MJ Mar.-Apr. 2016 V. 113 No. 2 PDF

V. 113, NO.
2
MARCH-APRIL 2016
ACI
MATERIALS J O U R N A L
A JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN CONCRETE INSTITUTE

CONTENTS
Board of Direction ACI Materials Journal
President
Sharon L. Wood March-April 2016, V. 113, No. 2
a journal of the american concrete institute
Vice Presidents
an international technical society
Michael J. Schneider
Khaled Awad
Directors
Dean A. Browning 131 Influence of Fiber Orientation on Bridging Performance of Polyvinyl
JoAnn P. Browning Alcohol Fiber-Reinforced Cementitious Composite, by Toshiyuki
Cesar A. Constantino Kanakubo, Masaru Miyaguchi, and Kohei Asano
Alejandro Durán-Herrera
Augusto H. Holmberg
Kimberly Kayler 143 Strain Rate Sensitivity of Fiber-Reinforced Cementitious Compos-
Cary S. Kopczynski ites, by H. Othman and H. Marzouk
Kevin A. MacDonald
Fred Meyer 151 Analysis of Compressive Strength Development and Carbonation
Michael M. Sprinkel Depth of High-Volume Fly Ash Cement Pastes, by Xiao-Yong Wang
Roberto Stark and Ki-Bong Park
David M. Suchorski
Past President Board Members

163 Behavior of Anchored Carbon Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Strips Used
William E. Rushing Jr. for Strengthening Concrete Structures, by Wei Sun, James O. Jirsa,
Anne M. Ellis and Wassim M. Ghannoum
James K. Wight
173 Effect of Dosage of Fly Ash and NaOH on Properties of Pisha
Executive Vice President Sandstone-Based Mortar, by Changming Li, Tingting Zhang, and
Ron Burg Lijiu Wang
Technical Activities Committee 185 Compressive and Time-Dependent Strength of Concrete Masonry
Trey Hamilton III, Chair Constructed with Type M Mortar and Grouts Containing High Volume
Matthew R. Senecal, Secretary
Michael C. Brown of Fly Ash and Slag, by Fernando S. Fonseca, Scott M. Watterson, and
JoAnn P. Browning Kurt Siggard
Catherine E. French
Fred R. Goodwin 197 Compatible Datum Temperature and Activation Energy for Concrete
Larry Kahn Maturity, by Chang Hoon Lee and Kenneth C. Hover
Neven Krstulovic-Opara
Kimberly Kurtis
Tracy D. Marcotte 207 Performance of Full-Scale Self-Consolidating Rubberized Concrete
Jan Olek Beams in Flexure, by Mohamed K. Ismail and Assem A. A. Hassan
Michael Stenko
Andrew W. Taylor 219 Tensile Behavior of Steel-Polypropylene Hybrid Fiber-Reinforced
Eldon G. Tipping Concrete, by Lihua Xu, Le Huang, Yin Chi, and Guodong Mei
Staff 231 Nano-Modified Fly Ash Concrete: A Repair Option for Concrete Pave-
Executive Vice President ments, by A. Ghazy, M. T. Bassuoni, and A. Shalaby
Ron Burg
Engineering 243 Reviewers in 2015

Managing Director
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ON COVER: 113-M13, p. 136, Fig. 12—Tensile test specimen. (Note: 1 mm = 0.0394 in.) repeating available information.
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130 ACI Materials Journal/March-April 2016

ACI MATERIALS JOURNAL TECHNICAL PAPER
Title No. 113-M13
Influence of Fiber Orientation on Bridging Performance of

Polyvinyl Alcohol Fiber-Reinforced Cementitious Composite
by Toshiyuki Kanakubo, Masaru Miyaguchi, and Kohei Asano
Crack bridging performance of fibers strongly affects the tensile decades. These materials have specific properties that require
characteristics of fiber-reinforced cementitious composites researchers and engineers to be attentive to fiber orientation.
(FRCCs) after first cracking. The fiber orientation distribution is The scheme of the current approach to evaluate the fiber
likely to be affected by factors that include fresh-state properties, orientation has considered the casting method, fresh-state
casting method, formwork geometry, and others. The objective of
properties, flow, vibration, and formwork geometry.8 The
this study is to investigate the influence of the fiber orientation on the
cementitious matrix used in HPFRCC and ECC has a high
bridging performance in polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) FRCCs through a
visualization simulation using a water glass solution and a calcula- viscosity, aiding the random distribution of the fine fibers
tion of the bridging law. The main parameter of the investigations and commonly has self-consolidating properties. These
in the present study is the casting direction. To evaluate the fiber characteristics indicate that the bridging law in HPFRCC
orientation distribution quantitatively, an approximation method- and ECC is likely to be affected by the fiber orientation. In
ology using an elliptic function is newly introduced. The bridging fact, the tensile characteristics of polymeric FRCCs differ
stress versus crack width relationship is calculated considering because of the casting direction and the dimension of the
the elliptic distribution, the snubbing effect, and the fiber strength specimen.9 The wall effect, in which the fiber orientation is
degradation. The calculated stress-crack width curves can express influenced by the surface of the mold, has also been studied
the uniaxial tension test results after first cracking well. by many researchers. Li and Wang10 categorized the fiber
Keywords: bridging law; casting direction; elliptic function; fiber orienta-
orientation as two-dimensional (2-D) random and three‑
tion; fiber-reinforced cementitious composites; image analysis; orientation dimensional (3-D) random by the specimen dimensions in
intensity; uniaxial tension test. two perpendicular sectional planes. The ultimate tensile
strain of PVA-ECC tends to decrease if the specimen dimen-
INTRODUCTION sion changes from 2-D to 3-D.
The crack bridging performance of fibers, which is gener- Statistical approaches on the fiber orientation distribution
ally expressed by a bridging stress-crack opening relation- began in the 1960s. Naaman11 proposed a sinusoidal func-
ship (called the bridging law), strongly affects the tensile tion as the probability density function (PDF) of the angle
characteristics of fiber-reinforced cementitious composites between the fiber and the normal vector of the cut plane.
(FRCCs) after first cracking. The bridging performance Stroeven12 indicated the combination of three typical distri-
is characterized and/or controlled by the properties of the butions—namely, 3-D random, 2-D random, and perfectly
matrix, the fiber, and the fiber-matrix interface.1,2 Since aligned one-dimensional—for simulation of arbitrary orien-
the 1980s, studies on high-performance fiber-reinforced tation distributions. One of the examples of the approaches
cement composites (HPFRCCs) and engineered cementi- adopted to study the wall effect is presented by Dupont and
tious composites (ECCs) have been conducted to understand Vandewalle.13 They proposed a theoretical quantification by
the crack bridging performance, primarily because these predicting the total number of fibers crossing a rectangular
composites require the balanced properties of the matrix, the section. Considering the influence of the matrix flow, Xia
fiber and their interface, to exhibit the pseudo strain-hard- and Mackie14 proposed the probabilistic spatial orientation
ening behavior.3,4 One of the examples of a polymeric using the beta distribution as the axisymmetric fiber orien-
fiber bridging law is that presented by Kanda and Li,5 who tation. There have been many studies to investigate the fiber
described it for polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) fibers assuming orientation and distribution by experimental approaches
the following characteristics: 1) the chemical bond in the observing fibers directly via image-based analysis. In case
fiber-matrix interface; 2) the rupture of the fiber; and 3) the of steel fibers, the X-ray technique is one of the effective
tensile strength reduction owing to inclined-angle bridging. methods. Recently, microcomputed tomography (micro-CT)
These considerations had primarily been introduced to has been used to characterize the fiber distribution.15 In
account for the characteristics of randomly oriented, discon- case of polymeric fibers such as PVA, image analysis
tinuous fibers.6 taking advantage of absorbing the ultraviolet radiation
Many researchers have studied the effects of fiber orien- was conducted.16
tation on the mechanical characteristics of FRCC, including
fiber-reinforced concrete (FRC). The categories of these
ACI Materials Journal, V. 113, No. 2, March-April 2016.
materials including HPFRCC and ECC are summarized in MS No. M-2014-369.R2, doi: 10.14359/51688633, received June 15, 2015, and
reviewed under Institute publication policies. Copyright © 2016, American Concrete
some literatures.7 In addition, self-consolidating concrete Institute. All rights reserved, including the making of copies unless permission is
(SCC) and ultra-high-performance fiber-reinforced concrete obtained from the copyright proprietors. Pertinent discussion including author’s
closure, if any, will be published ten months from this journal’s date if the discussion
(UHP-FRC) have been developed for the last several is received within four months of the paper’s print publication.

Table 1—Mechanical properties of PVA fiber and target fiber
Type Density, g/cm3 (lb/ft3) Length, mm (in.) Diameter, mm (in.) Tensile strength, N/mm2 (ksi) Elastic modulus, kN/mm2 (ksi)
PVA 1.30 (81.2) 12 (0.47) 0.10 (3.9 × 10 )
–3
1200 (174) 28 (4060)
Nylon 1.14 (71.2) 12 (0.47) 0.24 (9.3 × 10 )
–3
65 (9.4) —
Table 2—Mixture proportion of HPFRCC

Unit weight, kg/m3 (lb/yd3)
Fiber Sand-
volume Water- binder Fly
fraction, % binder ratio ratio Water Cement ash Sand
380 678 291 484
2.0 0.39 0.50
(641) (1144) (491) (817)
Notes: Cement is high-early-strength portland cement; fly ash is Type II of Japanese
Industrial Standard (JIS A 6202); sand is size under 0.2 mm (7.9 × 10–3 in.); high-range
water-reducing admixture is binder × 0.6%.
It is considered that the bridging performance—that is,

the tensile properties of FRCC—can be characterized using
the fiber orientation distribution. The main objective of this
study is to investigate the influence of fiber orientation distri-
bution on the bridging law of polymeric fibers. The main
experimental parameter selected in this study is the casting
direction, which is considered to have an influence to the
fiber orientation distribution.
To achieve the goal, a visualization simulation is
conducted using sodium silicate solution (known as water Fig. 1—Flowability test using funnel. (Note: 1 mm =
glass) to observe the flow patterns of the fibers in the tension 0.0394 in.)
test specimen. The results of the visualization simulation
are discussed mainly for the distribution of the angles of the matical expression for the PDF of the fiber orientation distri-
fibers. In this study, based on the visualization results, a new bution would also simplify simulations of the bridging law.
PDF is proposed to describe variation in the fiber angle. The
PDF is expressed by two parameters: the principal orienta- VISUALIZATION SIMULATION OF FIBER
tion angle and the orientation intensity. These parameters ORIENTATION
indicate the angle and the tendency of the fibers to orient Materials for simulation test
along the direction of the principal orientation. Finally, the PVA fibers 0.10 mm (3.9 × 10–3 in.) in diameter were
bridging law, which is obtained by a numerical calculation, used in this study. The mechanical properties of PVA fibers
is compared with the tension test results. are listed in Table 1. To visualize the flow of the fiber in a
The fine fibers with a diameter ranging between 0.01 to matrix, a sodium silicate solution (hereafter referred to as
0.04 mm (4 × 10–4 to 16 × 10–4 in.) are commonly used for water glass) was adopted as the matrix. Water glass has high
HPFRCC/ECC to actualize the pseudo-strain-hardening viscosity, and it is colorless and transparent. In regards to the
behavior and multiple cracking. On the other hand, multiple practical use of ECC, the rheology of mortar matrix before
cracking makes the observation of the bridging law difficult. mixing the fiber was inspected using the flow time,17 based
In this study, PVA fiber with a diameter of 0.10 mm (3.9 × on “Test method for flowability of grout for prestressing
10–3 in.) is used to observe the bridging law (tensile stress- tendons (JSCE-F531-2013).”18 The flow time is measured
crack width curve) directly by the tension test subjected to using the funnel shown in Fig. 1. The flow time of water
single crack formation. glass was controlled by adding pure water in an effort to
attain the same flow time of mortar matrix as that of the target
RESEARCH SIGNIFICANCE HPFRCC. The mixture proportion of the target HPFRCC is
Evaluation of the bridging law, accounting for the fiber listed in Table 2. This proportion is selected for the tension
orientation distribution, is necessary for predicting the test specimens, as explained in a later section. The measured
precise tensile characteristics of FRCC. The fiber orienta- flow time of the mortar matrix was 36 seconds on average
tion, which is affected by casting method, fresh-state proper- for each of the eight mixture batches with the same mixture
ties, flow, and formwork geometry, should be considered in proportion. The water glass to the pure water weight ratio
the manufacturing of the composites for practical uses. The was chosen to be 12:1 at a temperature of 25°C (77°F). The
bridging characteristics of polymeric fibers are affected by density of the water glass solution was 1.62 g/cm3 (101 lb/ft3),
their angle with the cracking plane. Understanding the fiber which is smaller than 1.89 g/cm3 (118 lb/ft3) of mortar matrix
behavior expressed by the bridging law can facilitate under- used for the tension test specimens.
standing the tensile characteristics of FRCC. A simple mathe- The color of PVA fibers, which is almost white, makes it
difficult to distinguish them from the water glass solution.

Fig. 2—Mixing of fiber in water glass.
Therefore, black-colored “target fibers” made from nylon
were added to the matrix to simplify the image analysis. The
Fig. 3—Mold for visualization simulation. (Note: 1 mm =
mechanical properties of the target fibers are listed in Table 1.
0.0394 in.)
The volume fraction of the target fibers was set to 0.05%
based on empirical trial-and-error results. The mixture states
are shown in Fig. 2. The image analysis on target fibers
(explained in a subsequent subsection) was conducted based
on the assumption that these fibers flow in similar orienta-
tions as those associated with the PVA fibers.
Simulation method
Water glass solution containing PVA and the target fibers
was poured into the mold, using the same method as that
used for HPFRCC casting. The mold was constructed with
transparent acrylic plates. For simulations of the flow in the
tension test specimens, the cross section of the mold was
chosen to be 40 x 40 mm (1.57 x 1.57 in.) to be over three
times the fiber length of 12 mm (0.47 in.), considering 3-D
orientation of fibers.10 The testing parameters included the
casting direction and the volume fraction Vf of the PVA
fibers. The dimensions of the mold are shown in Fig. 3. Fig. 4—Camera setup (horizontal casting).
Two molds were prepared: one for the casting along the
horizontal direction and a second for the casting along the 2. The image is binarized and the noise is filtered
vertical direction. Water glass solution was poured into the (Fig. 6(b));
mold using a bucket at the points indicated by the arrows in 3. RGB values (red-green-blue values in bit for each color)
Fig. 3. The pouring time was approximately 20 seconds and of the pixel data are read with position coordinates (Xi, Yi); and
was similar in value to the case of casting of the tension test 4. The sequences of black-colored pixels are grouped and
specimens. After pouring, photos of the x-y and z-x planes labeled (Fig. 6(c)).
were taken using two digital cameras at in-plane resolution After this process, a straight line approximation is calcu-
of 6000 x 4000 pixels. The setup of the cameras for the lated using the position coordinates of the pixels of the same
horizontal casting simulation is shown in Fig. 4. Simulated group, using least-squares regression analysis by minimizing
volume fractions of PVA fibers are 0.1%, 0.5%, 1.0%, 1.5%, the distance between the point and the line. The fiber angle is
and 2.0%. For each volume fraction, three image specimens defined as the angle between the fitted line and the longitu-
were cast, followed by photo capturing. An example of the dinal axis (x-axis). The fiber angle ranges between –90 and
photograph (Vf = 0.1%, horizontal casting, z-x plane) is +90 degrees.
shown in Fig. 5. Examples of fiber angle histograms (Vf = 0.1%, hori-
zontal casting) are shown in Fig. 7. The diagram on the right
Image analysis and calculation of fiber angle side of this figure corresponds to the calculated histogram
Image analysis was conducted to obtain the fiber angles result based on the photograph of Fig. 5, and the analysis
in the water glass solution. The image analysis and calcula- methodology shown in Fig. 6. As indicated in Fig. 6(b),
tion of the fiber angles were carried out for the target fibers fiber angles mostly range between 0 to 45 degrees. The
that occupied the central 40 mm (1.57 in.) region, as shown frequencies of the fiber angles that are extracted based on
in Fig. 5. The procedure of the image analysis is described the three-time pouring and photography are added together,
as follows: and one diagram is drawn for each parameter of the simula-
1. The photograph is cropped to include only the target tion test. All the fiber angle histograms are shown in Fig. 8.
region (Fig. 6(a)); As expected, there is a tendency that the fibers flow along
the longitudinal direction in the case of horizontal casting,

Fig. 5—Example of photograph (Vf = 0.1%, horizontal, z-x). (Note: 1 mm = 0.0394 in.)
Fig. 6—Image analysis procedures. (Note: 1 mm = 0.0394 in.)
Fig. 7—Examples of fiber angle histograms.

and along the perpendicular direction in the case of vertical shown in the figure. The value of θr ranges between –45 and
casting. The presented solid lines and the respective values +45 degrees, and the argument of radius a corresponds to
of the diagrams are explained in the next section. θr. As shown in Fig. 9, a random fiber orientation results
in a circle, whereas the orientation tendency of the fibers
PROBABILITY DENSITY FUNCTION FOR FIBER along the longitudinal direction results in an ellipse. As the
ORIENTATION DISTRIBUTION longitudinal directionality becomes greater, the shape of the
Approximation based on elliptic function ellipse becomes narrower. The ratio of the two radii, k = a/b,
For the purpose of quantitative evaluation of the fiber can express the shape of the ellipse. This ratio of two radii is
orientation distribution, an approximation methodology defined as “orientation intensity”, and the angle θr is defined
using the elliptic function is introduced. This method- as “principal orientation angle”. The orientation intensity
ology was studied in the field of “Japanese traditional value reflects the orientation tendency of the fibers that lie
paper (Washi).”19 The relative frequency for each class of along the principal orientation angle. When the fibers orient
fiber angle is transformed into a vector with the argument perfectly randomly, k is equal to 1. As shown in Fig. 10,
set to be equal to the fiber angle, as shown in Fig. 9. The when the fibers show an increased directional orientation
trajectory traced by the terminal points of these vectors is toward the principal orientation angle, the value of k is larger
approximated by an ellipse fitted using the least-squares than 1. In contrast, when the fibers orient perpendicularly
method. The ellipse is expressed as a function of two radii, with respect to the principal orientation angle, the value of k
a and b, and the angle with respect to the x*-axis, θr, as is smaller than 1.

Fig. 8—All fiber angle histograms.
Fig. 10—Definition of principal orientation angle and orien-

tation intensity.
(1 − k ) sin 2θ r
A= (2)
1 + (k − 1) sin 2 θ r
Fig. 9—Approximation method based on elliptic function. k − (k − 1) sin 2 θ r

B= (3)
The PDF that expresses the relative frequency corre- 1 + (k − 1) sin 2 θ r
sponding to the fiber angle θ is described by Eq. (1): here-
after, the PDF is referred to as “elliptic distribution”. The 1
parameters for this function are the orientation intensity k C= (4)
1 + (k − 1) sin 2 θ r
and the principal orientation angle θr. When θr is equal to
zero, the elliptic function is simply given by Eq. (5). The
definite integral calculus of Eq. (1) and Eq. (5) in –π/2 ≤ π/2 k 1
gives 1 (the sum of probability). p (θ) = ⋅ (5)
π cos 2 θ + k ⋅ sin 2 θ
k C Approximation of visualization simulation results

p (θ) = ⋅ (1) The results of the approximation of the fiber angle distri-
π cos θ + A sin θ cos θ + B sin 2 θ
2
bution obtained in the visualization simulation are shown

in Fig. 8 by solid lines. The values of the orientation inten-
sity k and the principal orientation angle θr are also listed in
the figures. When the directionality of the fiber orientation
increases along the longitudinal direction, the value of the
orientation intensity is over 5 (cases of z-x plane for Vf =
1.0%, 1.5%, and 2.0%). In vertical casting, the fiber angles
tend to align along the perpendicular direction, and there are
the cases that the value of the orientation intensity becomes
smaller than 0.5 (cases of x-y and z-x planes for Vf = 1.5%
and 2.0%). These evaluations are done for two planes indi-
vidually. The estimated probabilities for each plane are
multiplied to express the probability in 3-D orientation in a
later section.
Fig. 11—Molds for tensile test specimen.
UNIAXIAL TENSION TEST
Test outline
For verification of the influence of fiber orientation on
tensile behavior, the uniaxial tension test was conducted. As
explained in the Introduction, PVA fibers with a diameter of
0.10 mm (3.9 × 10–3 in.) are used to observe the bridging law
directly, subjected to single crack formation. The mechan-
ical properties of the PVA fiber are listed in Table 1. The
fibers used for the tension test are same as those used in the
visualization simulation. The mixture proportion of mortar
matrix has already been presented in Table 2. The fiber
volume fraction is 2.0%.
The testing parameter is the casting direction along both
the horizontal and vertical directions. Two types of molds for
each casting direction were prepared, as shown in Fig. 11.
The matrix with fibers was poured into the mold using a
bucket employing the same approach as the one used for the
visualization simulation. The pouring time was controlled to
be approximately 20 seconds in the test region. Fig. 12—Tensile test specimen. (Note: 1 mm = 0.0394 in.)
The dimensions of the specimen and the specimen setup stress at the maximum load after the sudden drop of the load
are shown in Fig. 12. The cross section of the test region is (second peak) is 3.51 and 1.67 N/mm2 (0.509 and 0.242 ksi)
50 x 50 mm (1.97 x 1.97 in.) square to be over three times for the horizontal casting and the vertical casting specimens,
the fiber length of 12 mm (0.47 in.), considering 3-D orien- respectively. The tensile stress of the second peak of hori-
tation of fibers.10 The total length of the specimen is 510 mm zontal casting specimens is more than two times that of the
(20.1 in.). A 2000 kN (450 kip) universal loading machine vertical casting specimens. The crack width at the second
was used. Pin-fix ends were used at the boundaries to mini- peak of the horizontal casting specimens is, on average, 1.73
mize possible effects of development of external moment times higher than the corresponding value of the vertical
because of setup irregularity, and secondary moment influ- casting specimens.
encing local fracture.9 The carbon fiber sheets were attached Characteristic example photographs of the fractured
at both ends to avoid peel-off of the steel plate. Measurement surface after loading are shown in Fig. 14. It is clearly seen
items were tensile load and deformation in the test region that the protruded fibers from the surface of the horizontal
using two pi-type displacement transducers. Two series of casting specimen are many more and longer than those of the
test in different period (Batch No. 1, compressive strength vertical casting specimen.
= 39.2 N/mm2 [5.69 ksi]; and Batch No. 2, compressive
strength = 41.0 N/mm2 [5.95 ksi]) were carried out. BRIDGING LAW CONSIDERING FIBER
ORIENTATION
Test results Trilinear model for pullout load versus crack width
All specimens fractured by a single crack. Some of the relationship
specimens had a fine crack before loading because of an The calculations of the bridging law of the PVA fiber
unskillful treatment during the formwork removal. The test considering the fiber orientation distribution are conducted.
results of these specimens are excluded from the following The elliptic distribution expressed by the orientation inten-
discussions. The curves of the tensile stress-crack width are sity and the principal orientation angle is adopted for the
shown in Fig. 13. It is clearly recognized that the casting PDF estimation of the fiber orientation distribution. The
direction remarkably affects the tensile performance. The orientation intensity and the principal orientation angle used
test results are summarized in Table 3. The average tensile

Fig. 13—Tensile stress-crack width curve.
Table 3—Tension test results
At cracking (first Maximum after cracking
peak) (second peak)
Tensile Crack Tensile Crack
Casting stress, N/ width, stress, N/ width, mm
direction ID mm2 (ksi) mm (in.) mm2 (ksi) (in.)
4.49 0.032 3.70 0.460
TH20-1*
(0.651) (0.0013) (0.537) (0.0181)
4.41 0.034 3.85 0.463
TH20-2*
Hori- (0.640) (0.0013) (0.558) (0.0182)
zontal 3.17 0.030 2.97 0.446
TH20-3†
Fig. 14—Fracture surface after loading. (Note: 1 mm = (0.460) (0.0012) (0.431) (0.0176)
0.0394 in.) 4.02 0.032 3.51 0.456
Average
(0.583) (0.0013) (0.509) (0.0180)
for calculations are based on these results of the visualiza-
3.53 0.023 1.37 0.328
tion simulations. TV20-1*
(0.512) (0.0009) (0.199) (0.0129)
The pullout properties of the single fiber are required to
2.35 0.013 1.55 0.177
calculate the bridging law. Several researchers have studied TV20-2†
(0.341) (0.0005) (0.225) (0.0070)
the bond behavior of PVA single fiber to cementitious Vertical
matrix.20-23 Table 4 lists the results from previously published 3.53 0.030 2.09 0.284
TV20-3†
(0.512) (0.0012) (0.303) (0.0112)
studies in which the pullout tests of the single fiber were
performed. It has been known that the bond behavior of the Average
3.14 0.022 1.67 0.263
PVA fiber consists of two stages—that is, the chemical bond (0.455) (0.0009) (0.242) (0.0104)
stage and the friction stage.20 The pullout load-displacement *
Batch No. 1, compressive strength = 39.2 N/mm2 (5.69 ksi).
relationships of the PVA fiber commonly exhibit the first †

Batch No. 2, compressive strength = 41.0 N/mm2 (5.95 ksi).
peak in the debonding process of the chemical bond, and The crack widths, δa and δmax, are those corresponding to
slip hardening or softening.21 Table 4 lists the information of the loads of Pa and Pmax, respectively. These crack widths
the matrix used, the fiber diameter, first peak load, and the correspond to the slip-out displacements at the first and
maximum load in the friction process (second peak). Based second peak loads in the pullout test. The slip-out displace-
on these results, a trilinear model is assumed to express the ments for the two peaks are simply assumed to be 0.1 and
relationship between the pullout load and the crack width 0.3 mm (3.9 × 10–3 and 12 × 10–3 in.) from the test results
for a single fiber, as shown in Fig. 15. The pullout load for of Yang et al.23 The crack width becomes twice the slip-out
the first branch, Pa, and for the maximum, Pmax, corresponds displacement before the maximum load because the fiber
to the first peak load and the second peak load, respectively. slips out from the both embedded sides. When the pullout
As seen in Table 4, there is no test result listed on PVA fibers load starts to decrease at the short embedded side of the
with a diameter of 0.10 mm (3.9 × 10–3 in.), as used in this fiber, the slip-out displacement at the long embedded side
study. Furthermore, the water-cement ratio (w/c) used in this decreases.24 To express this phenomenon using a simple
study is 0.56, which also differs from corresponding ratio trilinear model, the crack width at the maximum load is
values in prior studies. Considering the differences of fiber assumed to be 1.5 times the slip-out displacement at the
diameters and mixture proportions of the matrix, the values second peak in the pullout test. As a result, the values of δa
of Pa and Pmax are assumed to be 1.5 and 3.0 N (0.34 and and δmax are assumed to be 0.2 and 0.45 mm (7.8 × 10–3 and
0.67 lbf), respectively. These values correspond to the values 18 × 10–3 in.), respectively. The softening branch is decided
of 0.24 and 0.48 N (0.054 and 0.108 lbf) for the same tensile as the pullout load becomes zero, when the crack width
stress of a PVA fiber with a diameter of 0.04 mm (1.6 × 10–3 equals the embedded length of the short side of the fiber, lb.
in.). The values of 0.24 and 0.48 N (0.054 and 0.108 lbf) are These assumed values are summarized in Table 5 and illus-
in the ranges of the test results reported by Kiyota et al.22 trated in Fig. 15.

Table 4—Previous PVA fiber pullout test results
Researcher w/c Fiber diameter, mm (in.) First peak load, N (lbf) Second peak load, N (lbf)
0.27 0.05 to 0.25 (0.011 to 0.056) —
Kanda et al.20
0.42 0.014 (0.55 × 10 )
–3
0.12 to 0.20 (0.027 to 0.045) —
0.62 0.07 to 0.14 (0.016 to 0.031) —
Redon et al.21 0.30 0.044 (1.7 × 10–3) 0.8 to 1.2 (0.18 to 0.27) 1.1 to 1.6 (0.25 to 0.36)
0.34 0.3 to 0.6 (0.07 to 0.13) 0.5 to 1.3 (0.11 to 0.29)
Kiyota et al. 22
0.42 0.038 (1.5 × 10 )
–3
0.4 to 0.6 (0.09 to 0.13) 0.4 to 1.3 (0.09 to 0.29)
0.62 0.2 to 0.4 (0.04 to 0.09) 0.4 to 0.9 (0.09 to 0.20)
Yang et al.23 0.58 0.039 (1.5 × 10–3) 0.3 to 0.6 (0.07 to 0.13) 0.5 to 1.0 (0.11 to 0.22)
P, is given by Eq. (7), expressing the snubbing effect and the

fiber strength degradation.
Pbridge (δ )
σbridge (δ ) =
Am
Vf
= ⋅ ∑ ∑ ∑ Pij (δ, ψ ) ⋅ pxy (θi ) ⋅ pzx (φ j ) ⋅ px ( yh , zh ) ⋅ ∆θ ⋅ ∆φ ⋅ ( ∆y ⋅ ∆z )
Af h j i
(6)
P = Ppull · e f·ψ < Prup · e–f ′·ψ (once exceeded, P = 0) (7)
where σbridge is bridging stress; δ is crack width; Pbridge is bridging

force (= total of pullout load); Am is cross-sectional area of the
Fig. 15—Trilinear model for pullout load. (Note: 1 mm = matrix; Vf is fiber volume fraction; Af is cross-sectional area
0.0394 in.) of a fiber; P is pullout load of a single fiber; Ppull is pullout
load of a single fiber at a zero fiber angle; Prup is pullout load
Bridging law simulation method
of a single fiber at rupture at a zero fiber angle; f is snubbing
The bridging stress can be obtained as the total pullout load
coefficient; f ′ is fiber strength reduction factor; pxy, pzy are
of fibers divided by the cross-sectional area of the matrix.
probability, based on elliptic distribution; px is probability of
Moreover, the elliptic distribution is adopted to express the
fiber distribution along x-axis; ψ is fiber angle to x-axis; θ is
fiber orientation distribution. The snubbing effect24 and the
angle between x-axis and projected line of the fiber to x-y
fiber strength degradation20 are also considered in this study.
plane; and ϕ is angle between x-axis and projected line of
The snubbing effect exhibits the increment of the pullout
the fiber to z-x plane
load of the fiber due to the edge reaction, when the fiber
The PDF, px (y, z), gives the probability for the existence
has the angle with the normal direction of cracking plane.
of the fiber in the x-axis direction. In this study, px (y, z)
The fiber strength degradation has been adopted for the
is assumed to be constant. This means that the fibers are
polymeric fibers, which strength decreases when the fiber is
randomly distributed along the longitudinal direction of
pulled out slantingly from its embedded direction.
the specimen.
The definitions of the coordinate system and the fiber
The input values for the parameters are listed in Table 5.
angle in consideration of the snubbing effect and the fiber
The orientation intensities for the horizontal casting are
strength degradation are shown in Fig. 16. The fiber angles,
selected to be 1.5 and 6 for the x-y and the z-x planes,
θ and ϕ, are the angles between the x-axis and the projected
respectively. On the other hand, the corresponding values
lines of the fiber (angle of ψ to x-axis) to x-y and z-x planes,
for the vertical casting are set to 0.5. These values are chosen
respectively. When the angle ψ increases, the pullout load
based on the results of the visualization simulation for Vf =
also increases, owing to the snubbing effect. However, as
1.5% and 2.0% (Fig. 8). The principal orientation angles are
this angle increases, fiber strength decreases, and the fiber
set to zero for calculation simplification. This value almost
ruptures easily (Fig. 15). The elliptic distribution is consid-
agrees with the average value of all the results of the visu-
ered for each of the x-y and z-x planes. Therefore, the formula
alization simulation. The calculations were done by using
expressing the bridging stress can be given by Eq. (6). Equa-
spreadsheet software.
tion (6) is derived by the summation of the pullout load of
the fibers that exist in bridging the crack surface with the
Comparison with tension test result
probability given in the elliptic distribution. The probabili-
The calculated curves showing the variation of the
ties for x-y and z-x planes are multiplied to express the prob-
bridging stress (tensile stress) with the crack width are shown
ability in 3-D orientation. The pullout load of a single fiber,
in Fig. 17 together with the tension test results, for both

Table 5—Parameters for bridging law
Parameter Input value Remarks
First peak load Pa, N (lbf) 1.5 (0.34) *
Crack width at Pa, δa, mm (in.) 0.2 (7.8 × 10–3) 0.1 mm (3.9 × 10–3 in.)* × 2
Maximum load Pmax, N (lbf) 3.0 (0.67) *
Crack width at Pmax, δmax, mm (in.) 0.45 (18 × 10–3) 0.3 mm (12 × 10–3 in.)* × 1.5
Fiber strength σfu, N/mm2 (ksi) 774 (112) 1200 N/mm2 (174 ksi) × 0.645†
Snubbing coefficient f 0.5 †
Fiber strength reduction factor f ′ 0.3 †
Horizontal casting 1.5

x-y Orientation intensity kxy Value near to Vf 1.5% and 2.0% visualizations
Vertical casting 0.5
plane
Principal orientation angle θr,xy 0 For calculation simplification‡
Horizontal casting 6 Value near to Vf 1.5% and 2.0%
z-x Orientation intensity kzx
Vertical casting 0.5 visualizations
plane
Principal orientation angle θr,zx 0 For calculation simplification‡
*
Assumed value based on Kiyota et al. and Yang et al.
22 23
†
Assumed value for PVA fiber by Kanda et al.5
‡
Approximately average value of all Vf visualizations.
Notes: PVA fiber is: 0.10 mm (3.9 × 10–3 in.) in diameter, 12 mm (0.47 in.) in length.
rupture more frequently. The balance between the increase

of the pullout load and the loss of the bridging because of
fiber rupture leads to the maximum bridging stress. After
the end of the “step”, the fiber effectiveness of horizontal
and vertical casting becomes 0.346 and 0.116, respectively.
These values are considered almost equal to the orientation
factor after fracture, that is, the ratio of the fibers that slipped
out from the crack surface. The tension test results shown in
Fig. 14 support this consideration.
Fig. 16—Definitions of coordinate system and fiber angle.
CONCLUSIONS
the horizontal and vertical casting specimens. Because the
To investigate the influence of the fiber orientation distri-
calculated curves exhibit the bridging stress by fibers after
bution on the bridging performance in PVA-FRCC, visual-
cracking, the elastic region before cracking in the tension
ization simulation using water glass solution and calculation
test (indicated by dotted line) cannot be compared with the
of the bridging law considering the fiber orientation distri-
calculated curve. The calculated curves express well the test
bution were conducted. The main parameter of the investi-
results after the first peak in the tension test. Based on these
gations is the casting direction of FRCC. The followings are
calculations, the only parameter that differs between the
concluded from this study.
horizontal and vertical casting is the orientation intensity.
1. From the visualization simulation, the fibers have a
The difference of the fiber orientation intensity identifies a
tendency to flow along the longitudinal direction in the case
clear influence on the bridging law.
of horizontal casting and along the perpendicular direction
Fiber effectiveness is also defined to express the effective-
in the case of vertical casting.
ness of the fiber in bridging the crack surface. It is calcu-
2. To evaluate the fiber orientation distribution quantita-
lated as the ratio of the number of fibers crossing the crack
tively, a new approximation methodology using an elliptic
surface (neither slipping out nor rupturing) to the theoretical
function was introduced. The PDF named elliptic distribu-
number of total fibers in a unit volume. The fiber effective-
tion is characterized by the principal orientation angle and
ness is equal to the orientation factor at a crack width of
the orientation intensity.
zero. Figure 17 also shows the calculation results of fiber
3. From the visualization simulation, while the value of
effectiveness and crack width relationship both for the
the orientation intensity shows over 5 in the case of hori-
horizontal and the vertical casting specimens. The fiber
zontal casting, there are the cases that the orientation inten-
effectiveness values at a crack width of zero are 0.544 and
sity becomes smaller than 0.5 in the case of vertical casting.
0.315 for horizontal and vertical casting, respectively. The
4. The bridging stress versus crack width relationship was
difference of the fiber orientation distribution causes this
calculated considering the elliptic distribution, the snub-
disparity. The fiber effectiveness decreases as the crack
bing effect, and the fiber strength degradation. The calcu-
width increases because of slipping out or because of fiber
lated bridging curves were compared with the results of the
rupture. The “step” can be seen on the curve, when the fibers

