance of partial discharge measurements.It
is realized that this appears complex (and, indeed, in
many cases, it may be), but it is hoped that this
presentation will help the reader in the following.
1. Interpretation of measurement of partial dis-
charge should not be a question of determining
that, “yes,we have met a specificationof (x) pC
at ( y )kilovolts,”but also a question of whether
this was the true limit of the insulation structure
under test.
2. Assistance in removing and eliminating extra-
neous and undesirable external interference so
that the “true insulation discharges” may be
observed.
3. It is hoped that the reader will locate sections
for his or her particular use and adapt the
presentation accordingly. For example, the ca-
pacitor manufacturer may wish to review the
section on “loose foil connections,”etc., review
his design, and possibly change the extended
foil arrangement. If bushing manufacturers note
inception voltages and patterns similar to those
illustrated, they may wish to review their bush-
ing design and stress calculations and retest
modified designs. Finally, readers may have
observed on the oscilloscope what is commonly
IEEE Electrical Insulation M a g a z i n e
referred to in the industry as “noise hash”
without being aware of what the problem was.
After reading the section on interference, they
may wish to isolate welders, rotating machines,
rectifiers, etc., and substantially lower the back-
ground level before a test is commenced.
CHECKLIST.
Suggested Corrective Action
Filter in supply leads and/or HV line. Use a balanced
detector circuit.
HV filter or check HV terminations for any sharp edges.
Screened room or other shielding.
Use a discharge-free supply, filter in HV line, toroid, or
shielding. Balanced circuit.
Capacitor must be discharge free, use two at a time
and check circuit if possible.
Good connections and grounding. Apply current pulse
by charging with dc and short-circuit. Check all
contacts well before testing.
4. Last and most certainly not least, the reader is
encouraged to use the techniques of PD mea-
surements as an in-house means of reviewing
and improving designs and PD inception levels
to improve the quality of the product for the
benefit of oneself and the industry.
David A. Nattrass was educated in electrical engineering at
Darlington College of Technology, County Durham, England,
with course emphasis on power engineering. After spending five
years at the Electrical Research Association in Surrey,England,
performing electrical tests such as partial discharge measure-
ments on installed apparatus in field and structures in the
laboratory, he was with ASEA, United Kingdom, for five years as a
product development engineer.
In 1970, he emigrated to Canada, where he worked on NRC-
sponsored projects such as the HVDC insulation studies, which
are associated with the k5OO-kV Nelson River System. He moved
to the United States in 1978, and, in 1981, was elected Senior
Member of the IEEE.
The authors wishes to acknowledge the most helpful and
interesting discussions with Dr. G. Mole of the Electrical
Research Association, United Kingdom (now retired), and
Dr. John Mason. Prof. J. McMath of the University of Manitoba,
Winnipeg, Man., Canada (now retired), must also be thanked for
his willingness always to be available for a second opinion.
References
[ 11 D. A. Nattrass, “Partial Discharges in Power Transformers,”
Equ@ment Lksagn, 1978. Elect. Review 2, June 78 Vol.
202, No. 21.
M a y l J u n e 1988-Vol. 4, No. 3 21
 [2] D. A. Nattrass and I. P. Beck, “Converter Transformers
Their Design and Testing,” Manitoba International EHV-
DC Power Conference, 1971. Winnipeg, Man., Canada.
Paper 16, p. 395-421.
[ 31 “Recognition of Discharges,” CIGRE Study Committee No.
2, 1968. Cables-W. G. on Discharge Detection.
[4] “Trial Use Guide for Partial Discharge Measurement in
Power Transformers and Shunt Reactors,” IEEE Trans-
former Committee Ref. P545/D6, Dec. 1985.
[ 5 ] “Proposed Recommended Practice for the Detection of
Partial Discharge in Dry Type Transformers,” IEEE
PC57.124/D3, Apr. 1987.
[6] Dembinski and Douglas, “Calibration and Comparison of
Partial Discharge and R.I.V. Measuring Circuits,” Pro-
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