Fig. 17—Calculated bridging law and fiber effectiveness.
tension test in which the specimens were fabricated by hori- Kohei Asano is a Research Associate at the Department of Architecture,
Miyakonojo College, National Institute of Technology, Miyakonojo, Japan.
zontal and vertical casting. The calculated curves expressed He received his PhD from the University of Tsukuba. His research inter-
the test results after first cracking well. ests include the mechanical behavior of high-performance fiber-reinforced
5. The differences of the fiber orientation distribution cementitious composites (HPFRCCs), and structural performance of rein-
forced concrete members using HPFRCC.
clearly indicated an influence on the bridging law. Based on
the calculation results for the bridging law, it was considered
that the balance between the increasing pullout load and the ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors wish to express their gratitude and sincere appreciation
loss of the bridging force because of the fiber rupture leads to the Kuraray Co., Ltd., for providing the PVA fiber. The tension test
to the maximum bridging stress. was performed in cooperation with R. Tsukizaki, a former student in the
master’s program of the University of Tsukuba. This study was supported
by the JSPS KAKENHI Grant Number 24656319.
FUTURE RESEARCH
In this study, only one type of mold and matrix was used REFERENCES
for the visualization simulation. It is considered that the 1. Bentur, A., and Mindess, S., Fiber Reinforced Cementitious Compos-
other factors such as casting method, fresh-state properties, ites, second edition, Taylor & Francis, London, UK, 2007, 601 pp.
2. Balaguru, P., and Shah, S. P., Fiber Reinforced Cement Composites,
flow, vibration, and formwork geometry also have influ- McGraw Hill, New York, 1992, 530 pp.
ences to the fiber orientation. It is necessary that the influ- 3. Naaman, A. E., and Reinhardt, H. W., “Characterization of High
ence of these factors on the principal orientation angle and Performance Fiber Reinforced Cement Composites—HPFRCC,” High
Performance Fiber Reinforced Cement Composites 2 (HPFRCC2), RILEM
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of the fiber diameter variation to the fiber orientation distri- 4. Li, V. C., “From Micromechanics to Structural Engineering—The
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Structural Engineering/Earthquake Engineering, V. 10, No. 2, 1993,
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the proposed PDF. If the fiber orientation can be evaluated 5. Kanda, T., and Li, V. C., “Effect of Fiber Strength and Fiber-Matrix
more quantitatively, the tensile characteristics of FRCC can Interface on Crack Bridging in Cement Composites,” Journal of Engi-
neering Mechanics, ASCE, V. 125, No. 3, 1999, pp. 290-299. doi: 10.1061/
be estimated more precisely. (ASCE)0733-9399(1999)125:3(290)
6. Li, V. C., and Leung, C. K. Y., “Steady-State and Multiple
AUTHOR BIOS Cracking of Short Random Fiber Composites,” Journal of Engineering
ACI member Toshiyuki Kanakubo is an Associate Professor at the Mechanics, ASCE, V. 118, No. 11, 1992, pp. 2246-2264. doi: 10.1061/
Department of Engineering Mechanics and Energy, University of Tsukuba, (ASCE)0733-9399(1992)118:11(2246)
Tsukuba, Japan, where he received his PhD. His research interests include 7. Rokugo, K., and Kanda, T., eds., “Strain Hardening Cement Compos-
high-performance fiber-reinforced cementitious composites (HPFRCCs), ites: Structural Design and Performance,” State-of-the-Art Report of the
structural behavior of fiber-reinforced polymer reinforced concrete struc- RILEM Technical Committee 208-HFC, SC3, Springer, 2013, 90 pp.
tures, and bond properties of reinforcement and concrete. 8. Laranjeira, F.; Aguado, A.; Molins, C.; Grünewald, S.; Walraven, J.;
and Cavalaro, S., “Framework to Predict the Orientation of Fibers in FRC:
Masaru Miyaguchi is a Student in the master’s program at the Department A Novel Philosophy,” Cement and Concrete Research, V. 42, No. 6, 2012,
of Engineering Mechanics and Energy, University of Tsukuba, where he pp. 752-768. doi: 10.1016/j.cemconres.2012.02.013
received his BE. His research interests include the evaluation of fiber orien- 9. Kanakubo, T., “Tensile Characteristics Evaluation Method for
tation of, and its influence on, high-performance fiber-reinforced cementi- Ductile Fiber-Reinforced Cementitious Composites,” Journal of Advanced
tious composites (HPFRCCs). Concrete Technology, V. 4, No. 1, 2006, pp. 3-17. doi: 10.3151/jact.4.3

10. Li, V. C., and Wang, S., “On High Performance Fiber Reinforced 18. Japan Society of Civil Engineers, “Standard Specifications for
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Fiber-Reinforced Cementitious Composites, 2003, pp. 13-23. dard, 2013, 2013, pp. 281-282. (in Japanese)
11. Naaman, A., “A Statistical Theory of Strength for Fiber Reinforced 19. Enomae, T.; Han, Y. H.; and Isogai, A., “Fiber Orientation Distribu-
Concrete,” PhD dissertation, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, tion of Paper Surface Calculated by Image Analysis,” Proceedings of Inter-
Cambridge, MA, 1972, 196 pp. national Papermaking and Environment Conference, Book 2, Tianjin, P.R.
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14. Xia, J., and Mackie, K., “Axisymmetric Fiber Orientation Distri- A., “Measuring and Modifying Interface Properties of PVA Fibers in ECC
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Title No. 113-M14
Strain Rate Sensitivity of Fiber-Reinforced Cementitious

Composites
by H. Othman and H. Marzouk
An experimental investigation has been conducted to determine account of strain rate effects on both deformation and
the effects of strain rate on fiber-reinforced cementitious composite failure.2 The DIF is defined as the ratio of the dynamic to
(FRCC) matrixes. Compressive strength, modulus of elasticity, static strength. DIFs is of direct use in finite element modeling
and flexural tensile strength are investigated under various strain and analysis of reinforced concrete structures subjected to
rates ranging from the static to the seismic and/or impact level.
dynamic loading conditions.2,3
Three different matrixes with compressive strengths ranging from
Abrams was the first researcher who, in 1917, observed the
80 to 130 MPa (12 to 19 ksi) are investigated. The first matrix is
without fiber, while the other two contain 2% straight steel fibers effect of changing strain rates on concrete response.2,4 Further,
by volume. The tests are carried out according to ASTM standards. numerous experimental studies have demonstrated that the
The dynamic increase factor (DIF) formulation recommended by rate effect on strength, modulus of elasticity, strain, and frac-
the European CEB-fib is described. Experimental results showed ture energy of concrete.3-7 Most of strain rate studies have
that the rate sensitivity decreases with an increase in the matrix been conducted on plain normal and high-strength concretes.
compressive strength. Additionally, it has been found that CEB-fib Such studies typically proposed models to be used to esti-
Model Code 2010 fits well with high-strength concrete. On the mate the concrete DIFs at certain strain rate. These models
other hand, the CEB-fib Model (2010) overestimates both compres- are mainly functions in concrete compressive strength, and
sive and tensile strengths enhancement for FRCC with compressive quasi-static and dynamic strain rate.3 Although there are some
strength over 110 MPa (16 ksi).
differences in estimated values at certain strain rates using
Keywords: dynamic increase factor; fiber-reinforced cementitious compos- these models, all these studies typically concluded that: 1) the
ites (FRCC); impact loading; quasi-static; steel fiber; strain rate effect. stiffness and strength properties of concrete increase signifi-
cantly under high strain rates; 2) DIFs are higher for concretes
INTRODUCTION with lower strengths; and 3) the strength enhancement is
Recently, there has been a growing realization that different for compression and tension.3,4 On the other hand,
important structures should be designed to resist both static the increase in the modulus of elasticity and the peak strain
and dynamic loads. The material required to construct such corresponding to the peak stress is relatively small.3
types of structures should have enhanced static and dynamic The effect of fibers is similar over various fibers types.
properties. Fiber-reinforced cementitious composite (FRCC) Fibers have little effect on compressive properties.8 On the
materials seem to be the best choice to fit needed properties other hand, fibers enhance significantly tensile/flexural,
for many structures. Such structures include: transportation shear, and ductility properties.8,9 Fiber-reinforced concrete
structures, offshore structures, protective structures, and (FRC) exhibits enhanced impact resistance compared to
aircraft launching platforms. FRCC has enhanced dynamic plain concrete.4,10 Different conclusions have been drawn for
properties, especially under impact resistance loads. It has strain rate effect on FRC materials. Gopalartnam and Shah11
a high resistance to spalling, scabbing, and fragmentation, and Maalej et al.12 concluded that FRC is more rate-sensitive
and high energy absorption capacity. The use of FRCC than plain concrete. On the other hand, Millard et al.’s8
in impact/blast-resistant structures, especially ultra-high- results showed that the DIF is greater for specimens without
performance fiber-reinforced concrete (UHP-FRC) is fibers and decrease with the increase of fiber contents.
increasing. However, there are insufficient studies to fully The rate sensitivity of fiber-matrix interface or pullout of
describe the dynamic behavior of FRCC.1 Therefore, there short straight fibers has been shown to be independent of
is an urgent need to develop a better understanding of the strain rate.13,14
dynamic response, and the nonlinear behavior of FRCC In the present study, the commonly used cementitious
members subjected to dynamic loading. materials—HSC and FRCC—are investigated. Addition-
For materials subjected to dynamic effects such as impact ally, the study is mainly focused on strain rate range from
loading response over a relatively short time period, the static to seismic or low-velocity impact (Fig. 1), because this
strain rates reach magnitudes considerably higher than that strain domain most relevant to common load cases on civil
of static conditions. Figure 1 shows typical orders of magni- engineering structures.
tude of strain rates for different loading types.
It is well known that high strain rates result in increased ACI Materials Journal, V. 113, No. 2, March-April 2016.
mechanical properties in most materials.2 Although the MS No. M-2014-395.R3, doi: 10.14359/51688461, received July 18, 2015, and
reason for this enhancement is not entirely understood, it Institute. All rights reserved, including the making of copies unless permission is
is widely considered to be a material property. Dynamic obtained from the copyright proprietors. Pertinent discussion including author’s
increase factor (DIF) is the most popular method for taking is received within four months of the paper’s print publication.

RESEARCH SIGNIFICANCE strain rate is varied from 1 × 10–8 to 1 × 10–5 s–1.3 Because
The objective of the current investigation is to develop these experiments would be fitted with CEB-fib Model Code
a fundamental understanding of strain rate effect on the 2010 formulas, the quasi-static strain rates recommended
behavior of FRCC material. The influence of matrix strength by CEB-fib are chosen; quasi-static strain rates of 3 × 10–5
is studied. Aspects investigated included compressive and 1 × 10–6 s–1 are adapted for the reported experimental
strength, modulus of elasticity, and flexural tensile strength compressive and tensile/flexure tests, respectively.15
at six different strain rates ranging from the static to the
seismic and/or impact level. This investigation is a part of EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION
an ongoing research program by the authors focusing in An experimental program is conducted to investigate
experimental study as well as numerical modeling of HSC compressive strength, elastic modulus, and flexural strength
and FRCC slabs subjected to impact. This investigation was of HSC and FRCCs at six different strain rates ranging from
motivated with the lack of DIF models that can be used in static to the seismic and/or impact level. Three different
finite element numerical simulation of impact load condi- mixture designs with target compressive strengths ranging
tions for FRCC materials. DIFs obtained from this paper will from 80 to 120 MPa (12 to 17 ksi) are investigated. Identical
be implemented in a material constitutive model for concrete specimens are used in both static and dynamic tests with
in an explicit finite element code. similar loading and support conditions to avoid size effect.
All tests are carried out at age of 56 days to allow mate-
DIF OF CEB-fib CONCRETE MODEL (2010) rials reach their maximum strength. Two types of specimens
The most comprehensive formulas for predicting the strain (cylinders and prisms) are used for compressive and flexural
rate enhancement of concrete are presented by the CEB-fib strengths tests, respectively, leading to six series of tests.
Model Code (Comite Euro-International du Beton-Federa-
tion Internationale de la Precontrainte). The CEB-fib Model Materials
Code (2010) formulas are based on the 1988 CEB Bulletin Three different matrixes have been investigated. The first is
187.3 The CEB Bulletin 187 itself is based on work by a conventional, nonfibrous, high-strength concrete (HSC) with
Reinhardt in 1985.3 The provisions of the CEB-fib Model a target 56-day compressive strength of 80 MPa (12 ksi). This
Code (2010)15 covers concretes up to a characteristic strength matrix includes 6% silica fume and is based on the composi-
of 120 MPa (18 ksi), including new fiber-reinforced cemen- tion developed by Marzouk.16 The second and third mixtures
titious materials. CEB-fib proposes a series of strain-rate- are FRCC containing 2% steel fiber by volume with target
dependent relationships for concrete in both compres- 28-day compressive strengths of 100 and 120 MPa (14.5
sion and tension. These relationships are independent of and 17 ksi), respectively. These matrixes are resulted from
concrete material properties and are applicable for strain a series of trial mixtures and modifications on the composi-
rate up to 3 × 102 s–1. DIFs formulas of the CEB-fib Model tion developed by Rossi et al.17 Mixture modifications have
Code 2010 are summarized in Fig. 2. been conducted at Ryerson University materials laboratory
In general, DIF is related to a basic static strength measured to reach the locally available materials in Canada. Table 1
at a specific quasi-static strain rate. In the literature, this provides the mixture composition for the three matrixes.
Commonly used straight, smooth, high-strength steel
fibers are used in the FRCC mixtures. These fibers have a
small diameter of 0.2 mm (0.008 in.) and are 13 mm (0.5 in.)
long. This fiber geometry has an aspect ratio of 65, offering
a trade-off between good workability and high pullout resis-
tance.9 Fiber content of 2% by volume is used in this inves-
tigation because this fiber content has been founded to be
the optimum out of thousands of tests with high bending and
Fig. 1—Typical strain rates for various types of loading and direct tensile strength.18 Additionally, this fiber content is
present investigation domain.13 a commonly used percent in the industry. The fiber manu-
Fig. 2—Summary of concrete DIFs according to CEB-fib (2010).

Fig. 3—Preparation and casting of cylinders with embedded fiber-optics sensors.
Table 1—Mixture proportions by weight and target compressive strength

Matrix HSC FRCC1 FRCC2
Compressive strength* fc′, MPa (ksi) 80 (12) 100 (14.5) 120 (17)
Portland cement 450 (758) 960 (1618) 1050 (1770)
Silica fume 30 (51) 190 (320) 250 (421)
Fine sand (size < 0.5 mm) 550 (927) 650 (1096) 630 (1062)
Constituent, kg/m (lb/yd )
3 3
Coarse aggregate (size < 12 mm) 1100 (1852) NA NA
Water 220 (371) 220 (371) 200 (337)
High-range water-reducing admixture 20 (34) 30 (51) 40 (67)
Steel fibers 2% by volume NA 156 (263) 156 (263)
*
Target compressive strength.
Notes: 1 mm = 0.0394 in.; NA is not available.
facturer’s specified minimum tensile strength and elastic Table 2—Summary of compressive strength and
modulus of the fibers are 1900 MPa (275 ksi) and 205 GPa elastic modulus tests
(29,730 ksi), respectively.
Loading rate, mm/min
All matrixes are mixed in a vertical axis shear mixer. Each Matrix Loading range Strain rate, s–1 (in./min)
mixture is cast in one batch with a size of 120 L (4.25 ft3) to
Quasi-static 3 × 10–5 0.36 (0.014)
have identical material properties for each matrix. No heat
is used during casting or curing. All specimens are cured 3 × 10 –4
3.60 (0.140)
following the same procedures: under moist burlap and 3 × 10–3 36.0 (1.40)
FRCC1
FRCC2
HSC
plastic for 1 week. Then, all specimens are taken out of their Dynamic range 1 × 10 –2
120 (4.72)
molds and stored in a moist-curing chamber at a temperature
3 × 10 –2
360 (14.20)
of 20oC (68°F) for an additional 3 weeks, then removed and
placed to dry in laboratory air conditions until testing at the 1 × 10 –1
1200 (47.20)
age of 56 days.
about fiber-optics sensors and the calibration process are
Compressive strength test procedures given in Reference 19. The loading rate is set through the
Compressive strength and elastic modules tests have software on the controlling computer as the displacement
been conducted on 100 x 200 mm (3.9 x 7.9 in.) cylinders. rate. As listed in Table 2, there are three different series of
A hydraulic servo-controlled testing machine (MTS 815) compressive strength tests at six different strain rates. The
is used to conduct the compression testing for both the adapted basic displacement rate for the first static test is
quasi-static and dynamic ranges. For each tested matrix, 0.36 mm/min (0.0014 in./min) that corresponds to the quasi-
three specimens are tested at each strain rate. Compres- static strain rate of 3 × 10–5 s–1. The highest loading rate used
sive tests are conducted according to ASTM C39 and the in this investigation is 1200 mm/min (47.20 in./min), which
capture of the strain is completed according to ASTM C469. corresponds to strain rate of 10–1 s–1. This high strain rate
As shown in Fig. 3, the cylinders are equipped with an can represent values of demand during seismic loading, or
embedded fiber-optics sensor capable of measuring longi- from vehicle impact on bridge piers.20 It is clear that the ratio
tudinal deformations over a gauge length of 150 mm (6 in.). of the highest to the lowest strain rate is 3300. This rate is
The embedded fiber-optics sensors are used to verify the sufficient for impact analysis; however, for strain rate corre-
displacement rate reading of the machine. More details sponding to blast and explosion, a special Hoskins bar test
must be used.

Flexural strength test procedures bending and based on Young’s modulus values resulting
Three-point bending tests have been conducted on 100 x from compressive strength experimental tests at the quasi-
100 x 400 mm (3.9 x 3.9 x 15.8 in.) prisms with a clear span static strain rate. The loading rate of the machine is veri-
of 300 mm (11.8 in.). Specimens are rotated 90 degrees from fied by testing two prisms supported on load cells and the
their casting position to reduce the effects of casting direc- results showed that the machine accurately recorded the
tion on the results. For each tested matrix, three specimens force and time.
are tested at each strain rate. Testing and analysis of results The high-speed dynamic tests have been conducted using
have been carried out according to ASTM C1609. a drop-weight impact technique. A small drop-hammer appa-
A second hydraulic servo-controlled (MTS 793) testing ratus is designed at Ryerson University to test prisms under
machine, shown in Fig. 4, is used to preform tests for the higher strain rates (Table 3). The schematic diagram of the
static and low-speed loading rate ranges (Table 3). The setup and the test configuration is illustrated in Fig. 5. The
loading rates are calculated assuming engineers’ theory of system has the capacity to drop a 37.5 kg (82.7 lb) mass from
heights of up to 1200 mm (47 in.). The drop-hammer is solid
steel cylinder and it is supported and guided by a steel frame.
The striking surface of the drop-hammer is flat circular of
51 mm (2 in.) diameter. In this study, three drop heights—
150, 300, and 600 mm (5.9, 11.8, and 23.4 in.)—are adopted
and three specimens are tested at each drop height.
The impact force is determined from the average reading
of two (±2000g) accelerometers mounted to the drop-
hammer. In addition, the reaction forces between the support
and the specimens are measured using dynamic load cells.
No damping materials are used in the contact zone between
the hammer and the specimen during the tests, as that inad-
vertently reduces the strain rate. Additionally, all specimens
Fig. 4—Three-point bending tests for lower three rates of are visually inspected after testing.
loading (10–6 to 10–4 s–1).
Fig. 5—Drop-weight impact test setup for higher three rates of loading. (Note: 1 m = 3.28 ft; 1 mm = 0.0394 in.)
Table 3—Summary of flexural strength tests
Matrix Machine Strain rate, s–1 Loading rate, mm/min (in./min)
Quasi-static 1 × 10–6 0.013 (0.0005)*
MTS 793 1 × 10–5 0.130 (0.0051)*
Low-speed range
1 × 10 –4
1.30 (0.0510)*
HSC FRCC1 FRCC2
From testing 150 (5.90)†
Drop weight High-speed loading range From testing 300 (11.80)†
From testing 600 (23.60)†
*
Displacement rate for HSC based on elastic modulus of 30 GPa (4382.78 ksi).
†
Drop height in mm (in.).

Fig. 6—Typical impact and reaction forces versus time.
Fig. 7—Stress-strain curves for three tested matrixes
Table 4—Characteristic mechanical properties (average curves).
Matrix fcʹ,* MPa (ksi) fr,† MPa (ksi) Ec,‡ GPa (ksi)
HSC 83.10 (12.05) 8.00 (1.16) 30.22 (4382.78)
FRCC1 110.80 (16.07) 12.10 (1.76) 33.85 (4908.97)
FRCC2 132.70 (19.25) 13.73 (2.00) 39.32 (5702.67)
*
Compressive strength.
†
Flexural strength.
‡
Elastic modulus.
This technique is previously calibrated using two drop

tests from a 200 mm (8 in.) height direct on a calibrated load
cell. To absorb the vibration results from impact and mini-
mize the quantity of noise in the acquired data, a 50 mm
(2 in.) fine sand layer is used as a support for the concrete
platform. A dynamic data acquisition signal analyzer,
with an eight-channel dynamic analyzer, is used for data
analysis. The system is provided with 300 MHz sampling
integrated electronic piezoelectric (IEPE) sensors capable
of data capture, playback, shock recording, analysis, and
software processing.
Figure 6 shows the impact and the reaction forces versus
time curves. Comparing the impact force with the reaction
force, it is obvious that the peak load of the impact force is
much greater than that of the reaction force. The reason is that
most of the impact force is used to balance the inertia force,
while a small portion of impact force is used to deform and
fracture of specimens.21,22 Thus, the flexural load for each
drop is calculated by summing the two support reactions.22
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Basic static mechanical properties
The characteristic mechanical properties tested at the lowest
(quasi-static) strain rate are listed in Table 4. The compres-
sive stress-strain curves are shown in Fig. 7, and the flexural
responses of all tested matrixes are illustrated in Fig. 8. It can Fig. 8—Flexural responses of three tested matrixes.
be first observed that FRCC matrixes show strain hardening DIFs of compressive strength and modulus of
behavior under both compression and flexural loading. Addi- elasticity
tionally, both the strength and the maximum post-cracking Fifty-four cylinders are tested to determine the strain rate
strain are significantly improved by using steel fibers, espe- effect on compressive strength and elastic modulus. Table 5
cially under flexural loading. Moreover, the descending summarizes the test results for the three tested matrixes. Each
branch of FRCC1 and FRCC2 curves has approximately the data point in the table is averaged from three specimens, as
same slope because both contain 2% fiber by volume. previously mentioned. It is found that the mechanical proper-
ties increase with the increase in the loading rate; all results for
different matrixes show the same trend. DIF is much higher

Table 5—Compressive strength and elastic modulus experimental results
Matrix Strain rate, s–1 3 × 10–5 3 × 10–4 3 × 10–3 1 × 10–2 3 × 10–2 1 × 10–1
fcʹ, MPa
*
83.1 85.5 89.4†
90.8 93.3 94.7
DIF ‡
1.00 1.03 1.08 1.09 1.12 1.14
HSC
Ec, GPa
§
30.2 31.9 34.4†
35.0 36.7 38.4
DIF‡ 1.00 1.06 1.14 1.16 1.21 1.27
fcʹ,* MPa 110.8 112.8 114 117.9 119.5† 120.8
DIF ‡
1.00 1.02 1.03 1.06 1.08 1.09
FRCC1
Ec, GPa
§
33.8 34.7 35.5 36.8 37.9†
39.8
DIF ‡
1.00 1.03 1.05 1.09 1.12 1.18
fcʹ,* MPa 132.7 133.9 136.1 137.0 139.1 143.0
DIF‡ 1.00 1.01 1.03 1.03 1.05 1.08
FRCC2
Ec, GPa
§
39.3 40.1 42.1 42.9 45.0 44.9
DIF ‡
1.00 1.02 1.07 1.09 1.14 1.14
*
Compressive strength.
†
Average of two specimens.
‡
DIF is dynamic increase factor with respect to static case.
§
Elastic modulus.
Notes: 1 MPa = 145 psi; 1 GPa = 145 ksi.
for matrixes with lower strengths, and the enhancement or

DIF is different for compression and elastic modulus. There
is significant scatter observed between elastic modulus DIF
results of FRCC1 and FRCC2 specimens, especially at higher
rates, but it is not thought to be significant.
As mentioned previously, the results are fitted with CEB-fib
Model Code (Fig. 9). It can be observed that the CEB Model
Code gives matching results for the HSC but overestimates
both compressive strength and elastic modulus enhance-
ment for FRCC1 and FRCC2 matrixes with compressive
strength over 110 MPa (15 ksi). It should be mentioned that
the maximum difference between DIF derived from CEB-fib
and experimental results in both compressive strength and
elastic modulus is less than 6%.
DIFs of flexural strength

Table 6 shows the flexural strengths for lower three strain
rates obtained using the hydraulic servo-controlled testing
machine, and results from the dynamic flexural testing
program are given in Table 7. Analyzing the tests results, the
flexural tensile strength is more sensitive than the compres-
sive strength and elastic modulus at same strain rate. Addi-
tionally, DIF is higher for matrixes with lower strengths.
As shown in Fig. 10, there is no significant variation in
crack pattern observed for different strain rates, even at
higher strain rates using drop-weight impact machine. The
cracking mode indicated that the specimens are failed in
bending (tension side). No compression damage or inclined
cracks are observed in any specimens. Additionally, fibers
pullout is the only observed mode of failure for FRCC
matrixes. Pullout of short straight fibers has previously been
shown to be independent of strain rate.13,14 However, the
fracture surface became more flattened with the increasing
strain rate. This can be explained by the time taken for
microcrack propagation in the matrix. At low loading rate, Fig. 9—Comparison between DIF derived from tests and
the microcrack grows through the path of lowest strength. CEB-fib for compression.

However, at higher loading rates, the microcrack will not tionally, CEB-fib overestimates tensile enhancement for
have time to develop laterally into defected zones and will FRCC1 and FRCC2 matrixes. However, it gives matching
instead follow a direct path through a stronger zone. results for the HSC matrix. Additionally, the maximum
The dynamic flexural strength enhancement of the experi- difference between DIF derived from CEB-fib and experi-
mental results is shown in Fig. 11. The results are compared mental results is greater than 15%, which is significant if
with the model for strain rate enhancement of tensile compared with the difference in compressive strength.
strength of CEB-fib Model Code 2010. It can be seen that the
DIF is greatest for specimens without fibers and with lower CONCLUSIONS
compressive strength for specimens containing fibers. Addi- An experimental investigation was conducted to deter-
mine the dynamic behavior of high-strength concrete (HSC)
Table 6—Rate effect on flexural strength in and fiber-reinforced cementitious composites (FRCCs)
low-speed loading rates containing 2% short steel fibers. Compressive strength,
modulus of elasticity, and flexural tensile strength has been
investigated under six different strain rates, ranging from the
Strain rate, s–1 fr,* MPa DIF† fr,* MPa DIF† fr,* MPa DIF† static (10–5 s–1) to the seismic and/or impact level (1 s–1). The
10 –6
8.0 1.00 12.10 1.00 13.70 1.00 compressive strengths of the tested matrixes are 83, 110, and
10 –5
–– –– 12.40 1.02 13.90 1.01 130 MPa (12, 15, and 19 ksi), respectively. A special impact
setup was designed at Ryerson University and used to deter-
10 –4
8.95 1.23 12.65 1.05 14.12 1.03
mine the dynamic flexural strength of tested matrixes. The
*
Flexural strength.
following conclusions can be drawn from the experimental
†
study that was conducted:
Notes: 1 MPa = 145 psi.
Table 7—Rate effect on flexural strength in high-speed loading rates

Drop height, mm Strain rate, s–1
fr, MPa
*
DIF †
Strain rate, s
–1
fr, MPa
*
DIF †
Strain rate, s
–1
fr,* MPa DIF†
150 0.32 10.05 1.26 0.85 14.10 1.17 0.79 15.25 1.11
300 1.63 10.45 1.31 1.55 14.25 1.18 1.33 15.40 1.12
600 2.55 10.65 1.33 2.58 14.50 1.20 2.50 15.75 1.15
*
Flexural strength.
†
Notes: 1 mm = 0.039 in.; 1 MPa = 145 psi.
Fig. 10—Failure patterns in tested flexural specimens. (Note: 1 mm = 0.0394 in.)

concrete, offshore design, creep, finite element analysis, and structural
health monitoring.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This work is financially supported by the Natural Sciences and Engi-
neering Research Council of Canada (NSERC).
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AUTHOR BIOS Ultra High Performance Concrete, 2004, pp. 11-24
H. Othman is a PhD Candidate in the Department of Civil Engineering 19. Yazdizadeh, Z., “Use of Fiber Brag Gating Sensors in Civil Engi-
at Ryerson University, Toronto, ON, Canada. He received his BSc and neering Applications,” MSc thesis, Ryerson University, Toronto, ON,
MSc from Zagazig University, Zagazig, Egypt, and Menoufia University, Canada, 2014, pp. 49-79.
Al Minufya, Egypt, respectively. His research interests include high-strain- 20. Comité Euro-International du Béton, “Concrete Structures under
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properties of high-strength and ultra-high-performance fiber-reinforced 10.1016/j.ijimpeng.2009.04.007

Title No. 113-M15
Analysis of Compressive Strength Development and

Carbonation Depth of High-Volume Fly Ash Cement Pastes
by Xiao-Yong Wang and Ki-Bong Park
High-volume fly ash (HVFA) concrete, which typically has 50 to Many experimental studies have examined the strength
60% fly ash as the total cementitious material content, is widely development and carbonation of HVFA concrete. Lam et al.2
used to achieve sustainable development in the concrete industry. found that fly ash contributed little to compressive strength
Strength development and carbonation are critical research topics at early ages, and at later ages, the contribution of fly ash
for using HVFA concrete. This paper presents a numerical proce-
to the compressive strength became larger. The contri-
dure to evaluate the strength development and carbonation depth
bution of fly ash in concrete mixtures prepared at a lower
of HVFA concrete. This numerical procedure consists of a hydra-
tion model and a carbonation reaction model. The hydration model water-cementitious materials ratio (w/cm) was greater than
analyzes the fly ash dilution effect and the pozzolanic reaction. The those prepared at a higher w/cm. Papadakis3 and Papadakis
amount of carbonatable materials, such as calcium hydroxide (CH) et al.4,5 found that for fly ash blended concrete, the carbon-
and calcium silicate hydrate (CSH), are calculated using reaction ation depth decreases as aggregate replacement by fly ash
degrees of cement and fly ash. The compressive strength develop- increases and also increases as cement replacement by fly
ment of cement-fly ash blends are evaluated from CSH contents. ash increases. Sisomphon and Franke6 and Jiang et al.7 found
The calculation results from the hydration model, such as the that an effective water-binder ratio (w/b) and cement content
amount of carbonatable materials and the porosity, are used as are the key factors affecting HVFA concrete carbonation.
input parameters for the carbonation reaction model. By consid- An increased curing period can improve the carbonation
ering the effects of material properties and environmental condi-
behavior of HVFA concrete.6,7 According to References 2
tions, the carbonation reaction model analyzes the diffusivity of
through 7, the strength and carbonation of HVFA concrete is
carbon dioxide and the carbonation depth of HVFA concrete with
different curing conditions, different fly ash contents, and different closely related to the material properties of concrete, such as
water-binder (w/b) ratios. w/b, fly ash replacement ratios, and curing periods.
Compared to the abundant experimental studies, theoretical
Keywords: carbonation; compressive strength; dilution effect; high-volume models for evaluating the strength development and carbon-
fly ash; hydration; model; pozzolanic reaction. ation of HVFA concrete are limited. Using an apparent acti-
vation energy function, Han et al.8 and Kim et al.9 evaluated
INTRODUCTION the development of the compressive strength of hardening
Fly ash consists of finely divided ashes produced by fly ash blended concrete, investigating the influences of fly
burning pulverized coal in power stations and can be catego- ash replacement content and the w/b on the apparent activa-
rized as a normal type of pozzolan to produce high-strength tion energy. Based on experimental results concerning the
and high-performance concrete. To achieve sustainable compressive strength development of concrete containing
development in the concrete industry, high-volume fly ash fly ash, Hwang et al.10 derived an estimation equation for
(HVFA) concrete, which typically has 50 to 60% fly ash as the compressive strength development. The equation used
the total cementitious material content, is widely used. The a coefficient to indicate the activity of fly ash as a binder
incorporation of a high volume of fly ash in concrete has in the form of a function of age, fly ash content, and the
many advantages such as reducing water demand, improving Blaine specific surface area of fly ash. Conversely, Papa-
workability, minimizing cracking due to thermal and drying dakis3 proposed a simplified scheme describing the activity
shrinkage, and enhancing durability to sulfate attack and of fly ash in terms of chemical reactions and yielded quan-
alkali-silica expansion.1 titative expressions of the final chemical composition of
Compressive strength is the most important property of supplementary cementitious materials (SCM) concrete. The
hardened concrete; other properties, such as mechanical carbonation depth of concrete incorporating low-volume
properties development and construction management, fly ash (fly ash content of less than 30% of the total binder
are closely related to compressive strength development. content) was predicted considering both material proper-
However, due to carbonation in reinforced concrete struc- ties and exposed conditions. Using an effective w/b, Jiang
tures, when the pH of the capillary pore water drops to a et al.7 modified Papadakis’ original equation3 and predicted
low value of 9, the passive layer on the steel surface will no the carbonation of HVFA concrete. However, Papadakis3
longer remain stable and corrosion of the steel reinforcing and Jiang et al.7 focused on matured concrete. The depen-
bar will begin. Therefore, the compressive strength develop-
ment and carbonation are critical research topics for mate- MS No. M-2015-056.R2, doi: 10.14359/51688636, received July 8, 2015, and
rials selection, durability design, and maintenance of rein- reviewed under Institute publication policies. Copyright © 2016, American Concrete
Institute. All rights reserved, including the making of copies unless permission is
forced concrete structures.1 obtained from the copyright proprietors. Pertinent discussion including author’s
is received within four months of the paper’s print publication.

Table 1—Comparison between proposed model
and previous models
Strength development Carbonation depth
evaluation of HVFA evaluation of HVFA
blended concrete blended concrete
Papadakis3 No Yes
Jiang et al. 7
No Yes
Han et al. ;
8
Yes No
Kim et al.9
Hwang et al.10 Yes No
Proposed
Yes Yes
model
dence of carbonation resistance on the curing period was

not considered in detail in previous research.3,7 Summarily,
current models3,7-10 are only valid for single-property eval-
uation of fly ash blended concrete, such as strength devel-
opment evaluation or carbonation evaluation. An integrated
model that can evaluate both compressive strength develop- Fig. 1—Flowchart of numerical procedure.
ment and carbonation is necessary.
as a single equation consisting of three coefficients: kd, the
To overcome the weak points in former research,3,7-10 this
reaction coefficient in the induction period; De, the effective
paper presents a numerical procedure to evaluate the strength
diffusion coefficient of water through the CSH gel; and kri,
development and carbonation depth of HVFA concrete.
a coefficient of the reaction rate of the mineral compound of
The comparison among our proposed model and previous
cement, as shown in Eq. (1) and (2)
models3,7-10 is shown in Table 1. Due to the combination of
the blended cement hydration model with the carbonation
reaction model, the proposed model shows more functions d α i 3 ( S w / S0 ) ρw Cw-free
= ×
than previous models.3,7-10 dt (v + wg )r0 ρc
The flowchart of the numerical procedure is shown in 1 (1)
Fig. 1. Using a hydration model considering both cement
 1 r0  r0 −1
1 −2
hydration and fly ash reaction, the amounts of calcium − + (1 − α ) 3
+ (1 − α i ) 3
 k D  D i
k
hydroxide (CH), chemically bound water, and calcium sili- d e e ri
cate hydrate (CSH) are determined as functions of the curing 4
age. The compressive strength development of cement-fly ∑ α i gi

i =1
ash blends are evaluated from CSH contents. Furthermore, α= 4
(2)
by considering the effects of material properties and envi- ∑ gi
i =1
ronmental conditions, the diffusivity of carbon dioxide and
where αi (i = 1, 2, 3, and 4) represents the reaction degree of
the carbonation depth of concrete are calculated.
the mineral compound of cement C3S, C2S, C3A, and C4AF,
respectively; α is the degree of cement hydration and can be
RESEARCH SIGNIFICANCE
calculated from the weight fraction of the mineral compound
Compressive strength development and carbonation are
gi and the reaction degree of the mineral compound αi; ν is
critical research topics for using HVFA concrete. Using an
the stoichiometric ratio by mass of water to cement (= 0.25);
HVFA blended hydration model, this paper analyzes the
wg is the physically bound water in the CSH gel (= 0.15);
compressive strength development of concrete through the
ρw is the density of water; ρc is the density of cement; Cw-free
reaction degrees of cement and fly ash. By combining the
is the amount of water at the exterior of the CSH gel; r0 is
hydration model with the carbonation reaction model, the
the radius of unhydrated cement particles; Sw is the effec-
effects of w/b, fly ash replacement ratios, and curing periods
tive surface area of the cement particles in contact with
on the carbonation resistance of HVFA concrete are detailed
water; and S0 is the total surface area if the surface area
clearly. The proposed numerical procedure is useful for
develops unconstrained.
carbonation durability design and mixing proportions selec-
The reaction coefficient kd is assumed to be a function of
tion for HVFA concrete.
the degree of hydration, as shown in Eq. (3), where B and C
are the coefficients determining this factor; B controls the
HYDRATION MODEL FOR CEMENT-FLY ASH
rate of the initial shell formation and C controls the rate of
BLENDS
the initial shell decay.
Hydration model of portland cement
Park et al.11 proposed a shrinking-core model to model
B
the hydration of portland cement. This model is expressed kd = + Cα 3 (3)
α1.5

Table 2—Coefficients of cement hydration model
B20, cm/h C20, cm/h krC3S 20, cm/h krC2S 20, cm/h krC3 A20, cm/h krC4 AF 20, cm/h De20, cm2/h β1, K β2, K β3, K E/R, K
8.09 × 10–9
0.02 9.03 × 10 –6
2.71 × 10 –7
1.35 × 10 –6
6.77 × 10 –8
8.62 × 10
–10
1000 1000 7500 5400
Notes: 1 cm = 0.394 in.; 1 cm = 0.155 in. ; °F = (K – 273.15) × 1.8 + 32.
2 2
The effective diffusion coefficient of water is affected by the refines the initial approximations using an iteration method.
tortuosity of the gel pores and the radii of the gel pores in the For example, if refining the value of kri, the old values of
hydrate. This phenomenon can be described as a function of B, C, and De obtained from last step should be used and the
the degree of hydration and is expressed as follows new value of kri can be confirmed according to the experi-
mental results during the activated chemical reaction period.
 1 The refined value of kri will be used as an input parameter
De = De 0 ln   (4)
 α in the next calculation step. Similarly, the value of De can
be refined through the experimental results during the diffu-
where De0 is initial diffusion coefficient. sion period, the value of B can be refined through the exper-
The amount of water in the capillary pores Cw-free is imental results on the formation of the initial impermeable
expressed as a function of the degree of hydration in the layer, and the value of C can be refined through the experi-
previous step, as shown in Eq. (5) mental results on the destruction of the initial impermeable
layer. In the next iteration step, the refined values of the coef-
 W − 0.4 ⋅ α ⋅ C0 
r ficients are used as input values for calibration.11 Once the
Cw-free =  0  (5) convergence criteria are met, the refining process will stop.
 W0 Using the proposed portland cement hydration model, Park
et al.11 evaluated the heat evolution rate, chemically bound
where C0 and W0 are the mass fractions of cement and water
water, and compressive strength of hardening concrete.
in the mixture proportion, respectively; and r is an empirical
However, Park’s model is only valid for portland cement
parameter considering the accessibility of water into an inner
concrete. To evaluate the properties of HVFA concrete, the
anhydrous part through an outer hard shell of the cement
fly ash reaction and the interactions between cement hydra-
particles. (When the w/b is higher than 0.4, r = 1.0; when
tion and the fly ash reaction should be considered.
the w/b is lower than 0.4, because of increased constrictivity
and tortuosity of the capillary pore network and less pore
Simulation of the pozzolanic reaction in cement-
connectivity, r is higher than 1 and can be determined from
fly ash blends
r = 2.6 – 4(W0/[C0 + P]), where P is the mass of mineral
The hydration rate of pozzolanic materials depends on the
mixtures.12,13)
amount of CH in hydrating cement-fly ash blends and the
The effect of temperature on the reaction coefficients
reaction degree of the mineral admixtures.15-19 Compared to
is assumed to follow Arrhenius’s law, as shown in Eq. (6)
silica fume, the hydration rate of fly ash is much lower due to
through (9)
the larger particle size. The simulation assumes that the reac-
tion of the fly ash is divided into three processes: an initial
 1 1  dormant period, a phase-boundary reaction process and a
B = B20 exp  −β1  −  (6)
  T 293   diffusion process. By considering these points, the reaction
equation of the fly ash is originally proposed as follows
 1 1 
C = C20 exp  −β 2  −  (7) d α FA mCH (t ) 3ρw
  T 293   = ×
dt P vFA rFA0ρFA
1
 E1 1 
kri = kri 20 exp  −  − (8)  1  −1 −2
 R T 293  
 rFA0 rFA0 1
 k − D  + D (1 − α FA ) + k (1 − α FA )
3 3
dFA eFA eFA rFA
 1 1  (10)
De = De 20 exp  −β3  −  (9)
  T 293  
BFA
where β1, β2, E/R, and β3 are the temperature sensitivity kdFA = + CFA ⋅ (α FA )3 (11)
(α FA )1.5
coefficients; and B20, C20, kri20, and De20 are the values of B,
C, kri, and De at 20°C (68°F), respectively.
Based on the degree of reactions of mineral compounds of  1 
DeFA = DeFA0 ⋅ ln  (12)
cement,14 using a predictor-corrector algorithm, the param-  α FA 
eters of the hydration model are calibrated and shown in
Table 2. This predictor-corrector algorithm proceeds in two where αFA is the reaction degree of the fly ash; P is the
steps: first, the prediction step assumes the rough approxi- mass of the fly ash in the mixture proportion; mCH(t) is
mations of the desired quantities. Second, the corrector step the CH mass in a unit volume of hydrating cement-fly

ash blends; νFA is the stoichiometric ratio of fly ash to CH hardening fly ash blended concrete. Equation (17) assumes
(νFA = 0.845 – 0.7(P/[C0 + P])[17]); rFA0 is the radius of the that the chemical compositions of fly ash, such as SiO2 and
fly ash particle; ρFA is the density of the fly ash; kdFA is the Al2O3, react at the same rate.
reaction rate coefficient in the dormant period (BFA and CFA Using the blended hydration model, the phase volume
are coefficients); DeFA0 is the initial diffusion coefficient; fractions of hydrating cement-fly ash paste can be calculated
and krFA is the reaction rate coefficient. Similar to the cement as follows
hydration model, the influence of the temperature on the fly
ash reaction can be considered using the Arrhenius law.15 C0
V1 = (1 − α ) (18)
ρc
Mutual interaction between cement hydration and
fly ash reaction
In the model, the amount of free water left in the system P
V2 = (1 − α FA ) (19)
and the amount of CH were adopted as the control indica- ρFA
tors for the reactions of cement-fly ash blends. The amounts
of CH, chemically bound water, and capillary water in CSH(t )
cement-fly ash blends during hydration can be determined V3 = (20)
ρCSH
with the following equations
mCH(t) = RCHCE ∙ C0 ∙ α – νFA ∙ αFA ∙ P (13) W0 − Wcbm

V4 = (21)
ρw
Wcap = W0 – 0.4 ∙ C0 ∙ α – RCWFA ∙ αFA ∙ P – RPWFA ∙ αFA ∙ P (14)
V5 = 1 – V1 – V2 – V3 – V4 (22)
Wcbm = ν ∙ C0 ∙ α + RCWFA ∙ αFA ∙ P (15)
where V1, V2, V3, V4, and V5 are the volumes of unhydrous
In Eq. (13) through (15), mCH(t), Wcap, and Wcbm are the cement, unreacted fly ash, CSH (ρCSH is density of CSH3),
masses of CH, capillary water, and chemically bound water, porosity, and other hydration products, respectively.
respectively; RCHCE is the mass of produced CH from 1 g The addition of fly ash mainly represents the dilution effect
(0.0022 lb) of hydrated cement; RCWFA is the mass of chem- and the chemical effect on cement hydration.21,22 The dilu-
ically bound water from 1 g (0.0022 lb) of reacted fly ash tion effect is a consequence of the replacement of cement by
(RCWFA = 0.1[15]); and RPWFA is the mass of gel water from 1 g fly ash and increases the w/c. This dilution effect is consid-
of reacted fly ash (RPWFA = 0.15[15]). As shown in Eq. (13) ered through the amount of capillary water (Eq. (14)) and the
through (15), the evolution of CH, chemically bound water, dilution effect (Eq. (5)). The chemical effect is the pozzo-
and capillary water in cement-fly ash blends depends on lanic reaction between fly ash and CH and is considered
both cement hydration and fly ash reaction. using Eq. (10) through (12). Conversely, the addition of fly
Papadakis and Tsimas18,19 and Papadakis20 proposed that ash also can retard the hydration of cement in the early ages.
for matured fly ash blended concrete, the CSH content, which This retardation effect comes from the dissolution of alumi-
is the most critical parameter in strength development, can nate ions or organic matter from the fly ash.18-22 In addition,
be calculated as a function of the cement content C0; fly ash fly ash particles can serve as nucleation sites for the cement
content P; weight fraction of SiO2 in cement fS,C and fly ash particles and accelerate the hydration of cement. Because of
fS,P, respectively; and ratio of active silica to total silica in the the coexistence of both the retardation effect and the accel-
fly ash γs. The original chemical reaction equation proposed eration effect, as reported by Papadakis and Tsimas18,19 and
by Papadakis and Tsimas18,19 and Papadakis20 is as follows Papadakis,20 when the aggregate is partly replaced by fly
ash, the early-age compressive strength and CH amount are
CSH = 2.85 (fS,C ∙ C0 + fS,P ∙ P ∙ γs) (16) not significantly different from those of the control portland
cement concrete. Therefore, the hydration coefficients of
where the coefficient 2.85 is the ratio between the molar cement in cement-fly ash blends are assumed to be approxi-
weight of CSH and the weight of oxide SiO2 in CSH.18,19 mately the same as those in plain portland cement concrete.
Equation (16) is only valid for matured concrete.
To evaluate the strength development of hardening Evaluating properties of cement-fly ash blends
concrete, Eq. (16) was combined with with the blended Evaluating reaction degree of fly ash—Lam et al.17
cement hydration model. The revised equation is as follows measured the reaction degree of fly ash in cement-fly ash
paste with different w/b and fly ash replacement ratios.
CSH(t) = 2.85(fS,C ∙ C0 ∙ α + fS,P ∙ P ∙ αFA) (17) Cement-fly ash pastes were prepared at w/b of 0.19, 0.24,
0.3, and 0.5. Fly ash was used to replace cement at levels
In Eq. (17), the upper limit of the reaction degree of of 25% and 45% by weight for the pastes at w/b of 0.19 and
cement α is 1, and the upper limit of the reaction degree of 0.24, respectively, and 25% and 55% by weight for those
fly ash αFA is γs. Hence, Eq. (16) can be regarded as the upper at w/b of 0.3 and 0.5, respectively. Plain portland cement
limit of the revised Eq. (17). By combining Eq. (16) with the pastes without any fly ash replacement were prepared at the
reaction degrees of binders, the revised Eq. (17) is valid for same w/b as the references. The paste specimens were cured

Fig. 2—Reaction degree of fly ash.
in water at 27°C (80.6°F). At the ages of 7, 28, and 90 days, Table 3—Coefficients of fly ash reaction model
the degree of reaction of fly ash was measured based on a BFA, cm/h CFA, cm/h krFA, cm/h DeFA0, cm2/h
selective dissolution procedure using a picric acid-methanol 2.6 × 10–11 0.53 7.21 × 10–7 7.05 × 10–13
solution and water. The CH contents were measured using
Notes: 1 cm = 0.394 in.; 1 cm2 = 0.155 in.2
thermal gravimetry analysis, the chemically bound water
contents were measured using loss on ignition in an electric land cement hydration that produces CH and the pozzolanic
furnace, and the compressive strength test was performed reaction that consumes CH. In the initial 7 days, the hydra-
using a hydraulic compression machine. tion of portland cement is dominant, so CH will increase
For cement-fly ash paste, the development of properties continuously and present a peak value at the age of approxi-
relate to both the cement hydration and the fly ash reaction. mately 1 week. After this age, the pozzolanic reaction of fly
The contribution from the cement hydration can be evalu- ash will become dominant, so the CH will decrease.
ated using the coefficients of the cement hydration model Figure 4 presents the calculation results for chemically
(obtained in the section titled “Hydration model of portland bound water in cement-fly ash blends. As shown in Fig. 4(a),
cement”). From the experimental results of the reaction for cement-fly ash with a higher w/b of 0.5, when 25% of the
degree of fly ash, using the predictor-corrector algorithm, the cement is replaced with fly ash, the amount of chemically
coefficients relating to the fly ash reaction can be calibrated bound water significantly decreases. Figure 4(b) shows that
and are shown in Table 3. As shown Fig. 2, the analyzed for cement-fly ash with a lower w/b of 0.19, when 25% of
results for the reaction degree of fly ash generally agree with the cement is replaced with fly ash, the amount of chemi-
the experimental results. Reducing the replacement level of cally bound water is comparable to that of portland cement
the fly ash increases both the alkaline activating effect of paste due to the dilution effect from the addition of fly ash.
the cement and the reactivity of fly ash. Increasing the w/b Increasing the amount of mineral admixtures decreases the
creates more available space for hydration products to form, amount of cement, and, consequently, increases the water to
and the reactivity of the fly ash increases correspondingly. cement ratio and increases the degree of hydration of cement.
Because the interactions between cement hydration and fly This dilution effect is considered by the cement hydration
ash reaction are considered, the reaction coefficients of fly model in Eq. (5) and is shown in Fig. 5. Figure 5(b) shows
ash do not change with the w/b or fly ash replacement ratios. that when the w/b is lower, the dilution effect will become
Figure 3 presents the calculation results of CH in cement-fly more significant.
ash blends. For portland cement paste, the amount of CH Figure 6 presents the evolution of the phase volume frac-
will increase until it reaches steady state. For cement-fly ash tions of hardening cement-fly ash blends paste (w/b of 0.4
paste, the evolution of CH depends on two factors: the port- with 25% fly ash). As shown in this figure, as the cement

Fig. 3—Calcium hydroxide contents. (Note: 1 g = 0.0022 lb.)
Fig. 4—Chemically bound water contents. (Note: 1 g = 0.0022 lb.)
Fig. 5—Effect of fly ash addition on hydration of cement.

hydration and fly ash reaction proceed, the volumes of unre- sive strength, w/b, and fly ash content can be described
acted cement and fly ash decrease, the volumes of CSH as follows21
and other reaction products increase, and, due to the filling
effects of reaction products, the pore volume decreases. C0 + k (t ) ⋅ P
At an early age, the cement hydration and fly ash reaction f c (t ) = A1 (t ) ⋅ − A2 (t ) (23)
W0
proceed quickly, and at a later age, the reaction rates become
slower. Because the reactivity of cement is much higher than where fc is the compressive strength of concrete; A1(t) and A2(t)
that of fly ash, at the age of 180 days, the remaining unhy- are strength coefficients; and k(t) is the efficiency factor of fly
drous cement is much less than that of fly ash. ash. In Eq. (23), the mass of binder C0 + k(t) ∙ P in the numer-
Evaluating compressive strength of cement-fly ash paste— ator relates to the mass of reaction products that contribute to
The compressive strength of concrete is closely related to the compressive strength; the mass of water W0 in the denom-
the w/b and the fly ash content. The relation among compres- inator relates to the available pore space in which hydration
products form. However, Eq. (23) has some limits. For hard-

Fig. 6—Phase volume fractions of cement-fly ash paste (w/b
Fig. 7—Compressive strength versus CSH contents. (Note:
of 0.4 with 25% fly ash).
1 g = 0.0022 lb; 1 MPa = 145 psi.)
ening concrete, the coefficients k(t), A1(t), and A2(t) are not
CSH distributions in the pore space. The reaction products
constants but are age-dependent variables. With changing w/b,
distribute more homogeneously in pastes with lower w/b
fly ash replacement ratios, and curing ages, the coefficients k,
than those with higher w/b.21,22
A1, and A2 are different. Due to variances of coefficients, it is
Figure 8 shows the analysis results for compressive
not convenient to use Eq. (23) for evaluating the compressive
strength development of cement-fly ash paste. At a late age,
strength development of fly ash blended concrete.
for concrete with HVFA, a relatively higher w/b marginally
In this research, to overcome the weak points of the
increases the reaction degree of cement (shown in Fig. 5(a)),
current model (Eq. (23)), we proposed that the compressive
so the compressive strength of HVFA paste cannot surpass
strength of concrete can be determined from CSH contents.
that of the control paste (Fig. 8(a) with a w/b of 0.5). When
The relation between the compressive strength of concrete
the w/b is lower, due to the significant increase in the reac-
and the CSH contents can be described using a linear equa-
tion degree of cement (shown in Fig. 5(b)), the compressive
tion as follows
strength of HVFA paste can surpass that of the control paste
(Fig. 8(c) with a w/b of 0.24; and Fig. 8(d) with a w/b of
CSH(t ) 0.19). Therefore, the efficiency factor of fly ash is depen-
f c (t ) = A1 ⋅ − A2 (24)
W0 dent on the w/b and is not a constant. The contribution of fly
ash mixtures prepared at a lower w/b was greater than those
In Eq. (24), the mass of calcium silicate hydrate CSH(t) prepared at a higher w/b.
can be determined from Eq. (17). CSH(t) relates to the However, the proposed model for strength development
w/b, the fly ash replacement ratios, and the curing age of has some limitations due to ignorance of the aggregate
concrete. Because the effects of mixing proportions and influence. At the macroscopic level, concrete is a composite
curing age have been included in the CSH(t) item in Eq. material consisting of discrete aggregates dispersed in a
(24), the coefficients of A1 and A2 are constants, not age-de- continuous cement paste matrix. The bonding region or inter-
pendent variables. As shown in Eq. (24), for hardening facial transition zone (ITZ) in concrete between the matrix
concrete, the compressive strength development starts after and the aggregate is a critical component of the mechanical
a threshold degree of hydration. When the degree of hydra- performance.21 For ordinary- and low-strength concrete,
tion is lower than this threshold degree of hydration, the the ITZ is the weak link of concrete, and the compressive
compressive strength of concrete is zero.21,22 The concept of strength of concrete is mainly dependent on the strength
this threshold degree of hydration is similar to that of the of the ITZ. Alternately, for high-strength concrete, the
final setting time of concrete. (Final set means complete strength of concrete relates to the three phases of concrete:
solidification and beginning of hardening. In concrete tech- the ITZ phase, the bulk paste matrix phase, and the aggre-
nology, the phenomenon of strength gain with time is called gate phase. Therefore, the current model is not perfect and
hardening.21,22) requires improvement to consider more influencing factors
Based on the calculated CSH contents and the measured for concrete strength development.
compressive strength of paste, the strength coefficients of
Eq. (24) can be calibrated and are shown in Fig. 7. The EVALUATION OF CARBONATION DEPTH OF HVFA
value of A1 is given as 97.94 MPa (14.20 ksi), and the value BLENDED CONCRETE
of A2 is 35.53 MPa (5.15 ksi). The correlation coefficient The carbonation of concrete occurs in the cement paste
between the experimental results and the predicted results is component of concrete in which the aggregates that consti-
0.95. The differences between the experimental results and tute the majority of the mass and volume of concrete are
the analyzed results mainly come from the ignorance of the essential inert fillers, as far as a certain carbonation is

Fig. 8—Compressive strength of cement-fly ash blends. (Note: 1 g = 0.0022 lb; 1 MPa = 145 psi.)
concerned. The hydration products of the CH and CSH that ∂
are susceptible to carbonation typically constitute 85% of the [Ca(OH) 2 ] = − K CH [CO 2 ][Ca(OH) 2 ] (28)
∂t
weight of the mass of hardened cement pastes. The carbon-
ation reactions between CO2 and carbonatable constituents ∂
[CSH] = − K CSH [CO 2 ][CSH] (29)
are shown as follows3 ∂t
Ca(OH) 2 + CO 2 K
CH
→ CaCO3 + H 2 O (25) where DC is the effective diffusivity of CO2; [CO2] is the
molar concentration of CO2; KCH and KCSH are the carbon-
(3CaO ⋅ 2SiO 2 ⋅ 3H 2 O) + 3CO 2 K
CSH
→ 3CaCO3 ⋅ 2SiO 2 ⋅ 3H 2 O ation rate constants of Ca(OH)2 and CSH, respectively;
and [Ca(OH)2)] and [CSH] are the molar concentrations of
(26) Ca(OH)2 and CSH, respectively. This mathematical model
is based on the mass balance of gaseous CO2, solid and
Concrete carbonation is a complicated physicochemical dissolved Ca(OH)2, and CSH and accounts for the diffusion
process. The process includes the diffusion of atmospheric CO2 and consumption of these substances. In the given initial
into the concrete pores, its dissolution in the aqueous film of and boundary conditions, the differential equations can be
these pores, the dissolution of solid Ca(OH)2 in the water of the solved using a finite differential method or finite element
pores, the diffusion of dissolved Ca(OH)2 in pore water, its reac- method numerically.
tion with dissolved CO2, and the reaction of CO2 with CSH. In For the typical range of parameters (especially for relative
addition, there is a parallel process that includes the hydration of humidity higher than 55%, where CO2 diffusion controls
cementitious materials and the reduction of concrete porosity. the carbonation process3), a carbonation front will form
Papadakis3 and Papadakis et al.4,5 developed and experimentally that divides the concrete into two different regions: a fully
verified a fundamental and comprehensive reaction model of carbonated region and one in which the carbonation has
concrete carbonation. When all of the hydration reaction rates not started at all. The distance between this front and the
are set to zero (when carbonation experiments were conducted outer concrete surface is called the carbonation depth, and
with fully hydrated samples), the simplified model equations for the most common one-dimensional cases, its evolution
can be written as shown in Eq. (27) through (29) with time is given by a simple analytical expression in terms
of the composition and the environmental conditions. The
∂  ∂[CO 2 ]  evolution of the carbonation depth xc (in m) with time t (in
 DC = [CO 2 ]( K CH [Ca(OH) 2 ] + 3K CSH [CSH])
∂x  ∂x  seconds) is given by the analytical expression as shown in
Eq. (30) and (31)3
(27)

Table 4—Mixture proportions of concrete7
Mixture No. Cement, kg/m3 Fly ash, kg/m3 Fly ash replacement ratio w/b Water-reducing agent, % Slump, mm
C1 222 0 0 0.6 0.2 55
F1-55 100 122 0.55 0.46 1.7 50
C2 333 0 0 0.45 0.2 75
F2-55 150 183 0.55 0.38 1.7 70
Notes: 1 kg/m = 1.68 lb/yd ; 1 mm = 0.0394 in.
3 3
integral comparison between the predicted and experimental

2 DC ([CO 2 ]0 / 100)t
xc = (30) carbonation depth. The correlation coefficient between them
0.33CH + 0.214CSH is 0.85, and the root-mean-square error (RMSE) is 2.8 mm.
  However, the original carbonation model3-5 does not explic-
 εC   RH  2.2 itly consider the effect of curing period on the amount of
DC = A   1 −  (31) carbonatable materials and carbonation depth. In contrast,
 C0 + P + W0   100  due to combining the carbonation model with the hydration
 ρ ρFA ρw 
c model, the proposed numerical procedure in this paper can
where [CO2]0 is the CO2 content in the ambient air at the consider more influencing factors for concrete carbonation
concrete surface; εC is the porosity of carbonated concrete than the original model.3-5
and can be determined using the proposed model by Papa- The proposed carbonation reaction model considers
dakis3; and RH is the ambient relative humidity. A and a are concrete material properties and environmental conditions
parameters that will be regressed from measured carbon- on the carbonation depth of concrete. Material properties,
ation depths. Based on the proposed hydration model, the including cement and fly ash contents, water contents,
amount of CH, CSH, and porosity can be obtained as asso- porosity, reaction degree of binders, and carbonatable mate-
ciated results during the hydration period of cement-FA rials contents, and environmental conditions, such as relative
blended concrete. Furthermore, the carbonation depth can humidity and carbon dioxide concentration, are considered
be predicted by using Eq. (30) and (31). in this modeling. However, for concrete at early ages, the
Jiang et al.7 investigated the carbonation depth of HVFA presence of aggregate appears to influence the carbonation
blended concrete. The mixing proportions of concrete are depth results.5,23 This point is not considered in the current
shown in Table 4.7 The w/b vary between 0.6 and 0.38 and proposed model, and more improvements are necessary.
the fly ash replacement ratio is 55%. The fine aggregate was
natural sand, and the coarse aggregate was a crushed lime- CONCLUSIONS
stone, with a maximum size of 31.5 mm (1.24 in.).7 The test This paper presents a numerical procedure to eval-
specimens for the accelerated test were cured at 25°C (77°F) uate the strength development and carbonation depth of
until the time of acceleration carbonation testing (with two HVFA concrete.
types of curing periods: 28 days wet curing and 90 days wet The numerical procedure starts with a hydration model
curing). The accelerated carbonation test was conducted considering both cement hydration and fly ash reaction. The
in a test chamber kept at a temperature of 20°C (68°F), a hydration model analyzes cement hydration, the fly ash dilu-
relative humidity of 70%, and a CO2 concentration of 20%. tion effect, and the fly ash pozzolanic reaction in cement-fly
The test specimens were 100 x 100 x 200 mm (0.328 x ash blends. Using the hydration model, the reaction degree
0.328 x 0.656 ft). The depth of carbonation was determined of fly ash, CH contents, phases volume fractions, and
by removing a slice approximately 50 mm (0.164 ft) thick calcium silicate hydrate contents of hardening cement-fly
from the end of the specimen, spraying the freshly broken ash blends are predicted. The compressive strengths of
samples with a phenolphthalein indicator, and measuring hardening fly ash blended paste are evaluated using calcium
the depth to the color change. Using the difference scheme silicate hydrate amounts. The efficiency factor of fly ash is
of Eq. (29), the carbonation depth of the specimens can be dependent on the w/b and is not a constant. The contribution
calculated. The comparison between the prediction results of the fly ash mixtures prepared at a lower w/b was greater
and the experiment results is shown in Fig. 9 (A = 1.52–6, a = than those prepared at a higher w/b.
1.8). The prediction results generally reproduced the exper- The calculation results from the hydration model are used
imental results. As shown in Fig. 9(b) and (d), for concrete as input parameters for the carbonation reaction model. By
with the same fly ash replacement ratio of 55%, decreasing considering the effects of material properties and environ-
the w/b from 0.46 (Fig. 9(b)) to 0.38 (Fig. 9(d) decreased the mental conditions, the carbonation reaction model analyzes
carbonation depth. As shown in Fig. 9(b) and (c), compared the diffusivity of carbon dioxide and the carbonation
to portland cement concrete (Fig. 9(c)), the incorporation depth of HVFA concrete with different curing conditions,
of HVFA into concrete (Fig. 9(b)) increases the carbon- different fly ash contents, and different w/b. Increasing the
ation depth. When the initial curing periods increase from fly ash content or the w/b increases the carbonation depth.
28 days to 90 days, the amount of carbonatable constituents Increasing the initial curing periods increases the amounts
will increase, the porosity will decrease, and the carbonation of carbonatable constituents, decreases the porosity, and
depth will decrease correspondingly. Figure 9(e) presents an decreases the carbonation depth correspondingly.

Fig. 9—Carbonation depth of HVFA concrete with different curing periods. (Note: 1 mm = 0.0394 in.)
AUTHOR BIOS 3. Papadakis, V. G., “Effect of Supplementary Cementing Materials on
Xiao-Yong Wang is an Assistant Professor at Kangwon National Univer- Concrete Resistance against Carbonation and Chloride Ingress,” Cement
sity, Chuncheon, South Korea. He received his PhD from Hanyang Univer- and Concrete Research, V. 30, No. 2, 2000, pp. 291-299. doi: 10.1016/
sity, Seoul, South Korea. His research interests include multi-scale modeling S0008-8846(99)00249-5
of the durability of concrete structures and the anti-seismic behavior of 4. Papadakis, V. G.; Fardis, M. N.; and Vayenas, C. G., “Hydration and
concrete-filled steel tubes. Carbonation of Pozzolanic Cements,” ACI Materials Journal, V. 89, No. 2,
Mar.-Apr. 1992, pp. 119-130.
Ki-Bong Park is an Associate Professor at Kangwon National Univer- 5. Papadakis, V. G.; Vayenas, C. G.; and Fardis, M. N., “Fundamental
sity. He received his PhD from the University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan. His Modeling and Experimental Investigation of Concrete Carbonation,” ACI
research interests include the prediction of thermal and shrinkage cracking Materials Journal, V. 88, No. 4, July-Aug. 1991, pp. 363-373.
in concrete structures using a hydration model and finite element method. 6. Sisomphon, K., and Franke, L., “Carbonation Rates of Concretes
Containing High Volume of Pozzolanic Materials,” Cement and Concrete
Research, V. 37, No. 12, 2007, pp. 1647-1653.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 7. Jiang, L.; Lin, B.; and Cai, Y., “A Model for Predicting Carbonation
This research was supported by Basic Science Research Program through of High-Volume Fly Ash Concrete,” Cement and Concrete Research, V. 30,
the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF), funded by the Ministry No. 5, 2000, pp. 699-702. doi: 10.1016/S0008-8846(00)00227-1
of Science, ICT, and Future Planning (No. 2015R1A5A1037548). 8. Han, S. H.; Kim, J. K.; and Park, Y. D., “Prediction of Compressive
Strength of Fly Ash Concrete by New Apparent Activation Energy Func-
tion,” Cement and Concrete Research, V. 33, No. 7, 2003, pp. 965-971. doi:
REFERENCES 10.1016/S0008-8846(03)00007-3
1. Mehta, P. K., and Monteiro, P. J. M., Concrete—Microstructure, Prop-
9. Kim, J. K.; Han, S. H.; and Park, S. K., “Effect of Temperature
erties, and Materials, McGraw-Hill, New York, 2006, 704 pp.
and Aging on the Mechanical Properties of Concrete: Part II. Prediction
2. Lam, L.; Wong, Y. L.; and Poon, C. S., “Effect of Fly Ash and Silica
Model,” Cement and Concrete Research, V. 32, No. 7, 2002, pp. 1095-1100.
Fume on Compressive and Fracture Behaviors of Concrete,” Cement
doi: 10.1016/S0008-8846(02)00745-7
and Concrete Research, V. 28, No. 2, 1998, pp. 271-283. doi: 10.1016/
10. Hwang, K.; Noguchi, T.; and Tomosawa, F., “Prediction Model of
S0008-8846(97)00269-X
Compressive Strength Development of Fly-Ash Concrete,” Cement and

Concrete Research, V. 34, No. 12, 2004, pp. 2269-2276. doi: 10.1016/j. and Concrete Research, V. 30, No. 5, 2000, pp. 747-756. doi: 10.1016/
cemconres.2004.04.009 S0008-8846(00)00213-1
11. Park, K. B.; Jee, N. Y.; Yoon, I. S.; and Lee, H. S., “Prediction of 18. Papadakis, V. G., and Tsimas, S., “Supplementary Cementing
Temperature Distribution in High-Strength Concrete Using Hydration Materials in Concrete, Part I: Efficiency and Design,” Cement and
Model,” ACI Materials Journal, V. 105, No. 2, Mar.-Apr. 2008, pp. 180-186. Concrete Research, V. 32, No. 10, 2002, pp. 1525-1532. doi: 10.1016/
12. Wang, X. Y., “Properties Prediction of Ultra High Perfor- S0008-8846(02)00827-X
mance Concrete Using Blended Cement Hydration Model,” Construc- 19. Papadakis, V. G., and Tsimas, S., “Supplementary Cementing Mate-
tion and Building Materials, V. 64, 2014, pp. 1-10. doi: 10.1016/j. rials in Concrete, Part II: A Fundamental Estimation of the Efficiency
conbuildmat.2014.04.084 Factor,” Cement and Concrete Research, V. 32, No. 10, 2002, pp. 1533-
13. Oh, B. H., and Cha, S. W., “Nonlinear Analysis of Temperature and 1538. doi: 10.1016/S0008-8846(02)00829-3
Moisture Distributions in Early-Age Concrete Structures Based on Degree 20. Papadakis, V. G., “Effect of Fly Ash on Portland Cement Systems,
of Hydration,” ACI Materials Journal, V. 100, No. 5, Sept.-Oct. 2003, Part I: Low-Calcium Fly Ash,” Cement and Concrete Research, V. 29,
pp. 361-370. No. 11, 1999, pp. 1727-1736. doi: 10.1016/S0008-8846(99)00153-2
14. Matsushita, T.; Hoshino, S.; Maruyama, I.; Noguchi, T.; and Yamada, 21. Neville, A. M., Properties of Concrete, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,
K., “Effect of Curing Temperature and Water to Cement Ratio on Hydration Hoboken, NJ, 1996, 844 pp.
of Cement Compounds,” Proceedings of 12th International Congress on 22. Wang, X. Y.; Lee, H. S.; and Park, K. B., “Simulation of Low-
the Chemistry of Cement, 2007, 12 pp. Calcium Fly Ash Blended Cement Hydration,” ACI Materials Journal,
15. Maekawa, K.; Chaube, R.; and Kishi, T., Modeling of Concrete V. 106, No. 2, Mar.-Apr. 2009, pp. 167-175.
Performance: Hydration, Microstructure Formation and Mass Transport, 23. Song, H. W.; Kwon, S. J.; Byun, K. J.; and Park, C. K.,
Routledge, London, UK, 1998, 308 pp. “Predicting Carbonation in Early-Aged Cracked Concrete,” Cement
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17. Lam, L.; Wong, Y. L.; and Poon, C. S., “Degree of Hydration and
Gel/Space Ratio of High-Volume Fly Ash/Cement Systems,” Cement

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Title No. 113-M16
Behavior of Anchored Carbon Fiber-Reinforced Polymer

Strips Used for Strengthening Concrete Structures
by Wei Sun, James O. Jirsa, and Wassim M. Ghannoum
The anchorage of carbon fiber-reinforced polymer (CFRP) strips anchors just below the flange. CFRP anchors have also been
using CFRP anchors is gaining acceptance in strengthening appli- proven to develop the tensile strength of CFRP strips in flex-
cations of concrete members. CFRP anchors can fully develop ural strengthening applications,13 as well as to provide conti-
the strength of CFRP strips when adequately detailed. However, nuity in load transfer at locations where CFRP strips cannot
parameters that influence the behavior and strength of CFRP
run continuously (for example, for columns at the end of a
strips and anchors are not well understood. In this study, 26 tests
wall14).
on concrete beams were conducted to study the influence of five
key parameters on CFRP anchor effectiveness: 1) the width of the Many design parameters, the effects of which are not well
anchored CFRP strip; 2) the material ratio of CFRP anchor to understood, can affect the behavior and strength of CFRP
CFRP strip; 3) the concrete strength; 4) the length/angle of anchor anchors.15 Inadequately designed CFRP anchors can rupture
fan; and 5) the bond condition between a CFRP strip and concrete. before the CFRP strips fracture. Many researchers have noted
Results indicate that narrow anchored CFRP strips developed the importance of several anchor details on their efficiency
higher stresses at fracture than wide strips and required smaller in developing strip strength, mainly: 1) anchor size16,17;
anchor material ratios to be fully developed. Test results provide 2) details of anchor hole18,19; 3) embedment length, which
valuable data for designing anchored CFRP strengthening systems. is the length of the CFRP anchor inserted into concrete20;
4) details of the anchor fan21,22; 5) reinforcing CFRP patch
Keywords: anchor(s); bonded; carbon fiber-reinforced polymer; concrete
members; strengthening; strip(s); unbonded. applications23; and 6) anchor layout.17,20
To better assess the effects of anchor details on the perfor-
INTRODUCTION mance of CFRP anchors and the strips they develop, 26
Carbon fiber-reinforced polymer (CFRP) materials are tests were conducted on 6 x 6 x 24 in. (152 x 152 x 610 mm)
widely used to strengthen reinforced concrete structures concrete beams strengthened in flexure using anchored CRFP
because they are lightweight, have high strength, and are strips. The parameters studied in this research include: 1) the
relatively easy to install. In strengthening applications, CFRP width of CFRP strip; 2) the material ratio of CFRP anchor
strips are typically attached to the concrete surface using to CFRP strip; 3) the concrete strength; 4) the length/angle
epoxy resin with fibers oriented in the direction in which of the anchor fan; and 5) the bond condition between the
additional tensile strength is needed. However, if CFRP CFRP strip and concrete. Bond stress/slip relationships
strips rely exclusively on bond strength with concrete, only between anchored CFRP strips and the concrete substrate
about 40 to 50% of the CFRP tensile strength is likely to be were extracted from test results.
developed before debonding occurs.1,2 The tensile strength
of CFRP strips in that case are determined by the bond RESEARCH SIGNIFICANCE
behavior between CFRP and concrete, which are presented The external application of anchored CFRP strips offers
using bond stress-slip models of varying complexity in the an efficient method for repair and strengthening of concrete
literature.3-10 The simplest relation used for bond strength structures. However, parameters that influence the behavior
and slip is linear,3 while more complex bond-slip models and strength of CFRP strips and anchors are not well under-
assume bilinear4-6 or even nonlinear7-10 relationships. stood. The influence of five key parameters on the strength
To prevent CFRP from prematurely debonding from the of anchored CFRP strips was experimentally investigated.
concrete substrate, anchorage systems have been developed. Results provide vital information for developing CFRP
Mechanically fastened joints involving steel plates and bolts anchor design and detailing guidelines.
were used to anchor CFRP strips.11 The application of mechan-
ically fastened joints, however, unavoidably introduced prac- EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM
tical issues such as stress concentration and corrosion. Test specimens
Recent research has shown that the introduction of CFRP The test methodology and specimens used to determine
anchors provides an alternate force transfer mechanism so the modulus of rupture of concrete based on ASTM C29324
that the strength of the CFRP material can be fully developed were adapted for studying the behavior of anchored CFRP
after debonding occurs. In a recent study,12 unanchored CFRP strips. Test specimens consisted of concrete beams with
U-wraps did not significantly increase the shear strength of ACI Materials Journal, V. 113, No. 2, March-April 2016.
reinforced concrete T-beams due to the CFRP strips prema- MS No. M-2015-072.R2, doi: 10.14359/51688637, received July 15, 2015, and
turely debonding from the concrete surface. In the same Institute. All rights reserved, including the making of copies unless permission is
study, however, shear strength gains exceeding 40% were obtained from the copyright proprietors. Pertinent discussion including author’s
achieved by anchoring the same CFRP U-wraps using CFRP is received within four months of the paper’s print publication.

Fig. 2—Concrete shear failure of beam without side-face
U-wraps.11
Table 1—CFRP material properties

Average measured Manufacturer-specified
values from three typical test values (using
tests ASTM D3039)
Elastic modulus Ef 15,600 ksi (108 GPa) 15,300 ksi (105 GPa)
Rupture strain 0.0096 0.0093
Rupture stress fCFRP 150 ksi (1034 MPa) 143 ksi (986 MPa)
previously, were used to measure CFRP material properties,

Fig. 1—Beam specimens. (Note: 1 in. = 25.4 mm.)
except that the strips extended over the ends of the beams
dimension of 6 x 6 x 24 in. (152 x 152 x 610 mm). The and no anchors were used. The properties of this CFRP
small-scale specimens were selected because their size and material are listed in Table 1, in which the average measured
weight permitted them to be maneuvered easily in the labo- CFRP material properties are compared with manufacturer-
ratory. As shown in Fig. 1(a), a 1 in. (25.4 mm) deep notch specified values. The manufacturer-specified values obtained
was cut at midspan to ensure flexural cracking occurred at from direct tensile tests in accordance with ASTM D3039
midspan. Holes were drilled 4 in. (102 mm) into the beams were nearly identical to measured values and will be used
for the anchors, and the hole edges were rounded to a radius to determine stresses from measured strains in this study.25
of 0.5 in. (12.7 mm).25 As shown in Fig. 1(b), a CFRP strip
saturated with epoxy resin was then applied to the prepared Variables
tension surface of each beam. One square (5 x 5 in. [127 x The width of CFRP strips, anchor fan length, and anchor
127 mm] for 5 in. [127 mm] strips; 3 x 3 in. [76 x 76 mm] for fan angle are illustrated in Fig. 3. As shown in Fig. 1, CFRP
3 in. [76 mm] strips) CFRP patch was applied at the loca- anchors were introduced into the holes and fanned over the
tion of each anchor with fibers oriented perpendicular to the CFRP strip. The anchor fan length refers to the radius of
CFRP strip fiber direction. Saturated CFRP anchors were the fan, and anchor fan angle refers to the angle of fan, as
introduced into the holes and fanned over the CFRP patch shown in Fig. 3. The anchor material ratio (AMR), which is
and strip. An additional square patch was then applied over the material ratio of CFRP anchor to CFRP strip at any given
each anchor with fibers oriented in the direction of the CFRP section, is illustrated in Fig. 3. Because anchor and strip
strip fibers. The patches were added to improve the transfer of were made by the same CFRP material, the value of AMR in
force from the strip to the anchor so that strength of the strip this study is equal to wanchor tf anchor /wstrip tf strip, in which wanchor
was developed before anchor failure.13,23 As shown in Fig. 2, and tf anchor are the width and thickness of anchor, respec-
the beam specimens were vulnerable to concrete failure, tively; similarly, wstrip and tf strip are the width and thickness
as they contained no steel reinforcement.19 A shear/flexure of strip at any given section, respectively. To investigate
crack formed at the location of the drilled hole. Considering the load transfer mechanism from strip to anchors with and
the ease of installation of the CFRP material, CFRP strips without strip bonding to the concrete substrate, a plastic
were used to U-wrap the side faces of the beams to provide film was placed between the concrete surface and the CFRP
additional tensile strength at the section where the anchors strip to prevent bond in some tests. The range of geometric
were located. U-wraps were discontinuous at midspan and and material properties of the beam specimens tested are
had no influence on the flexural cracking at midspan or on as follows:
the forces introduced to the anchored CFRP strip. • Concrete strength at time of failure fc′: 5.4 or 11.5 ksi
(37 or 79 MPa)
Material properties • Strip width (SW): 3 or 5 in. (76 or 127 mm)
The same CFRP material was used for CFRP strips and • Anchor material ratio (AMR) is ratio of anchor to strip
CFRP anchors. Beam specimens, detailed as described material = 1.06 to 2.0

Fig. 3—Specimen details. (Note: 1 in. = 25.4 mm.)
Fig. 4—Test setup. (Note: 1 in. = 25.4 mm.)

• Anchor fan angle (FA): 37 to 64 degrees in the DIC system. The beam was loaded horizontally so that
• Anchor fan length (FL): 2.4 to 7.5 in. (61 to 191 mm) the cameras faced the tension surface.
• Bonded application (BA) and unbonded application (UA) Beam deflection was calculated as the relative displace-
Additional details about the experimental program can be ment in the z-direction (perpendicular to beam surface)
found in Table 2 and Reference 25. between the targets at midspan and those at the ends and
compared with LVDT readings (Fig. 6(a)). Good correla-
Test setup tion between deformations recorded by LVDTs and the DIC
To develop tensile force on the anchored CFRP strip, the system were observed (Fig. 6(a)). Small discrepancies can
concrete beam was loaded at midspan through a spherical be attributed to the slight difference in the locations where
head and supported by rockers and threaded rods, as shown measurements were taken.
in Fig. 4. The threaded rods transferred the force from the The x-component strain εx in a given frame number (i) is
test beam to a reaction beam. The load cell, hydraulic ram, calculated as the change in x-direction (longitudinal direc-
and spherical head were placed between the reaction beam tion of beam surface) distance (Δlxi) between two targets
and the test specimen. Two linear voltage displacement divided by the original x-direction distance (Δl) between
transducers (LVDTs) were used to record the displacements those two targets
at midspan and at a support to determine midspan beam
deflection. The threaded rods were flexible and prevented ∆lxi
εx = (1)
the development of axial forces in the beams as deforma- ∆l
tions increased.
Recently, digital image correlation (DIC) systems have Excellent agreement was observed between strain
been introduced in structural engineering to measure surface measurements recorded using strain gauges placed 1 in.
deformations.26-31 A high-resolution DIC system developed (25.4 mm) from strip edge and the DIC measurements from
by Sokoli et al.32 was used in this study to record the three- nearby targets using Eq. (1) (Fig. 6(b)). (It is important to
dimensional (3-D) movements of targets affixed to the note that strains do not match exactly between DIC and
tension surface of the beam specimens. A typical test setup strain gauge readings because the locations monitored were
of the DIC system is shown in Fig. 5. This setup was placed slightly different. DIC strain measurements were calculated
on a table at a height that matched that of the cameras used from targets around the strain gauges).

Surface targets can be used as nodes of quadrilateral assuming linear strain profiles and used to produce CFRP
planar elements. The in-plane strains of the elements can strip surface-strain contours. In Fig. 7, the contours of the
be calculated from the coordinate changes of four targets x-direction (longitudinal) strains are plotted for two tests
at various loading stages. The strain contours allowed the
Table 2—Test details visualization of surface-strain distributions and concentra-
fc′, ksi FA, tions. In Fig. 7, the locations of anchor fans and rectangular
No. Specimen SW, in. AMR (MPa) degrees FL, in. patches are highlighted.
1 B5H2Ma 2.0 11.5 (79) 45 6
2 B5H2Mb 2.0 11.5 (79) 45 6 Typical test behavior
Two major failure modes were observed for anchored
3 B5H1.4Ma 1.41 11.5 (79) 45 6
specimens: CFRP strip fracture when the tensile strength of
4 B5H1.4Mb 1.41 11.5 (79) 45 6 CFRP strip is realized (Fig. 8); and anchor rupture due to an
5 B5H1.4Md 1.41 11.5 (79) 45 6 insufficient amount of CFRP material in anchors, leading to
6 B5H1.4Sb 1.41 11.5 (79) 64 4 rupture of anchors before fracture of strips (Fig. 8).
Load-deflection responses for two test specimens are
7 B5H1.4La 1.41 11.5 (79) 37 7.5
presented in Fig. 8. The highlighted test specimens had
8 B5H1.4Lb 1.41 11.5 (79) 37 7.5 identical parameters except for the AMR. The typical load-
9 B5L1.4Ma 1.41 146.7 45 6 deflection responses of both strengthened beams had an
10 B5L1.4Mb 1.41 134.7 45 6
almost linear relation prior to flexural cracking (Fig. 8),
5 which suggested that CFRP strips remain fully bonded to
11 B5L1.4Mc 1.41 157.7 45 6
the concrete substrate until cracking. Following cracking,
12 B5H1Ma 1.06 137.5 45 6 the load-deflection curves experienced a gradual softening
13 B5H1Mb 1.06 144.8 45 6 due to strip debonding (Fig. 8) until most of the load was
14 B5H1Mc 1.06 147.6 45 6
transferred to the anchors and a nearly linear load-deflection
response was again observed (Fig. 8). If the CFRP anchors
15 B5L1Ma 1.06 142.1 45 6
were properly designed and installed, fracture of the CFRP
16 B5L1Mb 1.06 104.5 45 6 strip was observed at ultimate load. Otherwise, anchor
17 B5L1Mc 1.06 125.6 45 6 rupture at the anchor-hole edge was observed at a lower
18 B5L1Md 1.06 135.7 45 6
ultimate load than required to fully develop the tensile
strength of the CFRP strip. In all cases, failure was brittle
19 B5L1Me 1.06 141.2 45 6
and sudden.
20 B5L1Mg 1.06 102.7 45 6 In tests with bonded strip, uniformly distributed strains
21 B3H1.4Sa 1.41 11.5 (79) 64 2.4 were typically observed prior to beam cracking or 25% of
22 B3H1.4Sb 1.41 11.5 (79) 64 2.4
the ultimate load (Fig. 7). After flexural cracking, debonding
between the CFRP strip and the concrete substrate initiated
23 B3H1.4Ma 1.41 11.5 (79) 45 3.6
3 at midspan and propagated toward the CFRP anchors with
24 B3H1.4Mb 1.41 11.5 (79) 45 3.6 increasing applied load, as can be deduced from increasing
25 B3H1.4La 1.41 11.5 (79) 37 4.5 CFRP strains spreading away from midspan with increasing
26 B3H1.4Lb 1.41 11.5 (79) 37 4.5
load (Fig. 7).
Notes: Specimen nomenclature: First character B or U refers to bonded (B) or
unbonded (U) specimens; second number refers to 5 in. (5) or 3 in. (3) wide CFRP
Debonding mechanism
strip; third character refers to concrete strength as H (higher, 11.5 ksi) and L (lower, Bond stress-versus-slip relationships can be used in
5.4 ksi); fourth number refers to anchor material ratio as 2 (2.0), 1.4 (1.41), and 1 computational models to numerically study the load-transfer
(1.06); fifth character refers to anchor fan angle as S (64 degrees), M (45 degrees), and
L (37 degrees); and last character refers to unique test ID; 1 in. = 25.4 mm.
mechanism from CFRP strips to the concrete substrate and
Fig. 5—Setup of DIC system cameras to monitor specimen tension face deformations.

Fig. 6—Comparisons between: (a) midspan deflections measured by DIC system and LVDTs on Specimen B5H1.4Sb; and
(b) strains measured by DIC system and strain gauges on Specimen B5L1Mc. (Notes: 1 in. = 25.4 mm; 1 kip = 4.45 kN.)
Fig. 7—Progression of longitudinal strain contours for two typical tests (left: B5H1.4Ma; and right: B5H1Mc).
anchors. The relation between bond stress and slip was Ef is the manufacturer-specified modulus of elasticity of the
extracted from the test data. CFRP strip (Table 1); tf is the specified thickness of the CFRP
The change in tensile force along a CFRP strip is gener- strip; bt is the center-to-center distance between target rows =
ated through bond forces at the interface between the strip 0.5 in. (12.7 mm); and ΔFi,i+3 is the change in tensile force in
and the concrete substrate (Fig. 9). The bond stress devel- the CFRP strip over distance ΔXi,i+3 within width bt.
oped between a CFRP strip and concrete can be determined Thus, solving for τi,i+3
from strain measurements as follows.
The change in strip tensile force between targets i and ε i + 2 , i + 3 − ε i , i +1
τ i ,i + 3 = E f t f (4)
i + 3 in a given row of targets can be written as ∆X i ,i + 3
∆Fi,i+3 = τi,i+3∆Xi,i+3bt (2) The slip between a CFRP strip and the concrete substrate is
evaluated as the cumulative x-direction elongation between
The change in strip tensile force can also be written as the locations of targets at the edge of the anchorage region
where no slip occurs, and the target locations where slip
∆Fi,i+3 = (εi+2,i+3 – εi,i+1)Ef tf bt (3) is evaluated
∆i + ∆i+3
where ∆Xi,i+3 is the distance between two adjacent pairs of slipi ,i + 3 = − ∆ 0 (5)
2
targets starting at target i and ending at target I + 3; τi,i+3 is the
average bond stress over the shaded area bounded by targets where Δi is the x-direction displacement of i-th target; Δi+3 is
i and i + 3 and the midspan to the adjacent rows of targets; the x-direction displacement of i+3-th target; and Δ0 is the
εi,i+1 is the strain measured between the first two targets; x-direction displacement of the target at location of zero slip
εi+2,i+3 is the strain measured between the last two targets; in a target row.

Fig. 8—Load-deflection plots for typical strip fracture (B5H1.4Ma) and anchor rupture tests (B5L1Mc). (Note: 1 in. = 25.4 mm;
1 kip = 4.45 kN; 1 ksi = 6.89 MPa.)
Fig. 9—Tensile force transfer from CFRP strip to concrete substrate and typical extracted bond stress-versus-slip relationship
of Specimen B5H1.4Sb. (Note: 1 in. = 25.4 mm; 1 ksi = 6.89 MPa.)
Bond stress and slip values evaluated at targets across a a linear degrading behavior represents the response from
strip width from the midspan extending four targets toward the peak to the slip at which the CFRP strip is completely
anchor fan edges were averaged. A typical resulting average debonded from the concrete substrate and bond stress is
bond stress-versus-slip relation is shown in Fig. 9. In that zero. The peak bond stress and its corresponding slip, as
relation, bond stress increased up to 0.51 ksi (3.5 MPa) at a well as the slip at zero stress shown in Fig. 10, represent
slip of 0.003 in. (0.08 mm). After that, bond stress decreased average values from pertinent tests. As can be seen in the
to zero when slip reached 0.01 in. (0.25 mm). Fig. 10, higher-strength concrete generates a higher peak
Bond-versus-slip relations were extracted for tests with bond stress but lower slip at peak stress than the lower-
5 in. (127 mm) and 3 in. (76 mm) strips separately, and strength concrete. The higher peak bond stress and lower
simplified bond-versus-slip relations between CFRP strips slip at peak stress make the ascending slope of the bond-
and concrete were produced (Fig. 10). The simplified bond- versus-slip relation stiffer for higher-strength concrete. For
versus-slip relations are linear up to peak bond stress. Then, the degrading branch, a steeper slope was also observed for

Fig. 10—Concrete-CFRP bond stress-versus-slip relationships extracted from DIC strain data. (Note: 1 in. = 25.4 mm, 1 ksi =
6.89 MPa.)
Table 3—Experimental results for effect of

concrete strength on strip strength
Average σufx,
Common parameters fc′, ksi (MPa) σufx, ksi (MPa) ksi (MPa)
141 (972)
BA
SW = 5 in. (127 mm) 11.5 (79) 143 (986) 142 (979)
AMR = 1.41
143 (986)
FA = 45 degrees
Failure mode = strip 145 (1000)
fracture 5.4 (37) 140 (965) Fig. 11—Beam equilibrium. (Note: 1 in. = 25.4 mm.)
134 (924)
lated by equilibrium at ultimate load Pult using the ACI
specimens with high-strength concrete compared with that 318-1433 stress block approach when the depth of nonlinear
of specimens with normal-strength concrete. compression zone on 5.4 and 11.5 ksi (783 and 1668 psi)
It is noteworthy that the peak bond stresses extracted concrete are 0.67 and 0.22 in. (17 and 6 mm), respectively.
from test data match concrete tensile strengths estimated Beam forces are illustrated in Fig. 11. As shown in Table 3,
using ACI 318-14,33 which range from ft = 6 to 7.5√fc′ (in the concrete strength did not have a significant effect on σufx.
psi units) (ft = 0.5 to 0.62√fc′ [in MPa units]). For instance, Seven specimens that failed by anchor rupture were eval-
the peak bond stress between 5 in. (127 mm) strips and uated to study the impact of concrete strength on anchor
5.4 ksi (37 MPa) concrete of 0.45 ksi (3.1 MPa) corresponds strength. As shown in Table 4, σufx averaged over specimens
to 6.1√fc′ (in psi units) (0.51√fc′ [in MPa units]). Similarly, with the same concrete strength was higher for specimens
the peak bond stresses for other cases ranged from 8.3 to with high-strength concrete than specimens with lower-
8.7√fc′ (in psi units) (0.69 to 0.72√fc′ [in MPa units]). Test strength concrete. The high-strength concrete resulted in an
results therefore indicate that the peak bond stress between increase of approximately 10% in the ultimate strip stress at
anchored CFRP strips and concrete may reasonably be esti- anchor failure.
mated as the concrete tensile strength for general anchored
CFRP strip applications.34 Effects of anchor fan length/anchor fan angle
Six tests that failed by strip fracture were evaluated to study
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS the impact of anchor fan length/angle on strip strength. Only
Based on 26 beam tests, the effects of the following param- the anchor fan length/angle varied in this group. To effec-
eters—concrete strength, anchor fan length/angle, width of tively develop the strength of CFRP strips, CFRP anchors
CFRP strips, ratio of CFRP anchor material to CFRP strip were fanned out across the width of CFRP strips. Because
material, and bond between CFRP and concrete on strip and strip width was kept the same in each group, the length of
anchor strengths—are discussed in this section. the anchor fan determines the anchor fan angle. As shown
in Table 5, all strips fractured at an ultimate strip stress σufx
Effects of concrete strength larger than the expected tensile strength provided by the
Five tests that failed by strip fracture were evaluated manufacturer (143 ksi [986 MPa]). Overall, increasing the
to study the impact of concrete strength on CFRP strip fan angle from 37 to 64 degrees did not produce a signifi-
strength. In Table 3, the strip stress at midspan σufx was used cant change in the ultimate strip stress at strip fracture. (No
to evaluate the effect of concrete strength. The strip stress conclusion could be made concerning the effects of anchor
at midspan σufx is evaluated at ultimate load and equal to fan geometry on anchor strength due to insufficient data
Ff mid /ACFRP. ACFRP is the cross-sectional area of the CFRP from tests sustaining anchor failures and having a range of
strip, and Ff mid is the strip force at midspan, which is calcu- fan geometries.)

Table 4—Experimental results for effect of
concrete strength on anchor strength
fc′, ksi σufx, ksi Average σufx, ksi
Common parameters (MPa) (MPa) (MPa)
134 (924)
11.5 (79) 141 (972) 140 (965)
BA
SW = 5 in. (127 mm) 144 (993)
AMR = 1.06
142 (979) Fig. 12—Selected area and targets used to measure
FA = 45 degrees
Failure mode = anchor 104 (717) strip strains.
rupture 5.4 (37) 127 (876)
125 (862)
135 (931)
Table 5—Experimental results for effect of fan

geometry on strip strength
σufx, ksi Average σufx,
Common parameters Fan length/angle (MPa) ksi (MPa)
2.4 in. (61 mm)/ 154 (1062)

BA 164 (1131)
64 degrees 174 (1200)
SW = 3 in. (76 mm)
fc′ = 11.5 ksi
3.6 in. (91 mm)/ 183 (1262) Fig. 13—Comparison of mean and maximum strains at 98%
(79 MPa) 169 (1165) ultimate load (εusx) for different strip widths (BA; SW = 5 in.
45 degrees 154 (1062)
AMR = 1.41
[127 mm]; fc′ = 11.5 ksi [79 MPa]; AMR = 1.41.)
Failure mode = strip 186 (1282)
4.5 in. (114 mm)/
fracture 167 (1151) maximum and mean strip strains. These findings indicate
37 degrees 148 (1020)
that with a wider CFRP strip, strain distributions across the
strip area were less uniform and exhibited higher peak strains.
Table 6—Experimental results for effect of strip
Because CFRP is a brittle material, higher local strains in
width on strip strength
wider strips may be the cause of their observed lower strength
Strip width, σufx, ksi Average σufx, compared with the 3 in. (76 mm) narrower strips.
Common parameters in. (mm) (MPa) ksi (MPa)
BA
141 (972) Effects of material ratio of CFRP anchor to
fc′ = 11.5 ksi (79 MPa) 5 (127) 143 (986) 142 (979) CFRP strip
AMR = 1.41 Anchors with AMRs of 1.06, 1.41, and 2.0 were studied to
143 (986)
FA = 45 degrees determine the effects of AMR on strip and anchor strengths.
Failure mode = strip 183 (1262) Fourteen tests were conducted on bonded 5 in. (127 mm)
fracture 3 (76) 169 (1165)
154 (1062) strips with AMRs of 1.06, 1.41, and 2.0. Another 10 tests
were conducted on beams with bonded 3 in. (76 mm) strips
Effects of width of CFRP strip using anchors with material ratios of 1.06 or 1.41.
Five tests were compared in Table 6 to investigate the Figure 14 highlights specimen failure modes and the ratio
impact of strip width on strip strength. All tests failed due of ultimate loads applied at specimen failure to the expected
to strip fracture. In tests with 5 in. (127 mm) wide CFRP specimen strength assuming a strip fracture mode and manu-
strips, the ultimate strip stress σufx at fracture was nearly the facturer specified CFRP material properties. As shown in
same and significantly lower than the value of σufx measured Fig. 14, with an AMR of 1.41, some 5 in. (127 mm) wide
from tests with 3 in. (76 mm) wide strips. The average ulti- CFRP strips did not reach expected strength. For tests with
mate strip stress σufx was larger in the narrower strips than 3 in. (76 mm) strips, shown in Fig. 14, all 10 tests exceeded
the wider ones. All tests reached or exceeded the expected the expected strength of the CFRP strips regardless of the
CFRP strip stress at failure (143 ksi [986 MPa]). AMR. Because the desired mode of failure is strip fracture,
The surface longitudinal strains between two adjacent it is reasonable to suggest that an AMR of 1.4 should be used
targets at 98% of specimen ultimate load εusx were measured to reach fracture of 3 in. (76 mm) strips and an AMR of 2.0
over the CFRP strip area bounded by anchor fan ends, as should be used for 5 in. (127 mm) strips.
illustrated in Fig. 12. Mean and maximum values of εusx over In Fig. 15, mean and maximum values of strains between
the area considered are presented in Fig. 13. As shown in targets in the area shown in Fig. 12 are indicated at 95% of
Fig. 13, the maximum longitudinal strip strains just prior the expected load at failure εesx. As can be seen in Fig. 15, at
to strip fracture were higher for 5 in. (127 mm) strips, and the same applied load, anchors with a material ratio of 2.0
the differences between the maximum and mean strip strains had significantly reduced maximum strip strains and smaller
at 98% of the ultimate load were also greater. Thus, the differences between maximum and mean strip strains,
wider strips were observed to experience both higher local- compared with anchors having an AMR of 1.41. Therefore,
ized maximum strip strains and higher differences between anchors with a larger cross section are observed to achieve,

Fig. 14—Failure modes for tests with 5 and 3 in. (127 and 76 mm) wide strips.
at a given load, more even strain distributions and lower
maximum strains than smaller anchors. Such favorable
strain distributions resulted in an increase in the ultimate
strip stress at fracture when larger anchors were used.
Effects of bonded versus unbonded applications

A bonded test designates that epoxy resin was used as the
interfacial material to bond the CFRP strip to the concrete
substrate. Unbonded tests indicate that a plastic film was
placed between the CFRP strip and the concrete substrate to
simulate the behavior of a completely debonded strip.
Four directly comparable tests were conducted with the Fig. 15—Comparison of mean and maximum strains at 95%
bonding of the CFRP strip to the concrete using epoxy or expected load at failure (εesx) for different anchor-material
using a plastic film. In all tests, the AMR was 1.41, strips ratio (BA; SW = 5 in. [127 mm]; fc′ = 11.5 ksi [79 MPa]; FA =
were 5 in. (127 mm) wide, anchor fans were 6 in. (152 mm) 45 degrees).
long, and high-strength concrete was used. As shown
in Fig. 16, unbonded specimens failed at ultimate loads
lower than the expected load at failure (which was 16 kip
[71 kN]) and the anchors ruptured. In bonded applications,
the bond between the CFRP strips and concrete seems to
have increased the apparent strength at anchor fracture. The
CFRP-concrete bond may distribute anchor stresses more
evenly at the anchor area.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

In this study, failure modes and ultimate load and strain
measurements were used to evaluate the effects of five
parameters on the performance of anchored CFRP strips.
The main findings from the study with respect to those five
parameters are listed as follows.
1. Test results indicate that to fracture a 5 in. (127 mm) Fig. 16—Typical load-versus-deflection responses for tests
wide CFRP strip (strip fracture), the AMR should be no less with different bond condition and AMR = 1.41. (Notes: 1 in. =
than 2.0. Increasing the AMR from 1.41 to 2.0 reduced strain 25.4 mm; 1 kip = 4.45 kN.)
concentrations, resulting in higher average ultimate strip
stresses at fracture. An AMR not less than 1.41 is recom- embedded in it. The peak bond stress between anchored
mended for 3 in. (76 mm) strips. CFRP strips and the concrete may reasonably be estimated
2. Test results show that increasing the width of CFRP as the concrete tensile strength.
strips resulted in higher local peak strains and lowered the 4. To fully develop the tensile strength of a CFRP strip,
average stress at fracture of the strip. an anchor fan angle less than 64 degrees is recommended
3. Increasing concrete strength increased the bond for anchor design. The application of an anchor fan angle
strength between CFRP strips and the concrete substrate. smaller than 64 degrees (down to 37 degrees), however,
Thus, debonding of the CFRP strip occurred at a higher had no significant effect on the strength and behavior of the
load for higher-strength concrete. A higher concrete strength CFRP strengthening system.
was found to slightly increase the strength of CFRP anchors
5. Adequately bonding the CFRP strips to the concrete 12. Kim, Y.; Quinn, K. T.; Ghannoum, W. M.; and Jirsa, J. O., “Strength-
ening of Reinforced Concrete T-Beams Using Anchored CFRP Materials,”
substrate helped to transfer tensile forces from CFRP strips ACI Structural Journal, V. 111, No. 5, Sept.-Oct. 2014, pp. 1027-1036. doi:
to CFRP anchors, and prevented premature anchor rupture 10.14359/51686805
due to strain concentrations. 13. Kim, I., “Use of CFRP to Provide Continuity in Existing Reinforced
Concrete Members Subjected to Extreme Loads,” PhD dissertation, Depart-
ment of Civil, Environmental and Architectural Engineering, University of
AUTHOR BIOS Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, 2008, 478 pp.
Wei Sun is an Associate Professor in the School of Civil Engineering and 14. Kobayashi, K.; Fuji, S.; Yabe, Y.; Tsukagoshi, H.; and Sugiyama, T.,
Mechanics at Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, Gansu, China. He received his “Advanced Wrapping System with CF Anchor—Stress Transfer Mechanism of
BS and MS from Shenyang Jianzhu University, Shenyang, China, and his CF Anchor,” 5th International Symposium on Fiber-Reinforced Polymer (FRP)
PhD from the University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX. His research interests Reinforcement for Concrete Structures, Cambridge, UK, 2001, pp. 379-388.
15. Smith, S. T., “FRP Anchors: Recent Advances in Research and Under-
include strengthening structures with carbon fiber-reinforced polymer materials.
standing,” Asia-Pacific Conference on FRP in Structures, 2009, pp. 35-44.
16. Niemitz, C.; James, R.; Breña, S.; “Experimental Behavior of Carbon
ACI Honorary Member James O. Jirsa is the Janet S. Cockrell Centen- Fiber-Reinforced Polymer (CFRP) Sheets Attached to Concrete Surfaces
nial Chair in Engineering in the Department of Civil, Environmental, and Using CFRP Anchors,” Journal of Composites for Construction, ASCE, V. 14,
Architectural Engineering at the University of Texas at Austin. He is a Past No. 2, 2010, pp. 185-194.
President of ACI and a member of ACI Committee 318, Structural Concrete 17. Smith, S. T.; Zhang, H.; and Wang, Z., “Influence of FRP Anchors
Building Code. on the Strength and Ductility of FRP-Strengthened RC Slabs,” Construc-
tion and Building Materials, V. 49, 2013, pp. 998-1012. doi: 10.1016/j.
ACI member Wassim M. Ghannoum is an Assistant Professor in the conbuildmat.2013.02.006
Department of Civil, Environmental, and Architectural Engineering at the 18. Pham, L. T., “Development of a Quality Control Test for Carbon
University of Texas at Austin. He is Chair of ACI Committee 369, Seismic Fiber Reinforced Polymer Anchors,” master’s thesis, University of Texas at
Repair and Rehabilitation, and a member of ACI Subcommittees 318-R, Austin, Austin, TX, 2009, 87 pp.
High-Strength Reinforcement (Structural Concrete Building Code), and 19. Huaco, G., “Quality Control Test for Carbon Fiber Reinforced
440-F, FRP-Repair-Strengthening. His research interests include extending Polymer (CFRP) Anchors for Rehabilitation.” master’s thesis, University
the life span and increasing the resilience to damage of concrete structures of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, 2009, 597 pp.
through the application of novel structural materials and retrofit techniques. 20. Orton, S. L., “Development of a CFRP System to Provide Conti-
nuity in Existing Reinforced Concrete Structures Vulnerable to Progressive
Collapse,” PhD dissertation, Department of Civil, Environmental and Archi-
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS tectural Engineering, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, 2007.
The support of the Texas Department of Transportation for Projects 21. Breña, S.F., and McGuirk, G. N., “Advances on the Behavior Char-
0-6306 and 0-6783 is gratefully acknowledged. The contents of this paper acterization of FRP-Anchored Carbon Fiber-Reinforced Polymer (CFRP)
reflect the views of the authors, who are responsible for the facts and the Sheets Used to Strengthen Concrete Elements,” International Journal of
accuracy of the data presented herein. The contents do not necessarily Concrete Structures and Materials, V. 7, No. 1, 2013, pp. 3-16.
reflect the official view or policies of the Federal Highway Administration 22. Zhang, H. W., and Smith, S. T., “Influence of FRP Anchor Fan
or the Texas Department of Transportation (TxDOT). This paper does not Configuration and Dowel Angle on Anchoring FRP Plates,” Composites
constitute a standard, specification, or regulation. The authors express their Part B: Engineering, V. 43, No. 8, 2012, pp. 3516-3527. doi: 10.1016/j.
thanks to the students, faculty, and staff at Ferguson Structural Engineering compositesb.2011.11.072
Laboratory for their assistance with the project. 23. Kalfat, R.; Al-Mahaidi, R.; and Smith, S. T., “Anchorage Devices
Used to Improve the Performance of Reinforced Concrete Beams Retro-
fitted with FRP Composites State-of-the-Art Review,” Composites for
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to Concrete,” Construction and Building Materials, V. 85, 2015, pp. 144-156.

Title No. 113-M17
Effect of Dosage of Fly Ash and NaOH on Properties of

Pisha Sandstone-Based Mortar
by Changming Li, Tingting Zhang, and Lijiu Wang
This paper investigates the effectiveness of NaOH concentration Fly ash is a by-product of coal-burning power plants and
and fly ash dosage on the mechanical properties, pore structure, is usually considered a waste material. While more than
water resistance, and water permeability of a new mortar manu- 600 million tons of fly ash is generated each year world-
factured by using a special kind of sandstone and fly ash. Mechan- wide, 80% is disposed of in landfills.11 With pozzolanic
ical properties were evaluated by means of compressive strength.
and cementitious properties, it has been used as a substitute
Mercury intrusion porosimetry (MIP) was employed to investigate
for cement in concrete and mortar.12 PS contains sufficient
the pore structure and pore size distribution. A water permeability
test was carried out to find out the permeation characteristics amounts of reactive alumina and silica, and its main mineral
of Pisha sandstone-based mortar. Thermogravity and differen- composition includes quartz, feldspar, and montmorillonite;
tial scanning calorimetry (TG-DSC), Fourier transform infrared the feasibility of producing structural material by using PS
(FTIR) analysis, and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) were via the alkali activation process had been studied by Li et al.,2
used to analyze the reaction products, indentify the phases of the and their conclusions showed that it is feasible to synthesize
reaction products, and observe the morphology, respectively. Test geopolymers by using PS.
results revealed that NaOH concentration and fly ash dosage had The aim of this study is to investigate the relationship between
significant effects on the mechanical properties, pore structure, and mixture proportions, pore structure, water resistence, water
water permeability of Pisha sandstone-based mortar. The specimen permeability, and microstructure of Pisha sandstone-based
(NaOH concentration 3.1 mol/L, fly ash wt.15%) exhibited the
mortar (PSM). The studied mixture parameters were: NaOH
highest compressive strength (19.32 MPa [2801 psi]), water resis-
concentration, fly ash dosage, and curing age. The influences
tence (0.76) and lowest water permeability value (5.1 × 10–8 m/s
[16.73 × 10–8 ft/s]) at 90 days. of NaOH concentration and fly ash dosage on the compres-
sive strength, pore structure, water permeability, and micro-
Keywords: compressive strength; microstructure; Pisha sandstone-based structure of PSM were investigated to evaluate the properties
mortar; pore structure; water permeability. of the materials. Hoping that a new mortar or concrete material
would be produced by the suggested method, the exploration
INTRODUCTION could offer suggestions for exploitation of PSM in engineering
Pisha sandstone (PS) is a special kind of sandstone of check dams and building bricks in the future.
formed during the Tertiary period; it is hard when it is dry
but would collapse when immersed in water because its RESEARCH SIGNIFICANCE
cementitious material—carbonate mineral calcite—is easy PS is a special kind of sandstone; it was the main source
to dissolve in water.1,2 Due to PS’s unsatisfactory bonded of sediment into the river. The by-product, fly ash, is usually
mechanism, soil erosion occurs frequently during and after considered a waste material, and over 600 million tons of
rainstorms; the soil erosion rate of PS area is very high (over fly ash is generated each year worldwide, causing environ-
20,000 t∙km–2·yr–1 [50,995 lt·sq.mi–2·yr–1]).3 Although the mental problems. Thus, it is a beneficial exploration to manu-
area of PS only accounts for 2.6% of the total Loess Plateau facture structural materials using PS and fly ash by means of
area of China, its coarse sediment yield accounts for 30% alkali activation. In this study, the relationships among the
of the total coarse sediment into the upper-middle reaches compressive strength, pore structure, water resistance, water
of the Yellow River.4,5 Soil and water loss has become the permeability, and microstructure of PSM were studied, and
main environmental disaster to the local agricultural produc- the engineering characteristics of PSM was investigated for
tion and environment, and a great quantity of sediment was further evaluation. The results are expected to promote the
deposited on the Yellow River course and raised the altitude exploration and use of PS and fly ash, and the application of
of the riverbed. PS became the main source of sediment into PSM in engineering in the future.
the Yellow River.6,7 Check dams were a very important engi-
neering measure for soil and water conservation. There is EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
considerable research that has been carried out to understand Materials
the check dam’s effect of trapping sediment, and the results The PS used in this study was collected from city of
showed that the check dam achieved the highest efficiency in Ordos in the northern Loess Plateau of China. The chem-
trapping sediment among the all ecological and engineering
measures.8,9 However, many of the existing check dams and MS No. M-2015-099, doi: 10.14359/51688462, received April 1, 2015, and reviewed
sea buckthorn flexible dams are often damaged and broken under Institute publication policies. Copyright © 2016, American Concrete Institute.
All rights reserved, including the making of copies unless permission is obtained from
down by flood due to the low strength and defect of dam the copyright proprietors. Pertinent discussion including author’s closure, if any, will
be published ten months from this journal’s date if the discussion is received within
material (the dam material, PS, would collapse in water).10 four months of the paper’s print publication.

ical compositions of raw materials are presented in Table 1. to solid mixture was kept at a constant value of 0.15, and
The raw materials used to synthesize PSM include PS, the total mass of the samples was kept at a constant value
sodium silicate solution consisting of 14 wt.% NaOH and of 392.5 g (13.85 oz). For the synthesis of PSM and PSFM,
27 wt.% SiO2, and sodium hydroxide (99% purity quotient), sodium hydroxide (NaOH) was first dissolved in deionized
while those used to synthesize PS and fly ash-based mortar water for 5 minutes to make an NaOH solution with a concen-
(PSFM) are PS, Class F fly ash, and sodium silicate solution tration of 1.35 to 3.1 mol/L. Then, the as-received sodium
consisting of 14 wt.% NaOH and 42 wt.% SiO2 and sodium silicate solution was added to the NaOH solution, followed
hydroxide (99% purity quotient). The PS was air-dried, by mixing for 5 minutes. The mixture of PS and fly ash was
homogenized, and pulverized until all solids passed a No. 18 added to this solution, followed by mixing for 15 minutes
mesh (1000 µm opening) sieve to facilitate geopolymeriza- with a magnetic stir bar to achieve complete mixing between
tion reaction and minimize the influence of compositional the solid and solution, resulting in the formation of mortar
variation on the synthesis. Table 1 summarizes the chemical precursor. To make regularly shaped specimens for mechan-
composition of the PS and fly ash, while Fig. 1 shows the ical testing, the mortar precursor were poured into cylindrical
feature and detailed size distributions of PS. steel molds with an inner diameter of 5 cm (1.968 in.) and
height of 15 cm (5.904 in.), and the mixture was pressed to
Sample preparation specimens with a diameter of 5 cm (1.968 in.) and height of
Table 2 summarizes the materials mixture used to prepare 10 cm (3.936 in.) (that is, an aspect ratio of 2.0 to minimize
the mortar. For all the samples, the ratio of activator solution the end effects) on a hydraulic testing machine. To ensure
repeatability, three specimens were prepared for each type
Table 1—Chemical composition of raw materials of mortar of a predesigned composition (for example, NaOH
by X-ray fluorescence concentration, fly ash content) at each curing duration.
Items Pisha sandstone Fly ash Figure 2 shows the feature of PSM specimens. All samples
SiO2,% 65.64 57.45 were sealed using a layer of plastic bag and were kept in a
climate room with a temperature of 25 ± 2°C (77 ± 3.6°F) for
Al2O3,% 14.35 27.03
3, 7, 28, and 90 days.
CaO,% 8.02 3.11
Na2O,% 1.07 0.43 Characterization techniques
K2O,% 1.81 2.60 Compressive strength—Unconfined compression strength
tests were performed on cured cylindrical specimens using
MgO,% 3.95 0.97
an electronic universal testing machine with a 100 kN
Fe2O3,% 4.03 5.60 (22.48 kip) capacity and a constant displacement rate of
P2O5,% 0.10 0.27 0.5%/min (ASTM C39/C39M).13 During testing, a very
LOI 1.03 2.54 thin layer of lubricant coating was applied to the two ends
of each specimen to minimize the friction and hence shear
Note: LOI is loss on ignition at 1000°C (1832°F); fly ash satisfied JIS R5213.
Table 2—Mixture proportions of PSM and PSFM

Mixture Activator solution
Sample Pisha, wt.% Fly ash, wt.% NaOH concentration Na2SiO3, wt.% s/b*, wt.%
PS 87 0 — — 0.15
PSM1.35 87 0 1.35 mol∙L–1 5 0.15
PSM2.3 87 0 2.3 mol∙L–1 5 0.15
PSM3.1 87 0 3.1 mol∙L–1 5 0.15
PSFM5 82 5 2.3 mol∙L–1 5 0.15
PSFM10 77 10 2.3 mol∙L–1 5 0.15
PSFM15 72 15 2.3 mol∙L–1 5 0.15
*
Ratio of activator solution weight to solid mixture weight.
Fig. 1—Particle distribution and features of PS.

Fig. 2—Pisha sandstone-based mortar specimens.
stress development between the specimen end and surfaces
and polished stainless steel end platens of the loading frame.
Mercury intrusion porosimetry (MIP)—The material’s
porous space was characterized by mercury intrusion poro-
simetry (MIP) testing. This technique provides the cumu-
lative pore volume as a function of applied pressure based
on the mercury intrusion under increasing pressures. The
Fig. 3—Experimental setup for testing water permeability of
measurements were carried out using an automated mercury
Pisha sandstone-based mortar.
porosimeter over the pressure range between 0.001 and
400 MPa (0.01 bar and 4000 bar). Before testing, specimens Scanning electron microscopy—The microstructure of the
were cleaned in a microwave bath and were dried at 80°C cured mortar was examined using a scanning electron micro-
(176°F) until constant weight was achieved. scope (SEM) at an accelerating voltage of 20 kV. Chemical
Water permeability—The first step in the water permea- elemental analyses were also performed by an energy-
bility test was to cut a 40 mm (1.57 in.) thick slice from dispersive X-ray spectroscope device equipped with this
the middle of a 100 x 200 mm (3.94 x 7.87 in.) cylinder SEM system. The samples were fractured to expose the fresh
specimen. The circumference of the slice was covered with surface before mounting them on aluminum stubs using
25 mm (0.98 in.) of epoxy resin that was allowed to harden carbon paint. The samples were then sputter-coated with
for 24 hours. The specimen was placed in a permeability gold palladium for SEM examination.
housing cell, as shown in Fig. 3, and water pressure of
0.5 MPa (5.0 bar) was applied to the cell. This pressure was RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
recommended and used by Chan and Wu14 and Chindapra- Mechanical properties
sirt et al.15 in their research. The amount of water flowing The effect of activator solution concentration on the
through the specimen was measured by reading the reduc- compressive strength of PSM and PSFM for different ages
tion of the water level in a manometer tube. The results were is shown in Fig. 4. It can be seen that the NaOH concentra-
plotted as a graph of the cumulative amount of water flowing tion was notably influenced by the properties of PSM. The
as a function of the cumulative time to determine the coef- mechanical strength of PSM was enhanced after alkali acti-
ficient of permeability using Darcy’s law and the equation vation when compared to PS. The reason for this increase
of continuity16 can be concluded that the cementitious materials of PS,
carbonate mineral, and clay mineral1 were easy to dissolve
K = ρLgQ/PA (1) in water. For PSM, the binder was geopolymer gel, which
was the main contributor of strength. Figure 4(a) shows the
where K is the coefficient of water permeability (m/s); ρ is relationship between NaOH concentration and compressive
density of water (kg/m3); g is acceleration due to gravity, 9.8 strength. The results of Fig. 4(a) showed that the compres-
(m/s2); Q is flow rate (m3/s); L is thickness of the specimen sive strength has a slight increase with the concentration of
(m); P is water pressure (Pa); and A is the cross-sectional the activator solution at an early age (within 28 days); the
area of the specimen (m2). reason for this could be assumed that the reaction of PS and
Fourier transform infrared—Fourier transform infrared alkali activator is insufficient at the early stage and the exces-
(FTIR) analysis was performed using the KBr pellet method sive alkali would make a negative effect on the mechanical
(1 mg sample per 100 mg KBr) on a spectrometer, with strength17 due to the excessive free OH– were remaining in
32 scans per sample collected from 4000 to 400 cm–1 at the samples, weakening the structure of pastes.18-20 However,
4 cm–1 resolution. the strength has a significant gain with the increasing NaOH
Thermogravimetric analysis (TG)—A simultaneous concentration at 90 days. It could be ascribed to the exces-
thermal analyzer was used to measure some physical sive free OH– transformed into calcium silicate hydrate grad-
properties of the material as a function of the temperature ually along the curing age, and the strength of mortar also
change. The samples were heated from 50 to 1000°C (122 to increased due to the amount of geopolymer gel increased.21
1832°F) in an atmosphere of nitrogen with a heating rate of Figure 4(b) shows the relationship between compressive
10°C·min–1 (50°F·min–1). strength and fly ash dosage of PSFM for different ages.

Fig. 4—Compressive strength of Pisha sandstone-based mortar with different NaOH concentration for different ages (N-NaOH).
Table 3—MIP results for PSM and PSFM
Fly ash content, wt.% NaOH concentration mol∙L–1 Total porosity, % Compressive strength, MPa (psi) Softening coefficient
PS — 27.60 2.39 (347) 0
0 1.35 28.20 6.20 (899) 0.62
0 2.3 29.0 7.80 (1131) 0.58
0 3.10 29.10 10.30 (1494) 0.66
5 2.30 27.10 11.30 (1638) 0.82
10 2.30 24.60 15.01 (2176) 0.81
15 2.30 22.50 19.32 (2801) 0.86
According to Fig. 4(b), it was shown that the fly ash dosage icant influence on the pore size distribution; the geopolymer
plays an important role in the gain of compressive strength. gel will invariably lead to a change in volume, and this change
The mechanical strength of specimens would obtain a signif- in volume generally gives rise to a large change in porosity
icant increase when the fly ash was added. When the amounts and pore size distribution of the samples. Figures 5(b) and
of fly ash were 5, 10, and 15%, the compressive strength 5(c) showed the impact of the NaOH concentration on pore
would be increased to 145, 192, and 248%, respectively. structure of PSM. For PSM samples, the alkali activated had
Fly ash contains sufficient amounts of reactive alumina increased the proportion of small pores (10 to 50 nm [3.94 ×
and silica, which could be transformed into geopolymer 10–7 to 1.91 × 10–6 in.]) and reduced the proportion of large
gel when in contact with alkali activator22; therefore, the pores (1000 to 30,000 nm [3.94 × 10–5 to 1.18 × 10–3 in.])
amount of geopolymer gel increased with the increasing fly when compared to the pore distribution of PS. A remarkable
ash dosage. The alkali activation product, geopolymer gel, is increase in the intensity of peak of log differential intrusion
the main contributor to the strength of PSFM. On the other corresponding to small pores and a decline in the intensity
hand, the addition of fly ash could enhance the density of the of peak of log differential intrusion corresponding to large
matrix, and the pore’s structure would be improved to reduce pores were observed after the alkali activated. The proportion
the porosity of the PSFM as the increasing fly ash dosage, of small pores increased with the increasing NaOH concen-
and the effect of porosity on compressive strength would be tration; however, the peak of log differential intrusion corre-
analyzed in the pore structure section. sponding to large pores had a shift from 11,309 to 17,278 nm
(4.46 × 10–4 to 6.81 × 10–4 in.), the reason for this change can
Pore structure be ascribed to the presence of calcium carbonation, which was
The results of MIP tests in terms of total porosity are the product of the carbonation of C-S-H gel, and the change
given in Table 3 and pore diameter distributions are given of the degree of carbonation of C-S-H gel with increasing
in Fig. 5(a) through 5(e). To present a pore size distribution, NaOH concentration would be analysis in TG/DSC. The
the log differential distribution curve has the advantage of addition of fly ash to PS in paste leads to the formation of
showing a spectrum of pore size and is especially revealing finer and discontinuous pores or to increase in the fraction of
when the sample has two or more unique peak pore sizes. finer pores. Figures 5(d) and 5(e) showed the significant influ-
Figures 5(a) through 5(e) presented the results of MIP ence of fly ash dosage on the decrease of the amount of large
tests of PS, PSM, and PSFM. It was observed that the porous pores and the pore size distribution in PSFM samples. The
volume was generally detected in the pore range of 10 to intensity of peak of log differential intrusion corresponded
30,000 nm (3.94 × 10–7 to 1.18 × 10–3 in), and the pores in to macropores reduced with the increasing dosage of fly
PS are subdivided into large pores, which have a diameter ash. The maximum volume intruded corresponded to a pore
of approximately 2090 nm (8.23 × 10–5 in.), and small pores, diameter of approximately 11 nm (4.33 × 10–7 in.), samples
which have a diameter of 26 nm (1.02 × 10–6 in.) (Fig. 5(a)). showed a wider distribution with a shift of larger pores in the
The formation of geopolymer gel in the mixtures had signif- pore range of 10 to 100 nm (3.94 × 10–7 to 3.94 × 10–6 in.).

Fig. 5—Pore diameter distributions. (a) PS; (b) N–1.35 fly ash 0%; (c) N-3.1 fly ash 0%; (d) N-2.3 fly ash 10%; and (e) N-2.3
fly ash 15%.
Figure 6 shows the relationship between differential intru- PSFM. It can be seen that with the decreasing of porosity
sion volume and pore size. It can be seen that the large pores’ of PSFM, the value of softening coefficient and compres-
volume and the total porosity had a slight increase with the sive strength of PSFM increased from 0.58, 7.8 MPa to
NaOH concentration due to the carbonation of C-S-H gel. 0.76, 19.32 MPa (84, 1131 psi to 110, 2801 psi). There is
The addition of fly ash could enhance the density of the a good liner correlation between the compressive strength
matrix, and the pores’ structure would be improved to reduce and porosity, and the relationship between softening coeffi-
the porosity of the PSFM as the dosage of fly ash increases; cient and porosity has a same trend. This could be explained
the results of Fig. 6 and Table 3 showed that the proportion that the large pores are sites of weaknesses that control the
of small pores (<50 nm [1.97 × 10–6 in.]) had a remarkable mechanical properties of mortar, the lower porosity, the
increase and the total porosity decreased from 27.1 to 22.5% more dense pastes, and the less water access; therefore, an
with the increasing fly ash content. The porosity and pore increase in porosity will lead to a decrease in strength and
structure have a significant influence on the strength and water resistance of PSFM. There is an inverse correlation
durability of mortar.23 The softening coefficient character- between the strength and porosity of mortar; this is consis-
izes materials’ stability to water; it is a key index for eval- tent with the findings of previous studies.25,26
uating the material durability and water resistance, and the
softening coefficient is a ratio of wet compressive strength Water permeability
and dry compressive strength.24 The pore size distribution, The values of water permeability of PSFM at 28 and
the shape, and the position of pores are also important, but it 90 days are shown in Fig. 8(a) and 8(b), respectively.
is both difficult and impractical to include all these param- At 28 days, the values of water permeability of PSM3.1,
eters; it is believed that there is an acceptable relationship PSFM5, PSFM10, and PSFM15 specimen were 21.9 × 10–8,
between strength and porosity. Figure 7 shows the relation- 14.7 × 10–8, 8.3 × 10–8, and 7.4 × 10–8 m/s (71.8 × 10–8,
ship among strength, softening coefficient, and porosity of 48.2 × 10–8, 27.2 × 10–8, and 24.3 × 10–8 ft/s), respectively,

Fig. 6—Relationship between differential intrusion volume and pore size of Pisha sandstone-based mortar.
2047, and 4094 in.–1) are assigned to Si-O-Si bending vibra-
tion bond, whereas the Si-O asymmetric stretching vibra-
tion bond can be seen at 1040 cm–1 (4094 in.–1), and these
stretching modes are related to quartz (SiO2), the broad band
at 1639 cm–1 (6453 in.–1) associated with bending vibrations
of H-OH bonds, related to water. The PSM with N-1.35,
N-2.3, and N-3.1 (Fig. 9(a)) exhibit infrared vibration modes
at 1645 cm–1 (6477 in.–1) characterized the spectrum of
stretching and deformation vibrations of the OH and H-O-H
group from the weakly bound water molecules, which were
trapped in the large cavities between the rings of geopolymer
products (C-S-H gel). A mode at 1458 cm–1 (5740 in.–1)
Fig.7—Relationship between compressive strength, soft- corresponding to the stretching vibration of O-C-O bonds
ening coefficient, and porosity. in the carbonate group (CO32–) was also observed; the other
carbonate C-O stretching vibrations were assigned to regions
and this declined to 16.6 × 10–8, 11.2 × 10–8, 6.3 × 10–8, and 875 cm−1 (3445 in.–1) and 713 cm−1 (2807 in.–1). Carbonates
5.1 × 10–8 m/s (54.5 × 10–8, 36.7 × 10–8, 20.7 × 10–8, and were present in the samples due to reaction of older C-S-H
16.7 × 10–8 ft/s) at 90 days. Therefore, the PSM specimen gel and CO2 with formation of calcium carbonate (CaCO3),
had higher water permeability values than PSFM specimens consistent with the observation of calcite in the XRD data.2
at both testing ages; as expected, water permeability values The mode at 1036 cm–1 (4079 in.–1) is assigned to the asym-
decreased with fly ash content, and the mixture with 15% metric stretching vibration of Si-O-T bonds, where T is
fly ash content showed the minimum permeability values. tetrahedral silicon or aluminum.27 This specific frequency is
At 28 and 90 days, the water permeability of PSFM speci- characteristic of silicon or aluminum in the chain structure of
mens were 21.9 × 10–8 and 7.4 × 10–8 m/s (71.8 × 10–8 and calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H). The shoulder at 875 cm–1
24.3 × 10–8 ft/s), and these declined to 16.6 × 10–8 and 5.1 × (3445 in.–1) is associated to the asymmetric stretch of AlO4–
10–8 m/s (54.5 × 10–8 and 16.7 × 10–8 ft/s) when the fly ash groups, and the mode at 713 cm–1 (2807 in.–1) corresponds to
content increased from 0 to 15%. The significant increase the bending of Al-O-Si bonds.
in PSFM resistance to water permeability was attributed to The results of Fig. 9(a) showed the effect of NaOH concen-
improved PSFM pore structure, resulting from pozzolanic trations on the samples. The asymmetric stretching vibration
reactions of fly ash. of O-C-O bonds of CO32– groups shifted (1470 to 1442 cm–1
The relationship between the porosity and water perme- [5787 to 5677 in.–1]); a marked increase in the intensity in
ability of PSFM at 90 days is illustrated in Fig. 8(b). As the vibration was observed when the concentration of NaOH
the result, as Fig. 8(b) clearly indicates, the values of water solution increased. This indicates chemical changes in the
permeability of PSFM increased as the porosity increased. reaction products formed by alkaline activation of the PS—
On the other hand, the lower porosity of PSFM resulted in in particular the decalcification of the C-S-H gel to form
lower water permeability values. The low water permea- calcium carbonates and amorphous silica.28,29 The mode at
bility of PSFM containing fly ash was affected by the pozzo- 875 cm–1 (3445 in.–1) became sharper and had an increase in
lanic reaction and packing effect of small particles, which the intensity was also associated with the formation of calcite.
produced PSFM with a denser matrix and lower permeability. These indicated that high NaOH concentrations could lead to
a higher degree of carbonation of C-S-H gel. The Si-O bond
Fourier transform infrared at 1036 cm–1 (4079 in.–1) is on the spectra, for the C-S-H gel
FTIR analyses for PS, PSM, and PSFM for 90 days are became stronger and narrower with the increase of NaOH
shown in Fig. 9(a) and 9(b). For the PS specimen, it shows concentrations. An increase in the wavelength of this peak
the main adsorption bands as follows: 450, 468, 520, 1040, indicates that higher NaOH concentrations could promote
and 1639 cm–1 (1772, 1843, 2047, 4094, and 6453 in.–1). hydration reaction of calcium silicate and lower degree of
The peaks at 450, 468, 520, and 1040 cm–1 (1772, 1843, polymerization of C-S-H gel.30 Figure 9(b) presented FTIR

spectra of PSFM with different fly ash dosage. It can be TG/DSC curves of specimens are presented in Fig. 10 and
seen that there were no significant changes in all bands with Fig. 11. On the TG curve for PSM and PSFM, the two steps
the increase of fly ash content. Insignificant shifts occurred of weight loss, together with corresponding endothermic
in the carbonate C-O stretching vibrations (1475, 875, and DSC peaks, are observed. The relative weight loss at 50 to
713 cm−1 [5807, 3445, and 2807 in.–1]) and asymmetrical 105°C (122 to 221°F) was due to the loss of free water and
Si-O-Si and Al-O-Si stretch (1035 cm−1 [4075 in.–1]). The loosely bound water; in the region of 105 to 500°C (221 to
carbonate C-O stretching vibrations at 875 cm−1 (3445 in.–1) 932°F), the weight loss refers to the loss of structural water
became weaker and the new bands at 856 cm−1 (3370 in.–1) that is present in the form of –OH sites in geopolymer gel,
disappeared, which is associated with carbonate C-O and the weight loss in the region of 500 to 780°C (932 to
stretching vibrations with the increase of fly ash content. It 1436°F) is the decarbonation of the calcite into CaO.31,32
meant that the carbonation rate of C-S-H gel decreased with For PSM (Fig. 10(a)), in the region of 105 to 500°C (221
the increase of fly ash content. to 932°F), the amounts of water loss of C-S-H gel are 5.2,
5.29, and 5.8%, and the amounts of CO2 loss of CaCO3
Thermogravimetry analysis (500 to 780°C) are 8.75, 9.04, and 10.08% when the NaOH
Figure 10 showed the influence of NaOH concentration concentrations are 1.35, 2.3, and 3.1 mol∙L–1, respectively.
and fly ash dosage on the products of PSM and PSFM. The In the region of 105 to 500°C (221 to 932°F), the higher
Fig. 8—(a) Relationship between water permeability and fly ash content; and (b) relationship between water permeability
and porosity.
Fig. 9—(a) FTIR of hydration products of PSM for 90 days; and (b) FTIR of hydration products of PSFM for 90 days.
Fig. 10—(a) TG curves of PSM for 90 days; and (b) TG curves of PSFM for 90 days. (Note: (°C × 1.8) + 32 = °F.)

Fig. 11—DSC curves of specimens for 90 days: (a) PSM; and (b) PSFM. (Note: (°C × 1.8) + 32 = °F.)
Fig. 12—SEM micrographs of specimens for 28 days: (a) N–1.35 fly ash 0%; (b) N-3.1 fly ash 0%; (c) N-2.3 fly ash 5%; and
(d) N-2.3 fly ash 15%.
NaOH concentration, the more water loss, this means ture of approximately 780°C (1436°F) became stronger and
that the amount of C-S-H gel of PSM increased with the had shifted to a high temperature with the increasing NaOH
increasing NaOH concentration; it also can be seen that a concentration and the decreasing fly ash content. It means
higher NaOH concentration would lead to more CO2 loss of that the specimen with a higher NaOH concentration or less
CaCO3, which was formed by the carbonation of C-S-H gel. fly ash addition had a quicker weight loss speed than the
This indicated that the degree of the carbonation of C-S-H sample which had a lower NaOH concentration or more fly
gel would increase with the increasing NaOH concentration; ash addition. In addition, the weight loss speed of PSFM was
these results agree well with the results of FTIR (Fig. 9(a)). connected to the degree of carbonation of C-S-H gel; the
For the PSFM specimen (Fig. 10(b)), in the region of 105 to more CaCO3 was produced, the higher weight the loss speed.
500°C (221 to 932°F), the amounts of water loss of C-S-H These findings are consistent with the results of Fig. 10.
gel increased from 5.14 to 6.22% when the fly ash content
increased from 5 to 15%. However, the amounts of CO2 loss Microstructural analysis
of CaCO3 (500 to 780°C [932 to 1436°F]) decreased from Scanning electron microscopy images of PSM and PSFM
7.49 to 6.05% when the fly ash content increased from 5 to for 28 and 90 days are shown in Fig. 12 and 13. The EDS
15%. Thus, it indicated that a high fly ash addition could micrograph of PSFM for 90 days was examined to analyze
decrease the degree of the carbonation of C-S-H gel; this is the morphology of reaction products. The elemental concen-
consistent with the results of Fig. 9(b). tration is list in Table 4; each given value represents the
The DSC data of Fig. 11 showed the weight loss speed of average of six readings taken adjacent to each other. The
PSM and PSFM. It can be seen that the peak at a tempera- analysis of the morphology of PSFM revealed that, in

Fig. 13—SEM micrographs of specimens for 90 days: (a) N–1.35 fly ash 0%; (b) N-2.3 fly ash 0%; (c) N-3.1 fly ash 0%;
(d) N-2.3 fly ash 5%; (e) N-2.3 fly ash 10%; and (f) N-2.3 fly ash 15%.
general, the reaction products of PSFM mainly were C-S-H changed from 0.26 to 0.38) indicated that the main composi-
gel, geopolymer gel, and calcium carbonate after their tion of geopolymer gel was C-S-H.31,32 The NaOH concen-
contact with alkali activator. tration had a significant effect on the microstructure and the
Figure 12 showed the effects of NaOH concentration and carbonation ratio of C-S-H gel; it can be seen that the ratio of
fly ash dosage on the micromorphology and hydration prod- Ca/Si decreased from 1.27, 1.19, to 1.01 with the increasing
ucts of PSM and PSFM for 28 days. It can be seen that the NaOH concentration; according to the analysis results of FTIR
degree of hydration is low and the matrix of PSM showed and TG, the degree of carbonation of C-S-H gel increased
a porous structure at early age. The sample with higher with the increasing NaOH concentration. Thus, it believed
NaOH concentration showed higher density; the amount of that a higher degree of carbonation of C-S-H gel would lead
geopolymer gel increased with the increasing NaOH concen- to a decrease in the ratio of Ca/Si of C-S-H gel. However,
tration (Fig. 12(a) and 12(b)). There are some unreacted fly the ratio of Al/Si has an inexplicit change with the increasing
ash particles coexisting in the geopolymer matrix (Fig. 12(c) NaOH concentration, and the ratio of Al/Si changed between
and 12(d)), and the sample with more fly ash dosage showed 0.26 and 0.34 when the NaOH concentration increased from
that more unreacted fly ash remained. The SEM of PSM and 1.35 to 3.1 mol·L–1. Figures 13(d) through 13(f) showed the
PSFM for 90 days (Fig. 13) showed a great amount of dense effect of fly ash dosage on the hydration and carbonation
and homogenous geopolymer gels. The morphology change of alkali-activated PSFM. The morphologies of hydration
of PSM and PSFM indicated that the NaOH concentration products and carbonation products showed a great amount
and the dosage of fly ash had a significant effect on the of geopolymer gels, C-S-H gel, and few calcium carbon-
microstructure and the carbonation ratio of C-S-H gel. The ates, which made the matrix form a dense structure. The
results of chemical analysis of PSM and PSFM (which, listed ratio of Ca/Si increased from 1.48 to 1.77 and the ratio of
in Table 4, showed that the ratio of Ca/Si fluctuated between Al/Si decreased from 0.38 to 0.29 with the increasing fly ash
1.01 and 1.77 [except Fig. 13(e)], and the ratio of Al/Si dosage. In particular, the ratio of Ca/Si of Fig. 13(e) showed

Table 4—Composition of PSM and PSFM by SEM-EDS
Elemental composition, wt.%
Points C O Ca Si Al Na Mg Others Ca/Si Al/Si
1 25.67 50.53 10.89 8.36 2.30 1.44 0.30 0.51 1.30 — 0.28 —
Fig. 13(a) 2 22.29 62.59 6.03 4.95 1.27 1.56 0.82 0.49 1.22 — 0.27 —
3 13.07 64.96 9.05 6.99 1.52 1.16 2.86 0.39 1.29 1.27* 0.22 0.26*
1 7.17 55.17 13.55 10.69 5.72 0.34 5.40 1.96 1.27 — 0.53 —
Fig. 13(b) 2 11.12 52.19 14.71 13.70 4.01 1.64 1.56 1.07 1.07 — 0.29 —
3 11.88 59.60 12.17 9.82 1.93 2.26 1.40 0.94 1.24 1.19 0.20 0.34
1 26.27 51.72 8.27 8.54 2.29 1.56 0.63 0.72 0.97 — 0.27 —
Fig. 13(c) 2 17.02 61.60 6.83 6.74 2.63 1.60 2.88 0.70 1.01 — 0.39 —
3 19.32 53.90 10.3 9.86 3.07 1.45 1.54 0.56 1.04 1.01 0.31 0.32
1 23.11 52.10 11.15 7.94 1.54 1.44 0.80 0.92 1.40 — 0.20 —
Fig. 13(d) 2 19.51 46.83 14.94 9.41 6.02 0.96 0.53 1.80 1.59 — 0.64 —
3 18.59 56.12 10.73 7.38 2.16 1.40 2.53 1.09 1.45 1.48 0.29 0.38
1 24.63 55.65 9.59 7.03 1.26 1.08 0.68 0.08 1.36 — 0.18 —
Fig. 13(e) 2 20.48 64.54 13.90 0.43 0.16 0.24 — 0.25 32.33 — 0.37 —
3 21.92 66.21 8.89 1.58 0.48 0.56 0.24 0.12 5.63 13.11 0.30 0.28
1 22.88 62.73 7.11 3.99 1.48 — 1.37 0.44 1.78 — 0.37 —
Fig. 13(f) 2 13.02 47.74 20.04 12.75 4.07 — 1.68 0.70 1.57 — 0.32 —
3 11.58 60.29 15.44 7.82 1.31 1.28 0.59 1.69 1.97 1.77 0.17 0.29
*
Average value of ratio of Ca/Si, Al/Si of Points 1, 2, and 3.
an especially high value; it indicated that the products of large pore volume and the total porosity had a slight increase
Points 2 and 3 of Fig. 13(e) were calcium carbonate, which with the NaOH concentration due to the carbonation of C-S-H
were the carbide products of C-S-H gel. The addition of fly gel. The addition of fly ash could enhance the density of the
ash could reduce the large pores and improve the pore struc- matrix and the pore structure would be improved to reduce
ture and make the matrix more dense; the dense structure the porosity of the PSFM with the increasing fly ash dosage;
would decrease the degree of carbonation of C-S-H gel. It the proportion of small pores (<50 nm) had a remarkable
meant that high fly ash dosage could promote the synthesis increase and the total porosity decreased from 27.1 to 22.5%
of geopolymer and decrease the carbonation of C-S-H gel. with the increasing dosage of fly ash. The sample with 15%
fly ash dosage exhibited the lowest porosity and finest pore
CONCLUSIONS structure. There is an inverse correlation between the strength
In this study, the development of compressive strength, and proportion of large pores; with the decreasing of porosity
pore structure, water permeability, and microstructure of PSFM, the value of softening coefficient and compressive
of PSM and PSFM was studied. The conclusions can be strength of PSFM increased from 0.58, 7.8 MPa to 0.76, 19.32
summarized as follows: MPa (84, 1131 psi to 110, 2801 psi). Large pores are sites of
1. The significant factors affecting the compressive strength weaknesses that control the mechanical properties of mortar.
of Pisha sandstone-based mortar are NaOH concentration 3. The use of fly ash as an admixture in PSM exhibited
and fly ash dosage. At early age (within 28 days), NaOH a good result in water permeability. Depending on the fly
concentration had a slight effect on the compressive strength. ash content level, the water permeability of PSFM decreased
As the NaOH concentration increased, the relative strength as the dosage of fly ash increased. The minimum perme-
decreased due to the excessive alkali that would make a ability values of PSM and PSFM were 16.6 × 10–8 and
negative effect on the mechanical strength. For PSFM, 5.1 × 10–8 m/s (54.45 × 10–8 ft/s and 16.73 × 10–8 ft/s) at
the compressive strength increased with the increasing 90 days. The significant increase in PSFM resistance to
dosage of fly ash. However, for the strength of specimens water permeability was attributed to improved Pisha sand-
at 90 days, both the NaOH concentration and fly ash dosage stone-based mortar pore structure resulting from pozzolanic
had a remarkable influence on the compressive strength; reactions of fly ash. The low water permeability of PSFM
the strength of PSFM increased to a maximum value with containing fly ash was affected by the pozzolanic reaction
the increasing NaOH concentration and the fly ash dosage. and packing effect of small particles, which produced PSFM
With all the other parameters remaining constant, when the with a denser matrix and lower permeability.
amounts of fly ash were 5, 10, and 15%, the compressive 4. FTIR, TG, and SEM/EDS results indicate that the
strength was increased to 145, 192, and 248%, respectively. reaction products of Pisha sandstone-based mortar mainly
2. The formation of geopolymer gel binders in the mixtures showed a homogenous geopolymer gel. The geopolymer gel
has a significant influence on the pore size distribution. The was mainly ascribed to amorphous hydrated calcium silicate
(C-S-H) gel. The FTIR results showed that the Pisha sand- 10. Gao, Z. L., and Yang, S. W., “Existing Problems of Silt Arresters on
the Loss Plateau,” Bulletin of Soil and Water Conservation, V. 19, No. 6,
stone-based mortar had carbonation; the result of TG indi- 1999, pp. 16-19. (in Chinese with English summary)
cated that the amounts of C-S-H gel and the degree of carbon- 11. Yang, E. H.; Yang, Y. Z.; and Li, V. C., “Use of High Volumes of Fly
ation of C-S-H gel would increase with the increasing NaOH Ash to Improve ECC Mechanical Properties and Material Greenness,” ACI
Materials Journal, V. 104, No. 6, Nov.-Dec. 2007, pp. 303-311.
concentration and the decreasing dosage of fly ash. SEM/ 12. Reiner, M., and Rens, K., “High-Volume Fly Ash Concrete:
EDS results showed that the NaOH concentration and fly ash Analysis and Application,” Practice Periodical on Structural Design
dosage had a significant effect on the ratio of Ca/Si. The ratio and Construction, ASCE, V. 11, No. 1, 2006, pp. 58-64. doi: 10.1061/
(ASCE)1084-0680(2006)11:1(58)
of Ca/Si decreased from 1.27 to 1.01 and 1.77 to 1.48 when 13. ASTM C39/C39M, “Standard Test Method for Compressive Strength
the NaOH concentration increased from 1.35 to 3.1 mol/L, of Cylindrical Concrete Specimens,” ASTM International, West Consho-
and the fly ash dosage decreased from 15 to 5%, respectively. hocken, PA, 2010, 8 pp.
14. Chan, W. W. J., and Wu, C. M. L., “Durability of Concrete with High
Cement Replacement,” Cement and Concrete Research, V. 30, No. 6, 2000,
AUTHOR BIOS pp. 865-879. doi: 10.1016/S0008-8846(00)00253-2
ACI member Changming Li is a PhD Graduate Student at the Institute of 15. Chindaprasirt, P.; Homwuttiwong, S.; and Sirivivatnanon, V., “Influ-
Building Materials, Faculty of Infrastructure Engineering, Dalian Univer- ence of Fly Ash Fineness on Strength, Drying Shrinkage and Sulfate Resis-
sity of Technology, Dalian, Liaoning, People’s Republic of China. His tance of Blended Cement Mortar,” Cement and Concrete Research, V. 34,
research interests include the micromechanics of cementitious materials and No. 7, 2004, pp. 1087-1092. doi: 10.1016/j.cemconres.2003.11.021
the design, characterization, and application of geopolymer composites. 16. Weerachart, T., and Chai, J., “Strength, Drying Shrinkage, and
Water Permeability of Concrete Incorporating Ground Palm Oil Fuel Ash,”
Tingting Zhang is a Lecturer at the Institute of Building Materials, Faculty Cement and Concrete Composites, V. 32, No. 9, 2010, pp. 767-774.
of Infrastructure Engineering, Dalian University of Technology, China. She 17. Temuujin, J., and van Riessen, A., “Effect of Fly Ash Preliminary
received her BS from Dalian University of Technology and her MS and PhD Calcinations on the Properties of Geopolymer,” Journal of Hazardous Mate-
from Imperial College London, London, UK. Her research interests include rials, V. 164, No. 2-3, 2009, pp. 634-639. doi: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2008.08.065
low-carbon cement and concrete, resources from solid wastes, and solidifi- 18. Bakharev, T.; Sanjayan, J. G.; and Cheng, Y. B., “Effect of Admix-
cation of radioactive waste. tures on Properties of Alkali-Actived Slag Concrete,” Cement and
Concrete Research, V. 30, No. 9, 2000, pp. 1367-1374. doi: 10.1016/
Lijiu Wang is a Professor at the Institute of Building Materials, Faculty of S0008-8846(00)00349-5
Infrastructure Engineering, Dalian University of Technology, China. His 19. Hu, M. Y.; Zhu, X. M.; and Long, F. M., “Alkali Activated Fly
research interests include the micromechanics of cementitious materials; Ash-Based Geopolymers with Zeolite or Bentonite as Additives,” Cement
the design, characterization, and application of geopolymer composites; and Concrete Composites, V. 31, No. 10, 2009, pp. 762-768. doi: 10.1016/j.
and materials-based development of sustainable infrastructure. cemconcomp.2009.07.006
20. Komnitsas, K.; Zaharaki, D.; and Perdikatsis, V., “Effect of Synthesis
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Parameters on the Compressive Strength of Low-Calcium Ferronickel Slag
The authors would like to express gratitude for the financial support Inorganic Polymers,” Journal of Hazardous Materials, V. 161, No. 2-3,
by the National Key Science & Technology Pillar Program of China 2009, pp. 760-768. doi: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2008.04.055
(No. 2013BAC05B03), the National Natural Science Foundation of China 21. Oner, A.; Akyuz, S.; and Yildiz, R., “An Experimental Study on
(Grant No. 51408096), and the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Strength Development of Concrete Containing Fly Ash and Optimum
Universities (DUT15RC(4)22). Usage of Fly Ash in Concrete,” Cement and Concrete Research, V. 35,
No. 6, 2005, pp. 1165-1167. doi: 10.1016/j.cemconres.2004.09.031
22. Hassan, K. E.; Cabrera, J. G.; and Maliehe, R. S., “The Effect of
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Title No. 113-M18
Compressive and Time-Dependent Strength of Concrete

Masonry Constructed with Type M Mortar and Grouts
Containing High Volume of Fly Ash and Slag
by Fernando S. Fonseca, Scott M. Watterson, and Kurt Siggard
A testing program was conducted to determine whether concrete increase the substitution levels of supplemental cementitious
masonry prisms constructed with Type M mortar and grouts materials (SCMs) for PC in masonry grout. The construc-
containing high volumes of supplemental cementitious materials tion industry has used SCMs to replace ordinary PC in many
(SCMs) could meet minimum masonry compressive strength applications.11 Replacing PC with SCMs have technical12
requirements. Research focused on replacing portland cement (PC)
(that is, durability to chemical attack) as well as economic
with Class F fly ash and ground-granulated blast-furnace slag
and environmental benefits.10,13 Two common forms of
(GGBFS) in quantities larger than those currently allowed by tech-
nical standards. In addition, the research evaluated the development of recycled SCMs are pozzolans and slags.14 Abounding data
the compressive strength of the prisms with time. Thus, specimens is available demonstrating the use of SCMs in concrete in
were tested at 14, 28, 42, 56, and 90 days. The control prism group typical amounts15 and in high volumes,16 as well as in the
contained grout with only PC. In the second prism group, the grout manufacturing of masonry units.17 However, limited data
had Class F fly ash replacing PC at rates of 45, 55, and 65% while exist demonstrating the use of SCMs in masonry grouts.18
in the third prism group the grout had Class F fly ash and GGBFS A testing program was devised to determine if masonry
combinations replacing PC at rates of 65, 75, and 85%. with grouts containing high levels of SCMs could meet the
The compressive strength of all prisms exceeded the minimum minimum prescribed fmʹ and to evaluate the development
compressive strength requirement of 10.34 MPa (1500 psi) at of prism strength with time. The first phase determined the
28 days, although the 65% fly ash grout mixture itself did not meet
compressive strength of masonry grouts made with various
the minimum grout compressive strength of 13.79 MPa (2000 psi)
combinations of Class F fly ash (FA) and ground-granulated
at 28 days. A lower estimate of the ultimate strength of grouted
prisms constructed with grouts containing high volumes of SCM blast-furnace slag (GGBFS) to replace high amounts of
can be estimated by multiplying the strength measured at 14 days by PC.18 The first phase had three stages. In the first and second
1.2 and 1.3 for prisms with binary and ternary grouts, respectively. stages, PC was replaced only by FA, while in the third stage,
PC was replaced by combinations of FA and GGBFS. In
Keywords: concrete masonry; fly ash; ground-granulated blast-furnace the first stage, mixtures were proportioned by volume and
slag (GGBFS); grout; high-volume fly ash; masonry; masonry prisms; batched with 0, 20, 30, 40, 50, and 60% PC replacement;
strength evolution; supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs).
specimens were cured in a dry and a wet environment. In
the second stage, mixtures were proportioned by weight
INTRODUCTION
and batched with 0, 20, 30, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, and 65% PC
The masonry building code1 allows the results of axial
replacement. Specimens in the second stage were cured in
compression tests on masonry prisms to be the basis for
a wet environment only. In the third stage, mixtures were
determining the design capacity of masonry elements by
proportioned also by weight and batched with 0, 50, 60, 65,
permitting the compressive strength of the masonry fmʹ to
70, 75, 80, and 85% PC replacement with the FA content
be that of the prisms. Numerous experimental and analytical
maintained constant at 25%. Specimens in the third stage
research programs have been conducted on different aspects
were also cured in a wet environment only. Grout specimens
of masonry compressive strength. Topics have included the
were tested at 14, 28, 42, 56, and 90 days and three speci-
behavior of masonry under concentric2,3 and eccentric load-
mens were tested for each replacement rate, age, and curing
ings4 and the influence of block geometry,5 mortar strength,6
conditions. Grout mixtures with up to 55% FA and 85%
and mortar bedding type7 on the strength of the masonry;
FA-GGBFS substitutions reached the minimum compres-
in many cases, both hollow8 and grouted9 prisms have
sive strength of 13.79 MPa (2000 psi) required at 28 days,19
been tested.
while mixtures with 60 and 65% FA achieved the minimum
Although grout type affects the compressive strength of
compressive strength in 44 and 54 days, respectively.
masonry,5 different types of grout have not been explored
The second phase of the testing program determined if
as a means to make masonry construction more competitive
masonry prisms with grouts containing high levels of SCMs
and sustainable. Concrete masonry has many proven sustain-
able benefits and could become even more sustainable if the ACI Materials Journal, V. 113, No. 2, March-April 2016.
use of portland cement (PC), whose production generates MS No. M-2015-133.R1, doi: 10.14359/51688638, received May 6, 2015, and
approximately 1 ton of carbon dioxide per produced ton,10 Institute. All rights reserved, including the making of copies unless permission is
is reduced. A possible way to achieve such a vision is to obtained from the copyright proprietors. Pertinent discussion including author’s

met the minimum fmʹ of 10.34 MPa (1500 psi) at 28 days.1 machine. In addition, the size selections provided easier
The prisms were constructed with Type M mortar and grouts maneuverability, decreased physical labor in the laboratory
made with various combinations of FA and GGBFS. This environment, and reduced laboratory space consumption.
second phase of the testing program and corresponding Half units sash blocks were used; a sash block has an end
results are presented herein. slot to receive metal window frames or premolded expan-
sion joint material.
RESEARCH SIGNIFICANCE Following standard procedures,21 six units were tested for
The compressive strength of concrete masonry fmʹ, as a absorption, moisture content, and density. The average sash
result of the prism test method, must be equal to or exceed square groove dimension was 19.1 mm (0.75 in.) and the
10.34 MPa (1500 psi).1 In addition, the code stipulates that average unit height, length, web thickness, and face shell
the specified compressive strength of the grout fgʹ must be thickness were 193.4 mm, 194.5 mm, 33.5 mm, and 46.2 mm
equal to or exceed fmʹ. The code, therefore, by itself, allows (7.61, 7.66, 1.32, and 1.82 in.), respectively. Although the
fgʹ equal to or greater than 10.34 MPa (1500 psi). The speci- sash grooves could be neglected,21 researchers accounted
fications,1 however, require that grout must conform to stan- for them in determining the CMUs’ area. The average net
dards19 that dictate a minimum fgʹ of 13.79 MPa (2000 psi) at and gross areas of the CMUs were 24,560 and 37,468 mm2
28 days. Had it not been for the specifications, both fmʹ and (38.07 and 58.08 in.2), respectively. The measured and
fgʹ could be equal to 10.34 MPa (1500 psi). reported average absorptions were 6.60 and 8.76%, respec-
Research18 has shown that masonry grout with up to 55% tively; the measured and reported average densities were
FA and 85% FA-GGBFS substitutions reached the minimum 2.05 and 1.77 g/cm3 (128 and 111 lb/ft3), respectively; and
fgʹ of 13.79 MPa (2000 psi), as required by the standards19; the measured and reported average moisture content were
grout mixtures with 60 and 65% FA, however, did not 43.01 and 56.51%, respectively. The reported values were
reach the minimum fgʹ until 44 and 54 days, respectively. provided by the manufacturer.
Grout mixture with 60% FA did reach the minimum fmʹ of Mortar—Commercial-grade Type M mortar was used.
10.34 MPa (1500 psi) at 28 days, while grout mixture with The mixture was a dry preblended mixture of sand, cement,
65% FA reached the minimum fmʹ of 10.34 MPa (1500 psi) and chemical admixtures meeting current standards and
at 37 days. requiring only proper amounts of water and mixing for use.
The research presented herein demonstrates that fmʹ of Type M mortar is generally the least workable mortar in its
systems constructed with grouts containing high volumes plastic state, while in its hardened state, it is generally the
of SCMs can achieve the minimum fmʹ. Research focused strongest in compression and tension. The mortar manufac-
on replacing PC with Class F FA and GGBFS in quanti- turer reported a minimum compressive strength of 17.2 MPa
ties larger than those currently allowed. This research will (2500 psi).
help mainstream SCMs as replacement to PC in masonry Grout—Fonseca et al.18 gives a detailed description of the
grout. Furthermore, greater quantities of recycled cemen- grout materials used in this research. The materials used in
titious materials supplementing the PC content in masonry making the grout complied with appropriate standards, and
grouts promotes and brands masonry construction as cost- were PC Type I/II,22 Class F FA,23 Grade 100 GGBFS,24
and planet-conscious. This research provides engineers with fine aggregate (sand),25 9.5 mm (0.375 in.) aggregate (pea
additional means to build sustainable concrete masonry gravel),25 and potable water; the properties of the materials
structures by promoting broader SCM addition rates for are given in Fonseca et al.18
masonry grout and by extending discretion to engineers in Seven variations of grout were used. Standards19 regulate
lengthening the minimum curing ages at which grout and the use of SCMs in masonry grout. Replacement guidelines
masonry strength minimums are achieved. for SCMs in masonry grout are analogous to limitations of
blended hydraulic cement,26 limiting the maximum pozzolan
EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM content to 40% by mass of the binary cement and the total
Concrete masonry units (CMUs), mortar, and grout being content of pozzolan and GGBFS to less than 70% by mass of
components of masonry prisms were tested individually to the ternary cement. An all Type I/II PC-based grout was used
assure compliance with code and standards and to attribute as the control mixture. Binary grouts were composed of PC
prism strength gain appropriately. Because concrete materials and FA and the PC content was replaced by 45, 55, and 65%
with pozzolans or slag gain strength over time,11,12 specimens FA. Ternary grouts were composed of PC, FA, and GGBFS,
were tested at 14, 28, 42, 56, and 90 days to determine the and the PC content was replaced with 25% FA and 40, 50,
curing age at which compressive strength minimums were and 60% GGBFS.
achieved and the time-dependent strength of the masonry.
Specimens and testing
Materials The construction and the testing of all specimens were
Concrete masonry units—The CMUs used were all from conducted using standard test methods.
the same batch using consistent fabrication methods and No special requirement exists for the testing of CMUs,21
complying with current standards.20 These units were 200 x except that they are capped.27 The capping was completed
200 x 200 mm (8 x 8 x 8 in.) nominal size with one cell. with a high-strength gypsum cement compound with
The unit size was selected primarily so that prisms could 34.5 MPa (5000 psi) compressive strength and, on average,
fit into and not exceed the loading capacity of the testing was 3 mm (0.118 in.) thick. Three concrete masonry units

Fig. 1—Construction of grout specimens.
Fig. 2—Prism construction.

were tested for their compressive strength at each age and to foreshadowed increases in slump. The slump test was
were surface dried at the time of testing. performed as outlined in appropriate standards.30 Slump was
Professional masons prepared the mortar according to 229, 241, 267, flowable, 203, 216, and 267 mm (9.0, 9.5,
the specifications.1 A mechanical mixer was used and batch 10.5, flowable, 8.0, 8.5, and 10.5 in.) for the control, binary,
sizes were at the discretion of the masons; water amounts and ternary grout mixtures, respectively; the 65 binary grout
were based on the desired workability and consistency. mixture slumped more than 280 mm (11 in.).
Researchers, however, determined the temperature28 and Five specimens of each grout type for each age were made
flow29 of the mortar and prepared the mortar specimens according to technical standards.31 The specimens were
accordingly.28 The average mortar temperature was 21.1°C made by filling the cells of CMU blocks—an alternative
(70°F) and the flow was 100.4%, a slightly low value because method allowed by the standards. The CMU cells were filled
laboratory prepared mortar is expected to have a flow of in two layers of approximately equal depth. The grout spec-
approximately 110%. Nevertheless, masons approved the imens and filling of the CMU cells are shown in Fig. 1. The
mortar and were able to construct the prisms without issue. grout specimens were saw cut from the CMU and placed in
Mortar specimens were cast according to technical stan- a moist room of 100% humidity at 31°C (87.8°F) until the
dards.28 Three specimens for each test age were made in day of testing. Grout specimens were capped as per technical
50 mm (2 in.) cube molds. Upon completion of the molding, standards32 with a high-strength gypsum cement compound
specimens were placed in a moist room under a plastic sheet and, on average, the capping thickness was 3 mm (0.118 in.).
to prevent ponding but allowing exposure to the moist air. Professional masons assembled the masonry prisms with
Specimens remained undisturbed in their molds for 72 hours, the aforementioned components. Prisms were constructed
after which they were removed from the mold and stored in an open, moisture-tight bag large enough to enclose and
in the moist room until reaching their respective testing seal the completed prism on a flat and level base.33 Prism
ages. The compressive strength determined was outlined construction is shown in Fig. 2(a). Units were laid in stack
in the appropriate standards.28 Specimens were not capped bond with full mortar beds and were free of surface moisture
because the final specimens had two near-perfect parallel at the time of construction. The masons were instructed to
and smooth surfaces. assemble the prisms with a 10 mm (0.39 in.) mortar joint
Grout was made following specific technical standards19 thickness; this distance, however, varied slightly and the
and is described in detail in Fonseca et al.18 Grout should joint was, on average, 12.0 mm (0.47 in.) thick. Mortar
slump19 between 200 and 280 mm (8 and 11 in.) but with thickness plays a role in the strength of prisms, especially in
the addition of the fine particles making up FA and GGFBS ungrouted prisms, but for grouted prisms, the effects of the
slump was expected to increase as greater percentages of thickness are reduced due to the continuity of the grout.34
these materials were added to the mixture. Thus, the control Four prisms for each test age and each grout type were
mixture was targeted to have a 200 mm (8 in.) slump due constructed. The grouts used in the prisms were of the same

batch as those used in the construction of the grout speci- Table 1—Concrete masonry unit results
mens. While waiting to be grouted, prisms were sealed in the Age, days ƒcmu, MPa ƒʹcmu, MPa COV, %
moisture-tight bag. Prior to grouting, mortar fins and drop-
14 28.0, 24.6, 23.5 25.4 9.2
pings were removed from inside the prisms. Prisms were
grouted between 24 and 48 hours following construction of 28 21.2, 20.9, 27.9 23.3 17.0
the prism. Grout consolidation procedures, representative of 42 26.5, 26.6, 25.7 26.3 1.8
those used in construction, were carried out with a low-force 56 26.1, 24.0, 30.1, 26.1 26.6 9.7
vibrator, where additional grout was placed into the prisms
90 28.3, 28.8, 27.6, 26.3 27.7 3.9
after consolidation. To have a more uniform solidly grouted
prism, reconsolidation and grout topping-off was necessary Note: 1 MPa = 0.145 ksi.
as the CMUs absorbed water from the grout. Following individual materials used in the construction of the prisms
grouting, prisms were resealed in the moisture-tight bag. as well as of the prisms are beyond the scope of this paper.
Prisms remained in the moisture-tight bags until 48 hours The data presented herein are from 14 to 90 days and simple
before their respective test age and stayed in their construc- linear regression models are used to show time-dependent
tion location for 48 hours. After 48 hours, prisms were strength trends.
moved a short distance to a lesser traveled area of the labo-
ratory where floor space consumption and possible distur- CMU compressive strength
bance would be minimized. The prism construction and Compressive strength results for the CMUs are presented
storage locations are shown in Fig. 2(b) and 2(c), respec- in Table 1. Three specimens were tested at 14, 28, and 42 days
tively. Prisms that had CMUs significantly misaligned or and four specimens were tested for at 56 and 90 days. Coef-
gaps between the mortar and CMUs were discarded. ficients of variation were less than 10% for all testing ages
Some prisms had protrusions of mortar and grout from except for 28 days. Inexplicably, two specimens had low
construction, which were removed from the top and bottom compressive strength values, while one specimen had a high
surfaces with an abrasive stone. Capping of the prisms was compressive strength value causing the mean strength at
completed as required by the governing standards33 using 28 days to be lower than that at 14 days, which is an anomaly
a high-strength gypsum cement compound with 34.5 MPa because strength should increase with age. No visual differ-
(5000 psi) compressive strength. The average cap thickness ences were apparent among the specimens but it is plausible
was 3 mm (0.118 in.). that capping may have been at fault. Another possibility is a
Standards required the compressive strength to be adjusted slightly larger misalignment between the longitudinal axis of
based on the prism height-to-thickness ratio.33 Just prior to the CMUs and that of the machine for some of the specimens.
testing, prism height was measured and the average height- Visual examination after testing indicated that all specimens
to-thickness ratio was 2.06, which fell between accepted in the 28-day testing failed due to the crushing of only the
1.3 to 5.0 ratios.33 A correction factor of 1.0 is to be used face placed away from the machine operator, as shown in
for a 2.0 ratio and 1.04 for a 2.5 ratio. The linearly interpo- Fig. 3. Although the machine swivel upper and lower steel
lated correction factor for the 2.06 ratio of the prisms tested platens should have corrected occurring misalignment, it is
yielded a value of 1.0048, which was taken as 1.0. plausible that the misalignment was slightly larger, causing
All specimens were tested on a compression testing an eccentric load to be applied to those specimens.
machine. The upper and lower platens were spherically The mean compressive strengths as well as the linear
seated and steel plates of sufficient thickness, according to regression model for the CMUs are shown in Fig. 4. The
the dimension requirements of the governing standard,33 coefficient of determination R2 is low because the mean
were attached to the upper and bottom platens. While half (calculated) compressive strength value at 28 days is lower
of the expected load could be applied to the prism speci- than what it should have been because strength should
mens at any rate and the latter half should be completed at increase with age. The CMUs used in this research were
a uniform rate taking between 1 and 2 minutes, a contin- manufactured specifically for this testing program and were
uous strain rate was applied from initial loading until failure; received within approximately 10 days from the manufac-
the testing strain rate was 1.27 mm/min (0.05 in./min) The turing date. Thus, researchers expected a slight increase in
load was applied until a fracture pattern was visible and the CMU strength over time as depicted by the linear model.
load had significantly decreased in value. In some cases, Using the simple linear model, the CMU strengths at 14 and
prisms did not show enough external physical characteris- 90 days are approximately 24.5 and 27.8 MPa (3556 and
tics to determine a mode of failure. In such cases, loading 4035 psi), respectively; the increase in strength is approxi-
continued until enough visual evidence of a mode of failure mately 13.5% over the period.
was present.
Mortar compressive strength
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Compressive strength results for the mortar are presented
Time-dependent properties in Table 2; three specimens were tested for all ages. Coef-
There are several models to represent the time-dependent ficients of variation were higher than that for the CMUs,
compressive strength of cementitious materials.12,35 The which was expected; nevertheless, the coefficients were
development of a new model, comparison of models, and less than 20% for all testing ages. The mean compressive
an exhaustive discussion of time-dependent properties of the strengths as well as the linear regression model response

Fig. 3—Failure of CMUs at 28-day testing.
Table 2—Mortar results
Age, days ƒmortar, MPa ƒʹmortar, MPa COV, %
14 21.4, 16.6, 15.2 17.7 18.4
28 21.0, 20.0, 15.5 18.8 15.4
42 23.9, 26.0, 19.8 23.2 13.6
56 19.7, 20.1, 14.5 18.1 17.2
90 20.5, 25.7, 18.0 21.4 18.4
Note: 1 MPa = 0.145 ksi.
is shown in Fig. 5. The strength was expected to increase

Fig. 4—Compressive strength of CMUs.
gradually with age but the results are slightly erratic in that
the mean strength at 42 days appears to be slightly higher Grout compressive strength
than the mean strengths at subsequent ages, while the mean Fonseca et al.18 summarize and discuss the results of the
strength at 56 days appears to be slightly lower than the mean grout experimental program. Because the grout is one the
strengths at earlier ages. The consequence of these discrep- main variables of this research, however, a brief summary
ancies is that the coefficient of determination R2 of the model is presented herein with a simple discussion on the
is low. The model gives an increase in mortar strength for the time-dependent strength of the grout, which has not been
period of approximately 14.5%. discussed in Fonseca et al.18 Because an alternative method
of forming the grout specimens was used, a conversion
factor31 based on comparative testing of standard specimens

Fig. 5—Compressive strength of mortar.
was used to correct the results from the alternative method.
To determine the correlation factor, 12 specimens were cast
using the standard specimen mold and 12 specimens were
cast using the alternative mold. The specimens cast using
the alternative method were removed from the CMUs using
the same procedure used previously. These 24 grout speci-
mens were then tested using the same procedure previously
used and the correlation factor was determined to be 1.2. The
results obtained using the alternative method and presented
herein have been appropriately corrected.
The average compressive strength values for the control
grout mixtures and binary grout mixtures are shown in
Fig. 6(a); the straight lines connecting the data points are
shown for easier identification of the data. At early ages, the
45B and 55B grout mixtures gained strength at a slightly
greater rate than the other specimens. After 42 days, a
slight decrease is the strength gain rate is observed for both Fig. 6—Compressive strength of binary grout mixtures.
grout mixtures; the decrease for the 55B grout mixture was
slightly more pronounced. After 42 days, the strength gain The linear regression models representing the binary grouts
for the 55B and 65B grout mixtures was similar to that of are shown in Fig. 6(b). It appears that the ultimate strength of
the control mixture, while the strength gain for the 45B the 45B grout will surpass that of the control grout, which is
grout mixture indicates that it might ultimately become consistent with other research findings.11 The ultimate strength
stronger than the control mixture. The data also show that of the 55B and 65B grouts will not reach that of the control
the 65B grout mixture did not reach the minimum compres- grout because of the higher replacement rate of PC. The linear
sive strength at the prescribed 28 days. The strength of the models indicate that from 14 to 90 days the strengths increased
mixture at 28 days was 8.29 MPa (1200 psi) but it reached 42, 96, 175, and 280% for the control, 45B, 55B, and 65B
the minimum compressive strength at the age of 54 days. mixtures, respectively; these increases are significant.
Using the straight lines connecting the data points as refer- The average compressive strength values for the control
ence, Fig. 6(a) shows a slope change for the binary mixture grout mixture and for the ternary grout mixtures are shown
at the age of 42 days. The slope change is probably due to the in Fig. 7(a); the straight lines connecting the data points are
different rates of strength gain of the hydration products. The shown for easier identification of the data. The results for
main hydration product of PC is a calcium silicate hydrate the 75T grout mixture have, at 28 days, what appears to be
(C-S-H). In addition to C-S-H, the hydration process also a discrepancy because the measured strength is smaller than
forms calcium hydroxide (CH).11,36 C-S-H and CH are the that at 14 days. Faulty caps, misalignment of the end plates,
basis for the effectiveness of the FA. The FA adds strength FA and GGBFS flocculation, or a combination thereof may
to the material by means of the FA secondary reacting with explain the discrepancy. Also noticeable is the significant
CH11,12,37 to form additional C-S-H, which only occurs after increase in strength from 28 to 42 days for the 65T and 75T
the primary reaction has produced enough CH; the secondary grout mixtures. The large increase for the 75T grout mixture
reaction is slower than the primary reaction. Thus, the initial may not be realistic because it is due to the possible erro-
gain in strength comes from the primary reaction, which neous 28-day value. Although the results show a large reduc-
is almost complete at approximately 42 days. Little increase in tion in strength for the 85T grout mixture, when compared
strength would come from the primary reaction after the 42 days; with the strength of the control grout mixture, the mixture
in other words, the strength curve would be approximately did reach the minimum compressive strength of 13.79 MPa
flat (zero slope) after 42 days. Due, to the secondary reaction (2000 psi) at the prescribed 28 days.
of FA with the CH, however, the strength starts to increase Using the straight lines connecting the data points as refer-
but at a slower rate than that of the primary reaction. ence, Fig. 7(a) shows a slope change for the 65T grout mixture
at the age of 42 days. If the 28-day value for the 75T grout

ficients of variation in parentheses, are also given. Three
prisms were tested at 14 days for all replacement rates and
four prisms were tested at 28, 42, 56, and 90 days for all
replacement rates except for the 65% FA-GGBFS replace-
ment rate, which had only three prisms tested. Considering
the fact that only three or four specimens were tested, the
variation is very small, giving some reliability and robust-
ness to the obtained results.
In general, strength of cementitious materials should
increase with age. Thus, the following (small) discrepan-
cies in average compressive strength for the different prism
groups are noted.
• Control group: at 28 days (it appears erroneous because
it is smaller than that at 14 days) and at 90 days (slightly
smaller than that at 56 days)
• Prisms with 45B grout: at 28 days (slightly lower
compared to the values at 14 and 42 days)
compared to the value at 56 days)
• Prisms with 65T grout: at 56 days (slightly lower
• Prisms with 85T grout: at 28 days (it appears erroneous
because it is smaller than that at 14 days)
The slopes, y-intercepts, and coefficient of determina-
tion, R2, for the linear models are presented in Table 4. The
relative low R2 values may be explained by the aforemen-
tioned small discrepancies, especially for the control group,
Fig. 7—Compressive strength of ternary grout mixtures. due to the possibility that the value at 28 days may be erro-
mixture is neglected (because it may be wrong), both the neous. The average compressive strength values, as well
75T and 85T grout mixtures experienced a gradual increase as the linear regression models representing the strength
in strength. Unlike fly ash, GGBFS will hydrate directly to curves of the prisms, are shown in Fig. 8 for the prisms
form C-S-H. This process is very slow unless the GGBFS is with binary grouts and Fig. 9 for the prisms with the ternary
activated by the alkaline compound CH,11,12,38 which is fortu- grouts. The strength evolution of the CMUs, mortar, and
nately formed during the PC hydration. The noticeable change grout control group are also shown, in the background, for
in slope in the strength curve for the 65T grout mixture at overall comparison.
42 days is similar to that of the strength curve for the binary The compressive strength gain of the prisms generally
mixtures and is possibly due to the additional initial strength follows that of the CMUs and mortar but does not resemble
gain from the activated GGBFS; as the reaction slows down, that of the grouts except slightly that of the control grout
the strength gain rate decreases (and the slope decreases). The mixture. The overall strength of the prisms with the control
75T and 85T grout mixtures gain strength gradually because grout mixture is smaller than that of the actual grout control
the activated GGBFS does not augment the strength but mixture, slightly smaller than that of the CMUs, and slightly
instead simply replaces the PC strength lost due to the large greater than that of the mortar. Several factors cause a lower
amount of PC that has been replaced. strength of grouted prisms, including the initial tension due
The linear regression models representing the ternary to restrained drying shrinkage of the grout, the effects of
grouts are shown in Fig. 7(b). Compared to mixtures with no gaps due to incomplete grout compaction, and grout plastic
cement replacement, mixtures incorporating GGBFS have shrinkage. In addition, the incompatibility between the
slightly slower compressive strength development but may stress-strain properties of the grout and those of the block can
have equivalent or even higher ultimate strength. The linear cause lateral forces on the block, resulting in earlier failure
models indicate that the strength gain from 14 to 90 days are of the system. Furthermore, the tapered or flared shape of the
approximately 97, 72, and 81% for the 65T, 75T, and 85T face shells and webs can result in the grout acting as a wedge
grout mixtures, respectively. Although the increases are not and causing earlier failure of the system.39 Although mortar
as large as those experienced by the binary grout mixtures, also influences the behavior and strength of prisms, tests
they are still significant. results2 indicate that for a reasonable range, mortar strength
has no appreciable effect on compressive strength of hollow
Prism compressive strength and grouted prisms—one of the reasons being the continuity
Compressive strength results for the prisms are presented of the grout.34 The mortar thickness of the prisms, however,
in Table 3; the mean compressive strengths, with the coef- varied slightly and the joint was, on average, 12.0 mm

Table 3—Prisms individual results
ƒm, MPa
Age,
days Sample Control 45PB 55PB 65PB 65PT 75PT 85PT
1 20.8 17.4 15.1 14.1 20.2 17.0 18.5
2 23.1 16.7 11.8 14.5 21.1 19.7 18.2
14
3 22.8 16.0 17.6 9.8 22.3 19.9 17.5
Mean 22.2 (5.6) 16.7 (4.3) 14.8 (19.6) 12.8 (20.7) 21.2 (5.0) 18.9 (8.6) 18.1 (2.7)
1 21.2 16.2 15.7 15.6 24.3 18.1 15.6
2 19.2 15.5 16.7 15.4 23.8 19.0 16.5
28 3 19.5 17.0 14.9 13.6 19.7 19.2 15.6
4 20.5 17.6 15.2 13.3 20.7 17.8 15.3
Mean 20.1 (4.5) 16.6 (5.4) 15.6 (5.2) 14.5 (8.4) 22.1 (10.3) 18.5 (3.6) 15.7 (3.1)
1 24.0 18.7 18.8 17.0 25.5 25.3 21.6
2 25.8 20.8 18.6 13.0 27.3 22.8 19.8
42 3 23.4 22.0 18.0 18.9 28.1 23.3 15.4
4 26.7 20.7 16.9 13.3 — 24.9 21.1
Mean 25.0 (6.1) 20.6 (6.6) 18.1 (4.8) 15.5 (18.4) 27.0 (4.9) 24.1 (5.1) 19.5 (14.4)
1 26.3 19.0 16.3 17.0 25.3 25.5 21.8
2 29.0 23.3 16.1 19.0 24.3 22.4 21.0
56 3 25.0 20.4 18.3 19.6 26.0 20.4 23.2
4 24.9 21.3 19.8 18.5 26.8 24.1 23.8
Mean 26.3 (7.1) 21.0 (8.6) 17.6 (10.0) 18.5 (6.0) 25.6 (4.1) 23.1 (9.6) 22.5 (5.8)
1 24.6 22.0 22.4 20.7 29.5 23.7 23.3
2 24.8 25.8 22.3 15.2 27.2 25.8 23.8
90 3 25.7 24.8 22.5 18.4 27.9 25.7 24.2
4 27.4 24.6 20.8 20.3 29.6 25.0 25.2
Mean 25.6 (5.1) 24.3 (6.7) 22.0 (3.7) 18.6 (13.4) 28.6 (4.2) 25.1 (3.8) 24.1 (3.4)
Notes: PB is prisms with binary grout mixtures; PT is prisms with ternary grout mixtures; 1 MPa = 0.145 ksi.
Table 4—Regression and determination coefficients for prisms

Coefficient Control 45PB 55PB 65PB 65PT 75PT 85PT
Slope 0.0645 0.1071 0.0931 0.0803 0.096 0.0883 0.1018
Intercept 20.867 14.89 13.347 12.298 20.453 17.855 15.299
R2
0.5177 0.9231 0.9448 0.8413 0.7997 0.7191 0.7817
Notes: PB is prisms with binary grout mixtures; PT is prisms with ternary grout mixtures.
(0.47 in.) thick rather than the 10 mm (0.39 in.) typical and
expected value. Thus, it is plausible that the strength of the
prisms may have been slightly reduced due to the thicker
mortar joint.
As shown in Fig. 8, the evolution trend of the compres-
sive strength of all prisms with binary grouts follows that of
the control prisms. In addition, the results indicate that the
overall strength of the prisms with binary grouts is increas-
ingly smaller than that of the control prims; in other words,
as the percentage of FA increases, the compressive strength
of the binary prisms decreases. The observed reduction is
an indication that the strength of the grout does influence
the strength of the masonry. Using the linear models, the
decreases in strength from the control group at 28 days are
approximately 25, 33, and 39% for the 45PB, 55PB, and Fig. 8—Compressive strength of prisms with binary grouts.
65PB prism sets, respectively. At 90 days, the decreases

are approximately 8, 19, and 27%, respectively. The linear control, 45PB, 55PB, and 65PB prism sets, respectively.
models indicate that from 14 to 90 days, the strengths Time-dependent increase in strength for the prisms with
increased approximately 23, 33, 48, and 46% for the binary grouts are not as pronounced as the increases experi-
enced by the binary grouts themselves, which were 96, 175,
and 280%, respectively.
As shown in Fig. 9, the evolution trend of the compres-
sive strength of all prisms with ternary grouts also follows
that of the control prisms. The 65PT prisms experienced
a slight increase in strength relative to that of the control
prisms, while there is a decrease in strength for the other
ternary prisms as the percentage of FA-GGBFS combina-
tion increases; the decrease, however, is not as pronounced
as that observed for the prisms with only FA replacement.
The 65PT prisms experienced approximately a 3% decrease
and 9% increase in strength at 28 and 90 days, respectively.
The 75PT and 85PT prisms experienced approximately
a decrease in strength at 28 days of 16 and 26%, respec-
tively, and at 90 days a decrease of approximately 3 and 8%,
Fig. 9—Compressive strength of prisms with ternary grouts.
Fig. 10—Failure of prisms.

Table 5—Failure modes of prisms
Days Specimen Control 45PB 55PB 65PB 65PT 75PT 85PT
1 7 1 3 — — 4 2
14 2 5 3 2 3 3 5 3
3 3 2 3 2 5 4 2
1 2 1 3 1 6 3 3
2 3 1 2 1 6 3 2
28
3 3 1 2 3 5 2 3
4 1 1 2 1 3 3 2
1 5 3 3 3 2 5 2
2 1 2 2 1 5 5 3
42
3 3 5 2 5 5 2 5
4 5 5 3 2 — 5 5
1 3 1 2 2 1 5 2
2 1 5 3 2 3 5 2
56
3 1 2 5 5 1 2 1
4 1 3 3 3 2 5, 6 1
1 2 2 5 5 2, 5 5, 6 3, 6
2 2 5 2 6 1 5, 6 2, 5
90
3 2 5, 6 2 6 1, 5 2, 6 2, 5
4 5 5, 6 6 3 1, 6 3 1
Notes: PB is prisms with binary grout mixtures; PT is prisms with ternary grout mixtures; (1) is conical break; (2) is cone and shear; (3) is cone and split; (4) is tension break; (5) is
semi-conical break; (6) is shear break; and (7) is face shell separations.

respectively. The strengths of the prisms with ternary grouts 2. The limit on masonry grouts to have a maximum
increased from 14 to 90 days approximately 33, 36, and 47% pozzolan content of 40% by mass of the binary cement and
for the 65PT, 75PT, and 85PT prism sets, respectively; these a total content of pozzolan and GGBFS of less than 70% by
increases are very similar to those experienced by the prisms mass of the ternary cement should be increased. New limits
with binary grouts. The time-dependent increase in strength should be 65% by mass of the binary cement and 85% by
for the prisms with ternary grouts are also not as noticeable mass of the ternary cement.
as the increase experienced by the ternary grouts, which 3. The strength evolution of the prisms with grouts
were 97, 72, and 81%, respectively. containing high volumes of SCMs is not as pronounced as
Although most prisms experienced a decrease in strength the strength evolution of the grouts themselves.
relative to the control prisms, all prisms reached the 4. A lower estimate of the ultimate strength of grouted
minimum fmʹ of 10.34 MPa (1500 psi) at 28 days. prisms constructed with grouts containing high volumes of
SCMs can be obtained by multiplying the strength measured
Prism failure at 14 days by 1.2 and 1.3 for prisms with binary and ternary
The mode of failure of all prisms were recorded as grouts, respectively.
prescribed by technical standards.33 Figure 10 shows the
failure of some of the prisms. Table 5 presents the failure AUTHOR BIOS
mode of each specimen using the following shorthand ACI member Fernando S. Fonseca is an Associate Professor at Brigham
Young University (BYU), Provo, UT. He received his BS and MS in civil
numerical designation: 1) for conical break; 2) for cone engineering from BYU in 1987 and 1988, respectively, and his PhD from the
and shear; 3) for cone and split; 4) for tension break; 5) for University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Champaign, IL, in 1997. His
semi-conical break; 6) for shear break; and 7) for face shell research interests include masonry structures and materials.
separations. The prisms were loaded until failure, after which Scott M. Watterson is a Project Engineer for the structural engineering
the mode of failure was recorded. In some cases, assessing firm, Cefali & Associates, specializing in earth retention systems. He
the exact mode of failure was difficult and only the final received his BS from California State University, Northridge, Los Angeles,
CA, in 2010, and his MS from BYU in 2011.
mode of failure was assessed. Also, distinguishing between
one mode of failure and another was difficult; in these cases, Kurt Siggard is the Executive Director of the Concrete Masonry Associ-
both modes are reported. The dual mode of failure simply ation of California and Nevada, Citrus Heights, CA. He is a graduate of
BYU. His research interests include masonry materials, safe and sustain-
indicates that the fracture pattern on one mode was obscured able structures, and furthering the research of concrete masonry products.
by the fracture pattern of the other mode making the distinc-
tion between them possible; it is probable that either one is ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
the actual failure mode. Approximately 16% of the prisms This research would not have been possible without the support of the various
donors: P. Jahn from Ash Grove Packaging; R. Child from Child Enterprises; K.
failed due to a conical break, 26% experienced a cone and Hatfield from Doyle Hatfield Masonry; J. Johnson and C. Bedford from Head-
shear failure, 22% experienced a cone and split failure; 1% waters; H. Holdaway from IMS Masonry; R. Shogren and T. Sherman from
failed due to a tension break, 24% experienced a semi-conical Lafarge; W. Ficklin, P. Kamnikar, and G. Travis from Oldcastle; S. Hanks and
T. Clark from QUIKRETE; and B. Overson from the Utah Masonry Council.
break, 9% experienced shear break, and 1% experienced Much appreciation is due to the National Concrete Masonry Association and
face shell separation. Mistakenly, the record for two prisms D. Alan Firmage for providing scholarship monies. BYU graduate students J.
was lost; these account for less than 1%. Ballard, J. Manuel Salguero Mendizabel, B. Somers, and T. Uyema, undergrad-
uates R. Godfrey and Z. Guo, as well as BYU staff D. Anderson, R. Mayo,
and D. Wilson are acknowledged for their substantial assistance with specimen
CONCLUSIONS casting and testing.
The research presented herein provides engineers with
additional means to build sustainable concrete masonry REFERENCES
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Title No. 113-M19
Compatible Datum Temperature and Activation Energy for

Concrete Maturity
by Chang Hoon Lee and Kenneth C. Hover
Maturity methods are used to predict strength or other mechanical assumptions behind the FHP method as long as the range
properties of a concrete mixture for a given moisture availability of concrete temperatures remains within the range over
as a function of time and temperature. Temperature sensitivity of a which the exponential k-T function remains valid. As the
mixture is characterized by datum temperature for the Nurse-Saul range of expected concrete temperatures becomes narrower,
(NS) method, and by activation energy for the Freiesleben-Hansen
especially at colder temperatures, the differences between
and Pederson method (FHP). While these methods and their
the two methods diminish. Users should therefore compare
defining parameters were independently developed, the param-
eters are nevertheless interdependent, as a change in a concrete methods to find that which produces the most useful results
mixture that affects temperature sensitivity as expressed by datum for their conditions. (Note that various proprietary systems
temperature will also be reflected in a change of activation energy, are often pre-programmed for only one of the two methods.)
and vice versa. This paper addresses the temperature- and mixture- In conducting such comparisons, or in exploring a change
dependent relationship between datum temperature and activa- from one method to the other, it is essential that Td (in NS
tion energy, using both a closed-form equation based on chemical method) and Ea (FHP) equivalently represent the inherent
kinetics and experimental data where values of datum temperature temperature sensitivity of strength development for the
and activation energy were found to provide the best fit to strength specific concrete mixture over the time period and tempera-
data. Best-fit results validate the closed-form solution. ture range in question. (In either case, the fundamental
Keywords: activation energy; concrete strength; datum temperature; math-
temperature sensitivity itself is a function of the chemistry
ematical modeling; maturity; physical chemistry; temperature effects. and proportions of the particular blend of cementitious mate-
rials, and therefore independent of any maturity or compu-
INTRODUCTION tational method.) This paper describes how to find compat-
The maturity method is used to predict concrete properties ible values of Ea and Td that equivalently characterize this
based on time-temperature history. The widely-implemented inherent temperature sensitivity.
methods adopted by ASTM C10741 are based on the work Following a brief review of fundamental concepts, the
of Freiesleben-Hansen and Pederson2 (referred to herein authors derive closed-form equations that allow conver-
as FHP), and by Nurse3 as modified by Saul4 (referred to sion from any value of Ea used in the nonlinear FHP model
herein as NS). The NS method assumes that the rate of the to a compatible value of Td that when used in a linear NS
chemical and physical processes that lead to development of model will predict the same relative rate constant at the same
concrete properties (most often, strength) increases linearly temperature. This generic development is based entirely on
with concrete temperature, and this temperature sensitivity chemical kinetics as described by basic rate laws and the
is characterized by datum temperature Td, interpreted as the rate constant, k, and is not only applicable beyond values
temperature below which concrete does not gain strength. typically encountered in cement and concrete, but to a
Approximately 30 years after the introduction of NS, the FHP wide range of temperature-dependent rate growth models
method applied a more fundamental approach based on the in general. As previously published,7 the authors applied a
work of Arrhenius,5 preceded by Maxwell and Boltzmann,6 numerical approach to experimental data from four different
that assumed a nonlinear relationship between concrete studies to find values of Ea and Td that minimized predic-
temperature and the rate of development of concrete proper- tion error for compressive strength by both the FHP and
ties, and characterized temperature sensitivity by activation NS methods. This current paper merges the analytical and
energy Ea. experimental findings.
As documented herein and elsewhere,7 whether the linear
NS or the nonlinear FHP maturity method more accurately RESEARCH SIGNIFICANCE
predicts concrete strength depends on the specific concrete Mixture and time-temperature history dictate whether NS
mixture and time-temperature record in question, and in or FHP maturity methods produce most accurate predic-
particular, on the form of the relationship between the rate tions.7 Users should compare methods for best results. In
constant and concrete temperature. The more linear the rela- such comparisons both methods must equivalently char-
tionship between rate constant k and concrete temperature acterize the inherent temperature sensitivity of strength
T over the range of expected concrete temperatures, the ACI Materials Journal, V. 113, No. 2, March-April 2016.
more applicable are the underlying assumptions of the NS MS No. M-2015-161.R1, doi: 10.14359/51688639, received June 2, 2015, and
method. As the fundamental relationship between k and Institute. All rights reserved, including the making of copies unless permission is
T tends towards exponential, the more applicable are the obtained from the copyright proprietors. Pertinent discussion including author’s

development for the specific concrete mixture. For a given
mixture for which a value of Ea has been found to effectively
describe temperature sensitivity, a limited range of compat-
ible values of Td over a limited range of concrete temperature
Tconc describes temperature sensitivity with similar effective-
ness. One cannot independently select values of Ea and Td
and expect similar accuracy of prediction from the NS and
FHP methods.
BACKGROUND
Rate constants in concrete maturity method
A key to understanding the difference and the fundamental
similarity of the NS and FHP methods is recognition that for
any chemical reaction, the effect of temperature on reaction
rate can be characterized by a coefficient known as the rate
constant, k.8 For example, if reactants A and B combine to
form products C and D in accordance with aA + bB → cC
+ dD, the rate at which the concentration of C changes with
time is given by8
Fig. 1—Rate constants as function of temperature for Carino’s
d [C ]
= k [ A] [ B ] (1) mortar strength versus time data,11 showing linear and
m n

dt nonlinear curve fits. Linear fits are partitioned over various
where reactants and products are expressed as their concen- ranges of temperature. (Note: °F = [1.8 × °C] + 32.)
trations in units such as mol/L, d[C]/dt is the rate of change cases, the term “apparent rate constant” would be more tech-
of concentration of product C in units such as mol/L/h, nically correct to differentiate it from that obtained directly
and k is the rate constant in units of Lm+n– 1/mol/h. (Units from mass or concentration of products in conventional
in moles can of course be converted to mass units.) Also, chemical kinetics, but following common usage in concrete
m + n is the total order of a given reaction. By monitoring technology, the adjective “apparent” is not used herein.
consumption of reactants and formation of products of this
chemical process over time and at various temperatures, one Quantifying influence of temperature on absolute
determines the relationship between k and temperature. The and relative rate constant
rate constant is often written as k(T) to denote temperature Following Carino’s clear and complete example,11 the five
dependency. Applying this concept to one form of cement points plotted in Fig. 1 are (T, k) data pairs obtained from
hydration, where 2C3S + 11H2O → C3S2H8 + 3Ca(OH)2,9 mortar strength versus time data per ASTM C1074 Annex
one could monitor production of C3S2H8 (CSH) over time at A1.1 One can quantify the influence of temperature on rate
various temperatures to find k for cement hydration and its constant (related to the rate of strength gain) by fitting these
dependency on temperature. data in a variety of functional forms, ranging from straight
Maturity methods in concrete apply this same concept lines to more complicated nonlinear power or exponential
with a subtle yet important difference. The output of models. Herein is the fundamental difference between NS
temperature-dependent reactions of cementitious materials (linear) and FHP (nonlinear) maturity methods. In Fig. 1,
is not measured in terms of mass or concentration of hydra- the smooth, continuous curve is fitted by the Arrhenius
tion products, but in terms of concrete properties that result equation,5,12 and is the exponential model employed in
from those chemical reactions, as influenced by aggregates the FHP method. (For the specific nonlinear curve shown,
and other unique characteristics of a given mixture. Thus, Ea = 42.2 kJ/mol, and the pre-exponential factor, A = 9.9 ×
the “hybrid” or “apparent” rate-constant approach in the 106, the significance of which will be discussed later.) The
concrete maturity method essentially assumes that the reac- straight lines are the best linear fits over selected tempera-
tants are cementitious materials and water, and the product is ture ranges, as assumed in the NS method. In algebraic
compressive strength (or flexural strength, elastic modulus, terms, the first fundamental difference between the NS and
setting behavior via penetration resistance, among others) the FHP methods is that the NS method implicitly assumes
While there are multiple methods for experimentally deter- a linear relationship between rate constant, k(T) and (T – Td)
mining rate constant from strength development in mortar as shown in Eq. (2), while the FHP method is based on the
and concrete,6-8 ASTM C1074 Annex A11 suggests a hyper- Arrhenius equation2,5,11 shown in Eq. (3)
bolic curve-fit as a means for extracting rate constant k
from compressive strength time data collected over a series k(T) = β(T – Td) (2)
of constant concrete temperatures. Pinto and Hover10 used
this same approach to extract rate constants from penetra-
 E 
tion resistance measurements of setting behavior. In all such k (T ) = A exp  − a  (3)
 RT 

Table 1—Results of linear and nonlinear
regressions for data shown in Fig. 1
Regression method Ea, SE,
(range of temperature) A, 1/day kJ/mol Td, °C R2 1/day
Arrhenius (5.5 to 43°C) 9.92 × 106 42.2 0.998 0.042
Linear (5.5 to 43°C) 4.5 0.922 0.121
Linear (5.5 to 23°C) –3.9 0.995 0.011
Linear (23 to 43°C) 14.9 0.991 0.047
Note: °F = (1.8 × °C) + 32.
where k(T) is the rate constant; β is the constant slope of the

NS line; Td is the NS datum temperature; A is what Arrhenius
called the pre-exponential factor; Ea is activation energy;
R is the ideal gas constant; and T is concrete temperature.
(Temperature in Eq. (3) must be in degrees Kelvin, but in
Eq. (2), as only a temperature difference is used, values of
T can be in K, C, or F and is accommodated in the value of
β.) Ea is interpreted as the required level of kinetic energy Fig. 2—Series of Arrhenius curves for Ea = 42.2 kJ/mol with
possessed by the reactants in order for the reaction to occur. Variable A. (Note: °F = [1.8 × °C] + 32.)
A is interpreted as the number of potential molecular “colli-
sions” per unit time, of which only a fraction will result in in Eq. (3), and values for both Td and β in Eq. (2). Figure 2
products. Arrhenius derived his equation based on the Van’t illustrates this for the data of Fig. 1. Three curves are plotted,
Hoff equation and the Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution of each with the same Ea but for three different values of A,
energy for ideal gas molecules at a given temperature.12 selected from within the 95% confidence interval obtained
Figure 1 shows another key distinction between NS and via curve-fitting the initial rate constant versus temperature
FHP: the Arrhenius curve asymptotically approaches a rate data. As seen in this example, the value of A obtained via
constant of zero at infinitely low temperatures. The linear nonlinear regression is statistically imprecise, with multiple
models all reach zero rate constant at a discrete temperature, orders of magnitude separating the lower- and upper-bound
below which no strength gain is assumed to occur. These confidence interval at the 95% confidence level—that is,
x-intercepts for the linear models correspond to what Saul4 2.6 × 106 to 3.8 × 108 for the example of Fig. 1. As is seen in
called the “minimum temperature,” later termed the datum the figure, the variability of A makes it difficult to compute
temperature by Plowman.13 (Although Nurse3 did not delib- an absolute rate constant with confidence. A is nevertheless
erately employ the notion of a datum temperature, he devel- calculable from the same dataset used to produce Ea per the
oped his method for high-temperature steam-curing and ASTM C1074 Annex A1 analysis, but extracting A from
implicitly made 0°C [32°F] the baseline or datum value.) rate constant data is not currently part of standard practice
Table 1 shows results from fitting the data in Fig. 1, as described by ASTM C1074. Likewise, the NS method
obtained per the methodology in References 1, 11, and 14. as currently implemented does not include capture of the
For this sample data, over the full range of temperature, the value of β, which is the slope required to compute k from
Arrhenius (FHP) model provides a better fit than the linear a linear model for which Td is known. The best-fit value of
NS model (R2 = 0.998 versus R2 = 0.922), as is often but not Td, however, is the x-intercept at which k = 0 remains valid,
always the case. However, as the range of temperature of independent of the value of β.
interest becomes narrower, the error diminishes as the linear Given this general inability to reliably compute absolute
model more closely approximates the exponential model rate constants, standard practice has implicitly and explicitly
(the lowest SE [standard error] is obtained with the linear adopted a relative rate constant approach. This is clear in the
model over the range 5.5 to 23°C [42 to 73°F]). The capacity FHP method, where the incremental equivalent age over a
of the Arrhenius equation to provide a better fit to nonlinear given time interval, Δt, is computed by multiplying the time
rate-constant data has often been considered an advantage of interval by the age conversion factor, calculated precisely as
the FHP maturity methods.11,15-18 Nevertheless, the NS varia- the rate constant at Ti divided by the rate constant at Tref. The
tion of the maturity method has been widely and successfully relative rate constant is therefore another and more generic
used, noted by its frequent use in maturity meters.19,20 Gener- name for the ASTM C1074 age conversion factor.11 As seen
ally speaking, the FHP method would be better suited to by the definition of these rate constants in Eq. (3), this rela-
rate-constant data more accurately represented by a nonlinear tive approach neatly solves one problem by the fact that the
model. NS could yield acceptable, or in some cases more pre-exponential factor A cancels out of the result. Thus in
accurate, predictions for rate constants more linearly related the FHP method, the cumulative equivalent age at any time
to temperature over the range of interest. is expressed as relative to the actual clock or calendar age for
Practical implementation of the relationship shown in concrete continuously maintained at the reference tempera-
Fig. 1 is challenging, however, because calculation of abso- ture, and predictions are therefore based on reaction rates at
lute k at any temperature Ti requires values for both Ea and A Ti in linear proportion to measurements observed at Tref.

The “relative” nature of the NS method is subtly embedded
in the absence of the slope term β in the conventional NS
maturity calculation as in ASTM C1074
n
M (T , t ) = ∑ (Ti − Td )∆t (4)
i =1
The value inside the summation in Eq. (4) is equiva-

lent to the fundamental kinetics expression of Eq. (2) only
when β = 1. (This is not to imply that Nurse or Saul neces-
sarily intended their model to represent the pure kinetics
approach.) For most practical data sets, this not only signifi-
cantly overestimates β and the resulting rate constant, but
it makes the implied value of β the same for all concrete
mixtures, when in fact β is as unique and mixture-dependent
as is Td. However, within any given concrete, assuming β = 1
will proportionately increase the computed rate constants
for all data sets from the same concrete, including the rate
constant at the reference temperature, still yielding appro-
priate values for relative rate constants. Thus when using Fig. 3—Concepts of equal age conversion factor for four
either the NS or FHP methods, concrete strength or other different concrete temperatures with Tref = 20°C (68°F).
properties are predicted on the basis of comparison with (Note: °F = [1.8 × °C] + 32.)
concrete maintained at a reference temperature. Because
relative rate constants are therefore fundamental to current of values of Td and Ea for which the relative rate constant used
maturity practice, attention is now given to finding values of in the NS-Rastrup method will be identical to the relative rate
Ea and Td that will each return the same value of relative rate constant obtained via the FHP method at any concrete tempera-
constant for a given concrete at a given temperature. ture; that is, values of Td and Ea that will make γNS(T) = γFHP(T).
DERIVATION OF COMPATIBILITY OF DATUM T − Td  E 1 1 

TEMPERATURE AND ACTIVATION ENERGY = exp  − a T − T   (7)
Tref − Td  R  ref  
Relative rate constant (age conversion factor)-
based compatibility between Td and Ea which upon rearrangement of terms leads to
As pointed out earlier, relative rate constants are explicitly
included in the FHP method, and implied in the conventional Ti − mTref
NS method. However, De Schutter21 reported Rastrup’s Tdc (Ti ) = (8)
1− m
proposed modification of NS methods to fully embrace the
notion of relative rate constant, termed the “Affinity Ratio,”  E 1 1 
γ(T) as shown in Eq. (5) as evolved from Eq. (2) for rate where m = exp  − a  T − T  .
 R  i ref  

constant at T relative to that at Tref.
Similarly, Eq. (8) can be inverted to derive compatible
β (T − Td ) T − Td activation energy from known Td
γ NS (T ) = = (5)
(
β Tref − Td ) Tref − Td
 Ti ⋅ Tref   Ti − Td 
Rastrup’s affinity ratio has been subscripted herein to Eac = R ⋅   ⋅ ln  T − T  (9)
 Ti − Tref   ref d 
identify it with the NS method, and to distinguish it from the
FHP age conversion factor γFHP(T) shown in Eq. (6) In Eq. (8) and (9), the variable names Tdc and Eac denote
output of the functions for which the user inserts available
A exp  − Ea / ( RT )  values of either Ea or Td, and obtains compatible parame-
γ FHP (T ) = k (T ) =
 E 1 1  
= expp  − a  −  ters that will produce equivalent relative rate constants at
( )
k Tref (
A exp  − Ea / RTref  )  R T Tref  
the specified temperature. Equation (8) is plotted in Fig. 4
(6) and results tabulated in Table 2 for the range of concrete
temperature from 0 to 40°C (32 to 104°F) and for seven
Equation (6) is also shown as derived from Eq. (3), with discrete values of activation energy Ea. Note first that for
the final result as found in ASTM C1074. Examples of these concrete temperature in the range of 10 to 13°C (50 to 55°F), a
relationships are shown in Fig. 3, which contains a feature value of Td = 0°C (32°F) is compatible with values of 40 ≤ Ea ≤
unique to the relative rate constant development: both 45 kJ/mol. This means that at these values, nearly iden-
Rastrup’s and FHP relative rate constants (affinity ratios or tical age conversion factors are computed for either the
age conversion factors) must pass through the fixed point NS or FHP maturity methods. Note also that these are the
Tref, 1. A relationship can be derived for the compatibility default values of Td and Ea recommended by ASTM C1074.

Table 2—Tabulated compatible datum temperature Tdc as function of concrete temperature Ti and of
various values of Ea by Eq. (8) with Tref = 20°C (68°F)
Ea, kJ/mol
Ti, °C 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
0 –13.7 –10.72 –8.58 –6.97 –5.72 –4.73 –3.94
5 –10.9 –7.81 –5.52 –3.77 –2.4 –1.3 –0.4
10 –8.3 –5.12 –2.72 –0.86 0.61 1.81 2.79
15 –6.0 –2.65 –0.16 1.78 3.32 4.58 5.63
20 *
–3.8 *
–0.4 *
2.2*
4.1*
5.7*
7.0*
8.1*
25 –1.8 1.7 4.24 6.24 7.84 9.14 10.23
30 0.1 3.5 6.1 8.09 9.68 10.96 12.03
35 1.8 5.2 7.75 9.72 11.27 12.51 13.53
40 3.3 6.7 9.22 11.13 12.62 13.81 14.77
*
Computed by Eq. (10) at reference temperature.
Note: °F = (1.8 × °C) + 32.
RTref 2
( )
Eac Tref =
Tref − Td
(11)
EXPERIMENTAL VALIDATION OF DERIVED

RELATIONSHIPS
As reported elsewhere,7 the authors analyzed four sepa-
rate data sets from the literature and compiled in their own
laboratory. Mixtures ranged from 307 to 522 kg/m3 (519 to
882 lb/yd3) cement and concrete temperatures ranged from –3
to 49°C (37 to 120°F). For each data set, a time-temperature
history was available along with compressive strength data
at various ages. The authors compared actual strength to that
predicted by both NS and FHP methods, and in each case
systematically varied Td and Ea over a wide range of values
to minimize the difference between actual and predicted
strength. For strength at any one age (3 days, for example), it
was possible to find unique values of Td and Ea that returned
zero difference between measured and predicted strength.
Fig. 4—Temperature-dependent datum temperature expressed In cases of attempting to minimize these differences over
in Eq. (8). (Note: °F = [1.8 × °C] + 32.) multiple ages (1, 3, 7, and 28, days, for example), the objec-
tive was to find values of Td and Ea that minimized the
However, at concrete temperatures beyond the range shown,
standard error for all ages combined. Zero difference was
the most appropriate pairs of Td and Ea diverge from ASTM
generally not possible for multiple ages due to the fact that
recommendations. Further, at colder concrete temperatures
a given set Td and Ea that worked effectively at one age was
(–6 to –4°C [21 to 25°F]), essentially identical age conver-
not likely to represent the same concrete as effectively at
sion factors are obtained via Saul’s datum temperature of
another age at test. In contrast to the kinetic, first-principles
–10.5°C (13°F) and C1074’s recommended range of activa-
approach taken in the derivations herein, in minimizing
tion energy.
the error in strength prediction, values of Td and Ea were
It is noted that Eq. (8) is undefined when concrete tempera-
iteratively varied as regression coefficients until the objec-
ture is equal to the reference temperature, as indicated by the
tives (zero relative error or minimum standard error) were
open circles in Fig. 4. This problem can be solved two ways.
achieved. This process ignored both the physical chemistry
First, by incrementally approaching Tref from above or below
interpretations of Ea and Td and the recommended default
the desired value can be approximated to any desired degree
values in ASTM C1074, yet nevertheless returned matching
of precision. Second, by recognizing that at Tref, the linear
pairs of “minimum error” values of Ea and Td reported herein
function must be tangent to the nonlinear Arrhenius curve,
in Table 3. These values of Td and Ea are therefore unbiased
one can derive the expressions given in Eq. (10) and (11) for
estimators. In contrast, the proposed compatibility relation-
compatibility at that one temperature.
ships in this paper are based on and constrained by under-
lying physical chemistry and the mathematical formulations
Tref 2
( )
Tdc Tref = Tref −
Ea / R
(10) of rate constants and age conversion factors. Reference 7

Table 3—Td and Ea producing zero error at 3 days or minimum standard error (SE) for all test ages7
3-day strength Overall strength Annex A1
Data label Td, °C Ea, kJ/mol Td, °C SE, MPa Ea, kJ/mol SE, MPa Tconc range Td, °C Ea, kJ/mol
KC 22
KC1 (–3°C) –4.9 54.0 –4.6 0.33 71.1 1.80 L –10.3 65.6
KC2 (–5°C) 2.6 63.3 –1.7 3.29 47.3 2.76 U 1.9 38.4
KC3 (13°C) 5.1 50.1 –1.9 2.82 35.0 2.70 A –4.5 47.8
KH 22
KH2 (32°C) –7.8 20.5 –20.8 1.39 15.4 1.37 L –109.2 30.7
KH3 (41°C) –21.5 14.2 –70.8 3.79 7.7 3.79 U 5.9 6.1
KH4 (49°C) –202.2 3.3 <–273 (354.4) <6.06 (5.93) <0 (–2.8) <5.96 (5.92) A –13.6 18.1
LZ 17
LZ1 (–2°C) –6.5 45.1 –11.5 5.91 35.9 1.28 L –27.6 16.6
LZ2 (14°C) <–273 (73.3) <0 (–12.7) <–273 (98.6) <2.82 (2.76) <0 (–8.7) <5.96 (5.92) U 6.9 38.5
LZ4 (43°C) –8.4 19.3 –56.4 1.28 8.9 1.28 A –4.6 27.6
LZv (15 to 47°C) –7.1 21.6 –10.3 1.51 19.3 1.52 — — —
LH 7
LH1 (–1°C) –2.4 78.9 –3.6 2.18 64.7 2.19 L –5.6 55.2
LH2 (11°C) –1.3 38.4 –3.1 2.19 36.4 2.13 U 0.2 29.5
LH4 (42°C) <–273 (245.8) <0 (–3.7) <–273 (68.5) <3.65 (2.57) <0 (–21.9) <3.47 (2.58) A –2.2 43.2
Notes: Ea = 33.2 kJ/mol per Eurocode 2, fib Model Code ; Ea = 40 to 45 kJ/mol per ASTM C1074 Appendix X1, Type I cement without additive; Td = 0°C (32°F) recommended
23 24
per ASTM C1074 Appendix X1, Type I cement without additive, 0 to 40°C (32 to 104°F) curing temperature; Td = –10.5°C (13°F)4; L indicates values computed by ASTM C1074
Annex A1 with three coolest subsets; U indicates values computed by ASTM C1074 Annex A1 with three warmest subsets; A indicates values computed by ASTM C1074 Annex A1
with all four subsets; KC and KH were collected from Reference 25; LZ17 and LH7 data sets were experimentally obtained in the authors’ laboratory; values in parentheses in first
column indicate average concrete temperatures; °F = (1.8 × °C) + 32.
includes a fuller comparison of experimentally obtained in the NS method by a datum temperature that is greater than
values of Td and Ea with the ASTM C1074 default recom- concrete temperature, registering as a negative increment of
mendations and the results of analysis per ASTM C1074 maturity for an increment of time at such high temperature.
Annex A1. A comparison of experimental results the analysis Given the theoretical admissibility of such non-traditional
performed in this paper follows. values of Ea and Td, it is interesting to a) keep such values in
Figure 5(a) shows the surface created by Eq. (8), with the Table 3 data set; and b) recognize that Eq. (8) is actually
superimposed values of Td and Ea that had been experi- a three-dimensional hyperbola, with an upper branch fully
mentally found to result in zero relative error at 3 days for shown in Fig. 6. The apparently anomalous data points are
four specific data sets. Similarly, Fig. 5(b) shows the same well fitted by the upper branches of the hyperbolic surfaces
surface of theoretical compatibility between datum tempera- of Eq. (8), with associated deviations shown in Table 4.
tures with experimental values of Td and Ea that minimize
prediction errors combined over test ages varying from 1 to DISCUSSION
28 days. Table 4 summarizes the deviation statistics between In both the relationships defined by Eq. (8) and (9), compat-
compatible datum temperatures computed by Eq. (8) and ible values of Td and Ea depend on the concrete tempera-
independently estimated Td that minimized prediction error ture, leading to recognition that Td and Ea are themselves
for both 3-day strength and at all test ages combined. In temperature-dependent. The concept of temperature-depen-
general, the difference between values experimentally deter- dent activation energy is most fundamentally observed in
mined, best-fit values of Td, and those computed by Eq. (8) a nonlinear Arrhenius plot, but was observed in specific
ranged from 0.1 to 3.5°C (32.2 to 38.3°F). (In each case, application to concrete maturity by Freiesleben-Hansen
computed Td were based on best-fit Ea.) An exception is an and Pederson,2 followed by other researchers.17 Figure 7
apparent outlier in the KH data sets shown in Table 3, to shows the FHP proposed temperature-dependent Ea, drawn
be discussed. against a background of solutions to Eq. (9) for compatible
In regard to apparent anomalies, however, recall the well- values of Ea at given values of Td. The plot includes the 0°C
known effect of high-temperature curing that generally (32°F) C1074 default, Saul’s proposed –10.5°C (13°F), and
reduces later-age concrete strength. From a pure chemical Snyder and Bentz’s26 observation that hydration continues
kinetics perspective, this is interpreted as a decreased rate down to –30°C (–22°F). Given the operational assumption
constant for strength gain associated with an increase in that Td represents the concrete temperature at which reaction
concrete temperature, and will be manifested in a typical rate is equal to zero, it is of interest to compute values of Ea
Arrhenius plot as a negative Ea. This same effect is modeled that would be compatible with these three proposed values.

Fig. 5—Comparison of compatible Td with concrete temperature and Ea with Td at minimum prediction error for Ea ≥ 0 and
Tconc ≥ Td. (Note: °F = [1.8 × °C] + 32.)
Table 4—Standard error between compatible Td the expected concrete temperature (or temperature range),
computed by Eq. (8) and optimum Td found by the more accurately one can select appropriate values of Td
analysis of experimental data and Ea. This is not a significant problem for nearly constant
Analysis KC KH LZ LH Average
temperature conditions as may pertain in manufacture of
some concrete products. Given the typical variability of
3 days:
1.83 1.69 3.22 0.57 2.14 concrete temperature on most construction sites, however,
Ea ≥ 0 and Tconc ≥ Td
this can be accommodated by various averaging methods,
All test ages: the simplest of which is to compute the arithmetic average
0.55 1.56 3.52 0.12 2.07
Ea ≥ 0 and Tconc ≥ Td
of concrete temperature over the test age of interest, or over
3 days: various time steps. In this regard, it can be shown that if one
1.83 1.69 2.85 1.82 2.17
No range constraint
were to adjust the value of Td in accordance with Eq. (8),
All test ages:
0.54 20.12 3.11 0.35 9.82 for the average temperature over each time step in a typical
No range constraint NS maturity calculation, the results of the NS method will
converge on the results of FHP for a given Ea. This is also
Freiesleben-Hansen and Pederson’s2 proposed tempera- true for a convergence of FHP upon NS when Ea is adjusted
ture-dependent Ea is a reasonable bilinear representation of for each time step in accordance with Eq. (9).
values obtained with the ASTM-suggested 0°C (32°F) datum In addition to temperature-dependent values of Td and
(thus demonstrating a common fundamental basis for the Ea, it is likewise not uncommon to fix those values over the
FHP and NS methods). As reported earlier, this same ASTM entire duration of the concrete curing (strength gain) period,
datum temperature supports an ASTM suggested value of Ea but these observations likewise suggest that these parame-
of 40 to 45 kJ/mol in the temperature range of approximately ters are time-dependent as well. This is most clearly seen in
10 to 18°C (50 to 64°F). At a concrete temperature of approx- the difference between best-fit values of Td and Ea for 3 days
imately 23 to 25°C (73 to 77°F), data in the figure support the versus the 1 to 28-day overall results.
commonly used Eurocode23 and FIB24 value of 33 kJ/mol, Previous work7 and the results presented herein not only
with compatible Ea dropping to less than 25 kJ/mol demonstrate the benefit of tuning NS and FHP maturity
as concrete temperatures approach 40°C (104°F). If a value methods by adjusting values Td and Ea, but also demonstrate
of Td of –10.5°C (13°F) were known to be an effective that when these parameters equivalently represent the actual
index to the temperature sensitivity of a given mixture, Ea temperature sensitivity of a specific concrete mixture over
= 33 kJ/mol would only become a compatible value at a the temperature range of interest, both methods can provide
concrete temperatures below approximately 2°C (36°F), equivalent accuracy. Key insight to the effectiveness of NS
and Ea = 40 to 45 kJ/mol would return equivalent relative versus FHP is inferred from the relationship between rate
rate constants only at much colder temperatures. Finally, the constant k and temperature T (example in Fig. 1), which is
activation energy associated with a physical datum tempera- obtained from strength, time, and temperature data indepen-
ture of –30°C (–22°F) is approximately constant at approxi- dent of either the NS or FHP methods. When this relation-
mately 15 kJ/mol. It is interesting that about this same value ship is well described by a linear function, NS is a funda-
(10 to 15 kJ/mol) has been reported as indicative of diffusion mentally valid model; and when an exponential function is
processes in aqueous pore solutions.27 a better fit to the data, the FHP method is more appropriate.
Given this temperature dependency of both Td and Ea, But just as important is the linearity of the k-T data over the
even though maturity calculations commonly assume a fixed particular range of interest, and the narrower that range, the
value of Ea or Td, regardless of concrete temperature, these more similar the two methods become due to the ability to
results suggest improved accuracy of maturity-based predic- approximate a curve with a line as the temperature interval
tions of concrete properties by considering a temperature-de- becomes shorter. Similarly, and as seen in Fig. 1, even an
pendent Ea or Td. Thus, the more accurately one can bound exponential k-T relation becomes approximately linear at

Fig. 6—Comparison of compatible Td with concrete temperature and activation energy with Td at minimum prediction error
with no condition for range of Td and Ea. (Note: °F = [1.8 × °C] + 32.)
are not obtained with the alternate method, there is no advan-
tage to changing methods.
Finally, the work presented herein is subject to the same
limitations as the maturity approach in general.11 In partic-
ular, the influence of temperature on the rate of strength gain
is contingent on the availability of moisture. Higher tempera-
tures accelerate hydration but diminish later-age strength.
Many factors influence strength development and strength
testing beyond the kinetics of hydration. Even apparently
sophisticated kinetic models (such as the Arrhenius basis for
the FHP method) are approximations and their applicability
to other than ideal gases and dilute solutions have been ques-
tioned.6 The reality of batch-to-batch and day-to-day vari-
ability of the concrete mixture can be difficult to accommo-
date in maturity predictions.
CONCLUSIONS
This research proposed a relationship among concrete
temperature, datum temperature for the NS method, and
Fig. 7—Temperature-dependent activation energy. (Note: °F =
activation energy for the FHP method to achieve equivalent
[1.8 × °C] + 32.)
relative rate constants for application to concrete maturity.
cooler temperatures, further reducing the difference between The derived relationship is validated by comparing exper-
the NS and FHP models. imental and analytical results. The following conclusions
As an example of using the techniques shown here, were drawn.
consider the need to use the NS method (perhaps because it is 1. A valid comparison of NS versus FHP methods requires
programmed into a maturity meter) for a mixture containing that values of Td and Ea each fairly represent the tempera-
ground-granulated blast-furnace slag (GGBFS). From the ture sensitivity of the concrete in question. These findings
function proposed by Barnett et al.,28 a value of Ea can be provide guidance to the user in the selection of equivalently
obtained (Fig. 8(a)), but the user needs to find a compat- effective parameters for the purposes of comparison, when
ible value of Td. Figure 8(b) shows compatible values of Td, switching from one method to the other, or when trans-
computed by Eq. (8) and (10) for average concrete tempera- forming a parameter acquired by one method for use in the
tures T = 10, 20, 30, and 40°C (50, 68, 86, and 104°F) with other method.
Tref = 20°C (68°F). In other applications, values of activa- 2. ASTM C1074 default values for Td (0°C [32°F]) and Ea
tion energy reported in the literature can be converted to (40 to 45 kJ/mol) produce equivalent values of relative rate
the compatible datum temperature (or vice versa) without constant within the range of concrete temperature of approx-
the need for additional laboratory work per ASTM C1074 imately 10 to 13°C (50 to 55°F), with reduced equivalency
Annex A1. at higher and lower temperatures.
The need to adjust parameters or to compare results of NS 3. Although ASTM C1074 suggests the default value of
versus FHP maturity models depends entirely on the user’s Td = 0°C (32°F) up to Tconc = 40°C (104°F); at this concrete
logistical capacity to collect and analyze time, temperature, temperature the compatible value of Ea would be approxi-
and strength data, and the accuracy required for a given mately 25 kJ/mol rather than the recommended default of
application. If the user is getting acceptable results with 40 to 45 kJ/mol.
either method, and has demonstrated that even better results 4. Seemingly disparate recommendations for Ea can
be rectified when viewed as being influenced by concrete

Fig. 8—(a) Barnet’s activation energy28 with varying GGBFS content; and (b) computed compatible datum temperatures by
Eq. (8). (Note: °F = [1.8 × °C] + 32.)
temperature. For concrete for which Td = 0°C (32°F) has concrete related applications. Within the field of cement and
been shown to lead to acceptable strength predictions, at concrete, however, the results are applicable to prediction
concrete temperature above 20°C (68°F) (warm and hot of the development of concrete properties in addition to
weather) a value of 33 kJ/mol (Eurocode2,23 FIB24) is likely compressive strength.
to be effective, while 40 to 45 kJ/mol (ASTM1) may be more
useful in cool weather with concrete temperature closer to AUTHOR BIOS
10°C (50°F). Chang Hoon Lee received his PhD from the School of Civil and Environ-
mental Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, and his BS and MS at
5. While the paper has focused on the compatibility of Korea University, Seoul, South Korea. His research interests include math-
values of Td and Ea, such compatibility is not absolute. ematical modeling of property transitions and temperature-time effects of
Figure 4 displays ranges of concrete temperatures over cement-based materials.
which various values of Td and Ea similarly represent the Kenneth C. Hover, FACI, is Professor and Weiss Presidential Fellow at
temperature sensitivity of a concrete mixture. But the degree Cornell University. He is a member of ACI Committees 301, Specifications
of similarly needed to consider the final results of the matu- for Concrete; 305, Hot Weather Concreting; 306, Cold Weather Concreting;
and ACI Subcommittee 318-A, General, Concrete, and Construction (Struc-
rity calculations equivalently useful or reliable depends on tural Concrete Building Code). He is an ACI Past President.
the uncertainty of all other steps in the process, and the user’s
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Title No. 113-M20
Performance of Full-Scale Self-Consolidating Rubberized

Concrete Beams in Flexure
by Mohamed K. Ismail and Assem A. A. Hassan
This research investigated the performance of full-scale related to the weak bonding between the rubber particles and
self-consolidating rubberized concrete (SCRC) and vibrated rubberized surrounding mortar.8
concrete (VRC) beams in flexure. The beam mixtures were developed with Najim and Hall1 presented a simple investigation for
a maximum possible percentage of crumb rubber (CR) (0 to 50% intermediate-scale reinforced concrete beams containing
by volume of sand) while maintaining acceptable fresh properties
crumb rubber (CR). Eight reinforced concrete beams, two
and minimum strength reduction. The mixture variables included
for each mixture—vibrated concrete, vibrated rubberized
different binder contents, the addition of metakaolin, and the use
of air entrainment. The performance of the tested beams was eval- concrete (VRC), self-consolidating concrete (SCC), and
uated based on load-deflection response, concrete strain/stiffness, self-consolidating rubberized concrete (SCRC)—were cast
cracking behavior, first crack load, ultimate load, ductility, and with dimensions of 1700 x 200 x 100 mm (66.93 x 7.87 x
toughness. In general, increasing the CR content decreased the 3.94 in). The CR replacement reached up to 14% and 18% of
mechanical properties, first crack load, stiffness, and self-weight of the total aggregate volume for VRC and SCRC, respectively.
all SCRC and VRC beams. However, using up to 10% CR enhanced The authors reported that adding CR decreased the flexural
the deformation capacity, ductility, and toughness of tested beams capacity and stiffness of beams. Meanwhile, the deformation
without affecting the flexural capacity. This improvement in the capacity and energy absorption were increased with increased
deformation capacity, ductility, and toughness appeared to continue percentages of CR. Ganesan et al.5 also studied the behavior
up to 20% CR (but with a slight reduction of the flexural capacity)
of SCRC beam-column joints under monotonic and cyclic
and then reduced with further increases in the CR content. The
load. Shredded rubber aggregates were used to replace 15%
results also indicated that although it was possible to produce VRC
beams with higher percentages of CR (50% compared to 40% in of the fine aggregate by volume. Their results indicated that
SCRC), this increased percentage only gave VRC beams an advan- the addition of shredded rubber improves the beam-column
tage in terms of self-weight reduction, while it had a limited contri- joint behavior in terms of the energy absorption capacity,
bution in enhancing the structural performance of the beams. crack resistance, and ductility. Meanwhile, SCRC speci-
mens showed a slight reduction in load-carrying capacity.
Keywords: beam(s); cracking behavior; crumb rubber; deflection charac- The same behavior was observed in the study conducted
teristics; flexure capacity; reinforced concrete; self-consolidating concrete.
by Sadek and El-Attar,9 in which the structural behavior of
masonry walls made from rubber-cement bricks was tested.
INTRODUCTION In the production of the bricks, two sizes of rubber were used
Over the last two decades, waste rubber in concrete has to replace the coarse and fine aggregates with replacements
received greater attention due to its availability in large ranging from 0 to 100% and from 0 to 50% (by volume),
volumes. For example, the applications of waste rubber respectively.
in concrete in 2011 were estimated to be 1 billion tires The development of SCRC offers many advantages
produced worldwide.1 The review of literature showed that such as increasing the productivity rate and decreasing the
many studies have been conducted to investigate the perfor- required labor (as it can spread and fill the formwork under
mance of concrete with different levels of rubber replace- its own weight without applying vibration). SCRC also has
ment. Researchers have found that substituting fine and/or enough flowability and filling ability to fix the problems of
coarse aggregates with crumb or shredded rubber particles concrete flowing through congested reinforcements. The
in concrete enhances its strain capacity (ductility), energy mixture proportions and components can have some effects
dissipation, damping ratio, impact resistance, and toughness on the properties of SCRC. The amount of fine materials
compared to normal concrete using conventional aggre- (binder) and the percentage of air entrainment in the mixture
gate.1-4 Using rubber can significantly contribute to the can affect the mechanical properties of SCRC mixtures. The
development of semi-lightweight and lightweight concrete use of air entrainment can improve the fresh properties10 of
due to the low density of rubber aggregate compared to the mixture, but will negatively impact mechanical proper-
conventional aggregate. In addition, involving waste rubber ties. On the other hand, increasing the binder content has
in construction promotes the development of eco-friendly
buildings and encourages the concept of sustainable produc-
tion.5 However, increasing the rubber content has a nega- MS No. M-2015-166, doi: 10.14359/51688640, received May 22, 2015, and
tive effect on the compressive strength, tensile strength, reviewed under Institute publication policies. Copyright © 2016, American Concrete
Institute. All rights reserved, including the making of copies unless permission is
flexural strength, and modulus of elasticity.6,7 This can be obtained from the copyright proprietors. Pertinent discussion including author’s

shown to improve the fresh and mechanical properties of Table 1—Chemical and physical properties of all
the mixture.11 Using supplementary cementitious materials SCMs used
(SCMs) is one of the ways of potentially enhancing the fresh Chemical properties, % Cement MK
and mechanical properties of SCRC. Metakaolin (MK) is
SiO2 19.64 51 to 53
one of the most effective SCMs that can be used in SCRC
and is proven to enhance the mechanical and durability Al2O3 5.48 42 to 44
performance of SCRC. Madandoust and Mousavi12 reported Fe2O3 2.38 <2.2
that the compressive strength and tensile strength of SCC FeO — —
containing MK were significantly improved (by 27% and
TiO2 — <3.0
11.1%, respectively) compared to the control mixtures of
SCC. Hassan and Mayo13 also observed that the inclusion C — —
of 20% MK increased the 28-day compressive strength Cr2O3 — —
by 30%.
MnO — —
The review of literature indicates that small-scale speci-
mens such as cubes, cylinders, and prisms were used exten- P2O5 — <0.2
sively to investigate the performance of rubberized concrete. SrO — —
On the other hand, full-scale testing to study the applica- BaO — —
bility of this type of concrete for structural applications is
SO4 — <0.5
significantly lacking, especially when SCRC is used. The
main objective of this research was to study the structural CaO 62.44 <0.2
performance of full-scale reinforced SCRC and VRC beams MgO 2.48 <0.1
under flexural load. A number of SCRC mixtures containing Na2O — <0.05
maximum percentages of CR (by volume of fine aggregate)
C3S 52.34 —
and acceptable fresh properties were developed to cast SCRC
beams. Also, additional beams made with VRC mixtures C2S 16.83 —
containing maximized percentages of CR were tested for C3A 10.50 —
comparison. The investigation included evaluations of the C4AF 7.24 —
effect of CR on the flexural capacity, cracking behavior,
K2O — <0.40
load-deflection response, concrete strain/stiffness, ductility,
and toughness of the tested beams. The beams’ mixtures L.O.I 2.05 <0.50
were developed with variable percentages of CR (0 to 50%) Specific gravity 3.15 2.5
using different binder content, the addition of MK, and/or Blaine fineness (m /kg) 2
410 19,000
using air entrainment. The investigation also discussed the
Note: 1 m2/kg = 4.8824 ft2/lb.
performance of some code-based equations in predicting the
ultimate flexural capacity of the tested beams. (Type GU) was similar to that of ASTM C618 Type F.14
The chemical and physical properties of cement and MK
RESEARCH SIGNIFICANCE are shown in Table 1. Natural crushed stone, with a 10 mm
Waste rubber is used in concrete to enhance the ductility, (0.394 in.) maximum size, and natural sand were used for
toughness, and impact resistance and reduce the unit weight the coarse and fine aggregates, respectively. Each aggregate
of the structural members. In addition, using waste rubber type had a specific gravity of 2.6 and absorption of 1%. A
in construction promotes the development of eco-friendly crumb rubber aggregate (with no steel wires) had a maximum
concrete and encourages the concept of sustainable produc- size of 4.75 mm (0.187 in.), a specific gravity of 0.95, and
tion, which is receiving greater attention nowadays. negligible absorption was used as a partial replacement of
Although there is a growing need to use waste rubber in the fine aggregate in SCRC and VRC mixtures. The aggregate
structural concrete applications, there is a lack of data avail- gradations of the 10 mm (0.394 in.) crushed stone, natural sand,
able regarding the performance of full-scale rubberized and CR are presented in Fig. 1. A polycarboxylate-based high-
concrete elements, especially when SCRC is used. There- range water-reducer admixture (HRWRA) similar to ASTM
fore, this study was conducted to investigate the struc- C494/C494M15 Type F was used to achieve the required
tural performance of SCRC in full-scale beams. The paper slump flow of SCRC mixtures. An air-entrainment admix-
provides information regarding stiffness, ductility, tough- ture similar to ASTM C260/C260M16 was used to improve
ness, and cracking behavior of SCRC and VRC beams under the workability of SCRC mixtures.
flexural load. The authors believe that this investigation will
strongly contribute to evaluating the effectiveness of SCRC Concrete mixtures
in structural applications. A total of 12 concrete mixtures were developed to cast
12 reinforced concrete beams. In general, the experi-
EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM mental investigation aimed to develop a number of SCRC
Materials properties mixtures having maximum percentages of CR (by volume
MK was delivered from the eastern United States, of fine aggregate) and a minimum reduction in strength
conforming to ASTM C618 Class N.14 The cement used and stability. To achieve acceptable mixture flowability

with no sign of segregation in all tested mixtures, a prelim- increasing the total binder content from 500 to 550 kg/m3
inary trial mixtures stage was performed to determine the (31.215 to 34.335 lb/ft3), the maximum percentage of CR
minimum water-binder ratio (w/b) and the minimum total that maintains acceptable SCC fresh properties increased
binder content that can achieve acceptable SCRC flowability to 20%. The results of the trial mixtures also indicated that
without overdosing the HRWRA. The results of the trial using MK enhanced the viscosity of tested mixtures and had
mixture stage indicated that at least 0.4 w/b and 500 kg/m3 a direct impact on improving the particle suspension and
(31.215 lb/ft3) as a total binder content should be used to passing ability, which allowed a higher percentage (up to
obtain SCRC having acceptable slump flow with no visual 30%) of CR to be used safely in SCRC mixtures. Further
sign of segregation. Therefore, 0.4 w/b and a minimum of increasing the percentage of CR in SCRC mixtures with MK
500 kg/m3 (31.215 lb/ft3) total binder content were used in from 30% to 40% required the use of air-entraining admix-
all tested mixtures (Table 2). Also, a constant coarse-to-fine ture (Mixtures 9 and 10) to improve the flowability and
aggregate ratio (C/F) of 0.7 was chosen for all tested mixtures passing ability of mixtures. Considering the type of mate-
in this investigation. This ratio was chosen based on previous rials used in this investigation, the authors found it very diffi-
research13 carried out on SCC with different C/F. cult to develop SCRC mixtures with acceptable SCC fresh
During the trial mixtures stage, it was found that the properties using more than 40% CR. The trial mixtures of
mixtures with 500 kg/m3 (31.215 lb/ft3) binder content and this investigation also included developing VRC (Mixtures
no SCMs (Mixtures 1 to 4) can have a maximum of 15% 11 and 12) to compare its performance with that of SCRC.
CR to maintain acceptable SCC fresh properties. Increasing Because the passing ability and segregation are not factors
this percentage to 20% resulted in a significant reduction in in VRC mixtures, it was possible to reach a maximum
the passing ability (H2/H1 of L-Box) for all mixtures with percentage of CR of 50%. Using more than 50% CR in VRC
500 kg/m3 (31.215 lb/ft3) binder content. However, when mixtures resulted in a very low compressive strength.
The experimental program was divided in two stages. The
first stage included four SCRC mixtures with CR percentages
varying from 0 to 15% and a binder content of 500 kg/m3
(31.215 lb/ft3). The second stage involved using higher binder
content, adding MK and air entrainment, and testing VRC
mixtures. The second stage included: 1) two SCRC mixtures
with higher binder content of 550 kg/m3 (34.335 lb/ft3) having
15% and 20% CR; 2) two SCRC mixtures with MK having
20% and 30% CR; 3) two SCRC mixtures with MK and air
entrainment (0.2205 kg/m3 [0.0138 lb/ft3]) with 30% and
40% CR; and 4) two VRC mixtures with 40% and 50% CR
(refer to Table 2). All tested beams were designated by the
total binder content, percentage of CR, SCM used, and either
the inclusion of micro air (MA) or VRC. For example, a
Fig. 1—Grading curves for both fine, coarse, and crumb
beam containing 550 kg/m3 (34.335 lb/ft3) binder, 40% CR,
rubber aggregates. (Note: 1 mm = 0.0394 in.)
Table 2—Mixture design for tested mixtures

Cement, SCM
Beam no. Mixture kg/m3 (type) SCM, kg/m3 CA, kg/m3 FA, kg/m3 CR, kg/m3 HRWRA, kg/m3 Density, kg/m3
Stage 1
1 500C-0CR 500 — — 686.5 980.8 0.0 2.37 2367.3
2 500C-5CR 500 — — 686.5 931.7 17.9 2.37 2336.2
3 500C-10CR 500 — — 686.5 882.7 35.8 2.37 2305.1
4 500C-15CR 500 — — 686.5 833.7 53.8 2.37 2273.9
Stage 2
5 550C-15CR 550 — — 648.1 787.0 50.7 1.84 2255.9
6 550C-20CR 550 — — 648.1 740.7 67.7 1.84 2226.5
7 550C-20CR-MK 440 MK 110 638.4 729.6 66.7 5.26 2204.7
8 550C-30CR-MK 440 MK 110 638.4 638.4 100.0 5.26 2146.8
9 550C-30CR-MK-MA 440 MK 110 638.4 638.4 100.0 5.26 2146.8
10 550C-40CR-MK-MA 440 MK 110 638.4 547.2 133.3 5.53 2088.9
11 550C-40CR-MK-VRC 440 MK 110 638.4 547.2 133.3 3.50 2088.9
12 550C-50CR-MK-VRC 440 MK 110 638.4 456.0 166.6 4.00 2031.0
Note: All mixtures have a 0.4 w/b; CA is coarse aggregates; FA is fine aggregates; CR is crumb rubber; 1 kg/m3 = 0.06243 lb/ft3.

Table 3—Fresh and mechanical properties for tested mixtures
Slump flow V-funnel
Mixture
no. Mixture Ds, mm T50, s L-box H2/H1 T0, s Air, % 28-day fc′ 28-day STS
Stage 1
1 500C-0CR 700 1.20 0.89 6.39 1.5 50.2 3.87
2 500C-5CR 690 1.55 0.83 6.95 2.00 43.0 3.23
3 500C-10CR 687 1.74 0.79 7.57 2.3 41.8 2.94
4 500C-15CR 675 2.00 0.75 8.75 4.3 35.3 2.67
Stage 2
5 550C-15CR 710 1.32 0.76 5.97 3.5 37.6 2.73
6 550C-20CR 700 1.54 0.75 6.65 3.2 32.8 2.49
7 550C-20CR-MK 680 2.57 0.86 8.25 3.4 40.8 2.69
8 550C-30CR-MK 620 2.86 0.75 13.5 4.20 34.8 2.36
9 550C-30CR-MK-MA 705 1.53 0.93 5.89 7.5 30.2 2.27
10 550C-40CR-MK-MA 700 1.74 0.84 9.79 8 26.4 1.84
11 550C-40CR-MK-VRC 95 — — — 4.5 28.9 2.22
12 550C-50CR-MK-VRC 80 — — — 6.1 22.4 1.74
Note: 1 mm = 0.0394 in.
Fig. 2—Dimensions and reinforcement of tested beams. (Note: 1 mm = 0.0394 in.)

MK, and MA would be labeled 550C-40CR-MK-MA, and a procedure given in ASTM C231/C231M.18 The compressive
beam using 550 kg/m3 (34.335 lb/ft3) binder, 50% CR, MK, strength and splitting tensile strength (STS) tests were conducted
and VRC would be labeled 550C-50CR- MK-VRC. using 100 mm (3.94 in.) diameter x 200 mm (7.87 in.) height
concrete cylinders, according to ASTM C39/C39M19 and
Casting of beam specimens C496/C496M,20 respectively. The compressive strength
Twelve full-scale concrete beams were prepared using and STS tests were implemented after the sample had been
the 12 developed mixtures. Immediately after mixing, tests exposed to condition of curing similar to that of the tested
on the fresh properties of the concrete mixtures, as well beams. The results of the fresh and mechanical properties of
as casting of beams in preassembled wooden forms, were the tested mixtures are presented in Table 3.
carried out. All SCRC beams were cast without consolida-
tion; the concrete was poured from one side until it flowed Flexure test setup, instrumentation, and loading
and reached the other side. Visual observation showed that procedure
the SCRC properly filled the forms with ease of movement All beams contained shear and flexural reinforcement
around reinforcing bars. On the other hand, VRC beams were and were designed to fail in flexure with a ductile behavior.
consolidated using electrical vibrators and trowel-finished for Figure 2 shows the test setup used for all 12 concrete beams
smooth top surfaces. Formwork was removed after 24 hours during testing. The load was applied through a hydraulic
of casting, and the beams were moist-cured for 4 days and jack (with capacity of 500 kN [112.4 kip]) at a single point
then air-cured until the date of testing. and then distributed into two-point loads acting on the beam
surface. A linear variable differential transformer (LVDT)
Fresh and hardened concrete property tests and two strain gauges were used to measure the midspan
The fresh properties of all tested mixtures were conducted deflection and reinforcement strain, respectively. The strain
as per the European Guidelines for Self-Compacting gauges were installed at the bottom of the longitudinal rein-
Concrete.17 The fresh properties tests included slump flow, forcement at midspan (maximum flexural moment location).
V-funnel, and L-box tests. The percentage of air entrainment The beams were loaded gradually, with a constant loading
in the fresh SCC mixtures was measured by following a rate through four stages until failure (first crack load, and

50%, 75%, and 100% of the theoretically calculated failure
load). After each stage of loading, the cracks were marked
and their widths recorded and plotted on each crack pattern.
The overall behavior of the beams, including the develop-
ment of cracks, crack patterns, crack widths, crack heights,
and failure modes, was observed and sketched for all beams
(Fig. 3). The results obtained from the flexure testing of the
12 tested beams are presented in Tables 4 and 5.
DISCUSSION OF TEST RESULTS

Fresh properties of SCRC mixtures
Table 3 presents the fresh properties of all tested mixtures.
In general, as the percentage of CR increased, the fresh prop-
erties of SCRC mixtures decreased. The T50 results (the time
it takes a mixture to reach 500 mm [19.7 in.] diameter in the
slump flow test) and V-funnel time were used to evaluate
the viscosity and flowability of SCRC mixtures. The results
of Mixtures 1 to 4, which present mixtures with 500 kg/m3
(31.215 lb/ft3) binder and no SCMs, showed that increasing
the percentage of CR appeared to increase the mixture
viscosity and reduce its flowability. As shown in Table 3,
the T50 and V-funnel increased by 66.7% and 36.9%, respec-
tively, as the percentage of CR increased from 0% to 15%.
This effect was also found in mixtures with 550 kg/m3
(34.335 lb/ft3) binder content and no SCMs (Mixtures 5 and
6) and mixtures with MK (Mixture 8 compared to Mixture 7,
and Mixture 10 compared to Mixture 9), in which the mixture
flowability decreased as the CR increased. On the other hand,
by comparing Mixture 4 to Mixture 5, it can be observed that
increasing the binder content improved the flowability of
SCRC and also reduced the dosage of the HRWRA. Mean-
while, by looking at Mixture 6 versus Mixture 7, using MK
greatly improved the passing ability (H2/H1 of L-box) of
the mixture and caused a reduction in the flowability and
a significant increase in HRWRA demand. It should be
noted that despite the reduction of the flowability and the
increased HRWRA demand of MK mixtures, MK was used
in Mixtures 7 to 12 to improve the H2/H1 of L-box to obtain
successful SCC passing ability (that is, reach values above
0.75) as per the European Guidelines for Self-Compacting
Concrete.17 The result of using higher binder content and/
or adding MK matched other researchers’ results in concrete
mixtures without CR.21-23 The results also indicated that
adding air entrainment greatly enhanced the mixture flow-
ability (T50 and V-funnel of Mixture 9 compared to Mixture
8). This result also matched other researchers’ results24 Fig. 3—Crack patterns of tested beams at failure (crack
where the entrained air in SCC mixtures had a significant width in mm). (Note: 1 mm = 0.0394 in.; 1 kN = 0.225 kip.)
effect on improving the mixture flowability. sion of aggregate particles, and this had a direct impact on
The results of H2/H1 L-box ratio showed that the addition improving the passing ability. The addition of air entrain-
of CR reduced the passing ability of the mixtures. Mixtures 1 ment also showed a significant improvement in the passing
to 4 show that increasing the percentage of CR from 0% ability (Mixture 9 compared to Mixture 8) and secured a
to 15% reduced the H2/H1 L-box ratio by 15.7%. Using higher H2/H1 value, which facilitated developing mixtures
higher binder content (550 kg/m3 [34.335 lb/ft3] instead with higher CR contents and acceptable passing ability
of 500 kg/m3 [31.215 lb/ft3]) showed a slight enhance- range (above 0.75). This improvement is related to the fact
ment in the passing ability while adding MK increased the that the air bubbles in concrete mixtures act as a fine aggre-
L-box ratio significantly, as expected.25 The increase of the gate with low surface friction and considerable elasticity,
passing ability in MK mixtures could be attributed to the reducing the particle collision/friction and, thus, improving
fact that the addition of MK improves the mixture viscosity, the passing ability.26 The reduction of the passing ability with
which contributed to enhancing the distribution and suspen- the increased percentage of CR could be attributed to the

Table 4—Results of flexure test
At failure
Failure crack load,
Beam no. Beam ID First crack load, kN kN Failure type Number of cracks Maximum crack width, mm
Stage 1
B1 500C-0CR 32.8 250.0 Flexure 16 5.0
B2 500C-5CR 25.3 251.1 Flexure 18 4.0
B3 500C-10CR 22.8 249.2 Flexure 17 3.5
B4 500C-15CR 21.4 243.3 Flexure 19 3.0
Stage 2
B5 550C-15CR 22.0 246.6 Flexure 14 3.7
B6 550C-20CR 18.2 243.2 Flexure 17 3.3
B7 550C-20CR-MK 20.8 245.0 Flexure 17 3.0
B8 550C-30CR-MK 17.2 228.0 Flexure 16 2.8
B9 550C-30CR-MK-MA 16.5 219.0 Flexure 14 2.5
B10 550C-40CR-MK-MA 13.9 203.6 Flexure 13 2.0
B11 550C-40CR-MK-VRC 14.8 205.7 Flexure 14 2.1
B12 550C-50CR-MK-VRC 14.0 197.5 Flexure 13 2.0
Note: 1 mm = 0.0394 in; and 1 kN = 0.225 kip.
Table 5—Midspan deflection, ductility, and toughness of tested beams

Concrete strain at Deflection at yield, Deflection at failure, Ductility ratio
Beam no. Beam ID service load (10–6) δy, mm δu, mm (δu/δy) Toughness, kN.m
Stage 1
B1 500C-0CR 337.0 10.3 27.0 2.62 4.7
B2 500C-5CR 532.0 9.3 28.5 3.07 5.3
B3 500C-10CR 714.0 8.8 28.2 3.21 5.1
B4 500C-15CR 783.6 9.1 30.8 3.39 5.4
Stage 2
B5 550C-15CR 747.0 8.8 25.9 2.94 4.7
B6 550C-20CR 866.7 8.9 26.8 3.01 5.0
B7 550C-20CR-MK 699.0 9.0 21.9 2.43 3.7
B8 550C-30CR-MK 722.4 9.2 21.3 2.32 3.2
B9 550C-30CR-MK-MA 831.1 8.1 17.9 2.21 2.5
B10 550C-40CR-MK-MA 933.4 9.2 15.7 1.71 1.9
B11 550C-40CR-MK-VRC 980.1 9.0 16.2 1.80 2.0
B12 550C-50CR-MK-VRC 1051.2 9.3 15.9 1.71 1.8
Note: 1 mm = 0.0394 in.; and 1 kN.m = 0.0088 kip.in.
high friction and blocking between crushed stone aggregate tion in both compressive strength and STS. Varying the CR
and rubber particles. However, all tested mixtures agreed from 0% to 15% reduced the 28-day compressive strength
with the limitations given by the European Guidelines for and STS by 29.6% and 31%, respectively. In Mixtures 5 and
Self-Compacting Concrete17 and the recommended value 6 (mixtures with 550 kg/m3 [34.335 lb/ft3] binder content),
by the Interim Guidelines for the Use of Self-Consolidating the reduction in the 28-day compressive strength and STS
Concrete,27 in which the H2/H1 L-box ratio did not decrease was 12.8% and 13.8%, respectively, as the percentage of
below 0.75. CR increased from 15% to 20%. Similar behavior was also
noticed in MK mixtures (Mixtures 7 to 12), in which the
Compressive and splitting tensile strength compressive strength and the STS reduced as the percentage
The 28-day compressive strength and STS of the tested of CR increased. The reduction of the mechanical proper-
mixtures are shown in Table 3. As seen from Mixtures 1 to ties with increased percentages of CR may be attributed to
4, increasing the percentage of CR showed a general reduc- the poor strength of the interfacial transition zone between

the rubber particles and surrounding mortar, as reported by
many researchers.28,29 In addition, the significant difference
between the modulus of elasticity of the rubber aggregate
and the surrounding mortar can contribute to decreasing
the mechanical properties as the CR increased. Moreover,
increasing the percentage of CR increased the air content
(Table 3), which may also have had a negative effect on the
mechanical properties of the mixtures.
Increasing the binder content from 500 to 550 kg/m3
(31.215 to 34.335 lb/ft3) raised the compressive strength and
STS by 6.5% and 2.25%, respectively, as shown in Mixture
4 compared to Mixture 5. Also, by comparing Mixture 7 to
Mixture 6, it can be seen that the addition of MK showed an
enhancement in the mechanical properties; the compressive
strength and STS increased by 24.4% and 8%, respectively.
Meanwhile, from Table 3, using air entrainment helped to
develop SCRC with up to 40% CR; however, the 28-day
compressive strength and the STS had a reduction of 13.2%
and 3.8%, respectively, with the use of air entrainment, as
shown in Mixture 8 compared to Mixture 9. The results also
indicated that the 28-day compressive strength and STS
showed some improvement when using VRC compared to
SCRC (Mixture 11 compared to Mixture 10). This can be
attributed to the reduction in the air content, as shown in
Table 3. It should be noted that the use of VRC (Mixtures 11
and 12) could benefit from using up to 50% CR, in which a
further decrease of the mixtures’ self-weight was obtained. Fig. 4—Experimental load-midspan deflection responses: (a)
Stage 1; and (b) Stage 2. (Note: 1 mm = 0.0394 in.; 1 kN =
Load-deflection characteristics and failure 0.225 kip.)
behavior
Figure 4 presents the load-central deflection responses of be observed that increasing the CR content from 0 to 15%,
the tested beams. The load and deflection were recorded at in the first stage, improved the deformation capacity of the
the first flexural crack and at various load levels (50, 75, and tested beams; the maximum deflection increased from 27 to
100% of failure load). The first flexural cracking load was 30.8 mm (1.06 to 1.21 in.). This effect was also noticed up
detected visually and confirmed by the first step or slope to 20%, as shown in B6 compared to B5 of the second stage.
change in the load-central deflection response (Fig. 4) and by Meanwhile, at high levels of CR replacement (30 to 50%),
the load-longitudinal bar strain curves at midspan. Looking the rubber-cement composite became weak, which limits the
closely at Fig. 4, it can be observed that up to the first crack material’s ability to absorb energy and thus exhibits lower
load, the curves appear to be linear with higher stiffness, and deformation capacity. Such behavior proves that using CR
then the curves deviate from linearity, showing a reduction in up to 20% can enhance the deformation capacity of conven-
their slopes that indicates lower stiffness due to formation of tional concrete. Comparing VRC to SCRC (B11 compared
microcracks. After additional application of load, the longi- to B10) shows that both beams had comparable stiffness and
tudinal steels started to yield. During the lifetime between deformation capacity.
the first crack load and the load that caused steel yielding,
the slope of the load-deflection curves changed many times Concrete strain
due to multiple cracking. Further increasing the applied load As mentioned previously, two strain gauges were attached
finally caused the concrete crushed in the compression zone on the top surface of the concrete beams at the midspan.
and beams to fail. All plots present a typical ductile mode These strain gauges monitored the concrete strain along the
of failure, normally called tension failure, in which the steel history of the beam’s loading (Fig. 5). During the final stage
bars in tension side yielded before the failure occurrence (as of loading, and before reaching the ultimate failure load, the
confirmed from the steel strain gauges). The load-deflection top surface of the concrete beams was cracked and crushed
curves show that the flexural stiffness (the slope of the near the glued strain gauges. Therefore, it was not possible
load-central deflection curve) of the tested beams decreased to obtain reliable results from the concrete strain gauges at
as the CR content increased. However, this decrease was the ultimate failure load. For this reason, the concrete strain
not clear in Stage 1 beams (0 to 15% CR) and was more readings in Fig. 5 were recorded up to approximately 95%
pronounced in beams with higher percentages of CR (more of the failure load, and therefore the ultimate strain values
than 20%). This decrease in flexural stiffness is most likely were higher than the values presented in the figure. It can
attributed to decreased modulus of elasticity of the SCRC as be generally observed that the slope of the load-strain curve
the CR content increased.1 From Table 5 and Fig. 4, it can decreased as the percentage of CR increased (in both Stage 1

failure. The results of Stage 1 showed that increasing the CR
content improved the ductility of concrete; as the percentage
of CR increased from 0 to 15% (B1 compared to B4), μ
increased by 29.4%. Replacing the conventional aggregate
with rubber aggregate, which has lower stiffness, can greatly
enhance the flexibility and energy absorption of rubber-cement
composite and, thus, increase the ductility of beams. Stage 2
showed that the ductility enhancement continued up to 20%
(B5 compared to B6) replacement level. Further increasing
the CR content, however, reduced the ductility of the beams.
This reduction may be related to the weakened concrete at
the compression zone at higher CR percentages due to the
poor bonding between the CR and the surrounding mortar,
which limited the beams’ ability to experience higher loading
beyond the yielding point. It should be noted that Beams B2
to B4 (Stage 1) and B6 (Stage 2) showed a ductility ratio of
3.07 to 3.39 and 3.01, respectively, which indicate a potential
ductility for structural members subjected to large displace-
ments, such as sudden forces caused by earthquake.31,32
Because the use of CR contributed to enhancing the ductility
of the tested beams, it was expected that this improvement
can directly affect the beam’s toughness. Toughness is the
property that can express the capacity of a material to absorb
energy up to failure. To compare the toughness of tested beams,
the ultimate deformation energy was determined by measuring
the area under the load-deflection curve up to the failure load.
Fig. 5—Experimental load-strain curve of concrete: (a)
Table 5 and Fig. 7 show the calculated toughness for all
Stage 1; and (b) Stage 2. (Note: 1 kN = 0.225 kip.)
tested beams. Examining the load-deflection curves of the
and Stage 2). This result indicates that the concrete stiffness first set of beams (B1 to B4), it can be seen that the area
decreased as the percentage of CR increased from 0 to 50%. enclosed by the load-deflection curve increased as the CR
To focus on the effect of CR specifically at service condi- increased, which indicates an improved toughness of rubber-
tion, the values of the concrete strain were recorded at 40% ized concrete. For example, increasing the percentage of CR
of the ultimate failure load as the customary level service from 0 to 15% raised the toughness by 14.9%. The reason for
load.30 Table 5 presents the results of the concrete strain at this increase could be attributed to low stiffness of the CR
service load for all tested beams. The results showed that particles that impart relatively high flexibility and, hence,
varying the percentage of CR from 0 to 15% (Stage 1) absorb considerably more energy than could be absorbed by
raised the strain at service load from 337 × 10–6 to 783.6 × conventional concrete. As shown from the results of Stage 2,
10–6, respectively. A similar trend of results was noticed in the toughness of the tested beams continued to improve
the tested beams of Stage 2. The concrete strain at service up to 20% replacement level (B5 versus B6) and started
load continued to increase with increased CR content. to drop with higher CR replacement levels (30% to 50%).
The maximum value of the strain at service load occurred Toughness is a combination of strength and ductility; the
with 50% CR and was 1051.2 × 10–6. Such findings could results showed a reduction of the beam’s ductility with a CR
be attributed to the reduction in the stiffness of rubber- percentage higher than 20%. In the meantime, the flexure
cement composite, which resulted from the ability of the strength started to drop with increasing the percentages of
rubber particles to undergo large elastic deformation under CR. Therefore, the significant deterioration in the strength
loading. The results of Fig. 5 and Table 5 also indicated and ductility of rubberized concrete at higher levels of CR
that slight differences in concrete stiffness and strain at reduced the ability of concrete to absorb more energy before
service load were noted between VRC and SCRC (B11 failure. However, it is worth noting that the possibility of
compared to B10). producing SCRC and VRC with higher CR replacement
(30% to 50%) contributed to the development of structural
Ductility and toughness members with reduced self-weight. By comparing VRC and
Displacement ductility was also investigated in this study. SCRC (B10 versus B11), it can be observed that both beams
Table 5 and Fig. 6 present the ductility ratio μ of the tested have comparable ductility ratios and toughness, with a slight
beams, which was expressed in terms of μ = δu/δy, where δu increase in VRC beams.
is the experimental deflection value at peak failure load, and
δy is the experimental deflection at steel yielding. In general, General cracking and failure behavior
increasing the ductility ratio of the structural member indi- As mentioned, the cracks were outlined with a black
cates its ability to experience large deflections before failure felt-tipped marker and the crack width was determined and
and, thus, provide ample warning to the occurrence of labeled at each loading stage. Figure 3 shows the crack

Fig. 6—Effect of CR content on ductility: (a) Stage 1; and (b) Stage 2.
Fig. 7—Effect of CR content on toughness: (a) Stage 1; and (b) Stage 2. (Note: 1 kN.m = 0.0088 kip.in.)
patterns of all tested beams at the failure stage. During early First crack load and ultimate load
stages of loading, fine vertical flexural cracks appeared The first flexural crack load was visually observed and then
around the midspan of all beams, as expected. With the compared/verified with values associated with the change in
increase in load, these flexural cracks extended and other slope of the load-deflection and load-longitudinal steel strain
new flexural cracks were formed along the loaded span. curves obtained from the test. Table 4 presents the loads at
With a further increase in load (exceeding 50% of theoret- first flexural crack and failure loads of all tested beams. The
ical failure load), the flexural cracks that were formed away results showed that increasing the CR content generally
from the midspan started to propagate diagonally toward the reduced the first crack load and the ultimate failure load in
loading points, and other new diagonal cracks began to form both Stages 1 and 2. Regarding the results of Stage 1, the
separately in locations farther away from the midspan along first crack load appeared to be more affected by increasing
the beam (Fig. 3). the CR content compared to the ultimate failure load, which
Figure 3 and Table 4 show the crack pattern and crack showed a slight decrease with higher percentages of CR.
widths/numbers of all tested beams, respectively. Regarding Increasing the CR content from 0 to 15% reduced the first
Stage 1, the beam without CR (B1) appeared to have a larger crack load by 34.76% while the ultimate failure load showed
crack width at failure compared to rubberized concrete a reduction of 2.67%. The reduction in first crack load could
beams (B2 to B4). This may be attributed to the higher be attributed to the significant deterioration in the tensile
energy absorption capacity of rubber particles. On the other strength of the concrete as the CR content increased, as
hand, the failure pattern of rubberized concrete beams (B2 to explained previously (results of STS test).
B4) was characterized by having slightly more cracks than Similar behavior was noticed in Stage 2, in which
B1. Such results could be related to increasing the midspan increasing the CR content exhibited a lower first cracking
deflection (beam’s curvature) as the CR content increased load and lower ultimate failure load. However, the reduc-
(Table 5), which resulted in the development of more cracks tion of the ultimate failure load was relatively higher when
before failure. Increasing the CR content in the second-stage the percentage of CR exceeded 20%. For example, by
beams also followed the same behavior in terms of higher comparing B7 to B8, it can be observed that the ultimate
number of cracks and reduction of the crack width at failure. failure load reduced by 6.94%. This higher reduction may be
Table 4 and Fig. 3 also indicated a similar cracking behavior due to the decline in the ductility and toughness properties
with insignificant differences in terms of crack widths/ that were noticed at the higher replacement levels (from 30
numbers for both VRC and SCRC beams (B10 compared to 50%). It should be noted that up to 10% CR (Stage 1),
to B11). the ultimate failure load did not reduce and it only started
to drop with higher percentages of CR. This result indicates
that using up to 10% CR can help improving the beam’s

ductility and toughness (as proved earlier) without affecting The comparison showed that the ultimate moments obtained
the ultimate flexural capacity of the beam. Although using from the experiments were approximately 5 to 23% higher
higher percentage of CR (30% to 50%) reduced the ultimate than the predicted values of both CSA-0433and ACI 318-08.34
failure capacity of the beams, it contributed to developing Increasing the CR content from 0 to 15% (B1 to B4 in Stage 1)
semi-lightweight concrete with density varied from 2031 and from 15% to 20% (B5 to B6 in Stage 2) showed a slight
to 2146.8 kg/m3 (126.791 to 134.02 lb/ft3).33 By comparing increase of the value of Mexp./Mtheo., indicating improvement
VRC to SCRC (B10 to B11), it can be observed that both of the flexural capacity of the beams compared to the predicted
beams showed a comparable ultimate failure load while the values. However, increasing the CR content more than 20%
first crack load showed a slight increase in VRC beams. This showed a general decrease of the value of Mexp./Mtheo.. This
slight increase in the first crack load may be attributed to the finding may be related to the noticeable reduction of the
improvement of the tensile strength of the VRC mixtures ductility and toughness of the tested beams that occurred
compared to SCRC mixtures. at high levels of CR replacement. However, CSA-0433 and
ACI 318-0834 can be used to obtain a conservative estimate of
Experimental and theoretical bending moment the ultimate moment capacity as well as provide an adequate
capacity load factor against failure for CR content up to 50%.
A comparison between the experimental ultimate moments
(Mexp.) and the theoretical design moments (Mtheo.) is shown CONCLUSIONS
in Table 6 and Fig. 8. The theoretical design moment of The structural performance of full-scale reinforced SCRC
the beams was predicted using the rectangular stress block and VRC beams under flexural load was investigated. The
analysis, as recommended by CSA-0433 and ACI 318-08.34 beam mixtures were developed with variable percentages
of CR using different binder content, the addition of MK,
Table 6—Predictions of ultimate moment capacity and/or using air entrainment. The flexural capacity, cracking
Margin of safety
behavior, load-deflection response, concrete strain/stiffness,
Ultimate moment capacity, kN.m (Mexp./Mtheo.) ductility, and toughness were studied for all beams. From
the results described in this paper, the following conclusions
Beam Experi- ACI ACI
no. mental CSA-04 318-08 CSA-04 318-08 can be drawn:
1. Using CR had an adverse impact on the fresh and
B1 85.0 70.7 71.4 1.20 1.19
mechanical properties of both SCRC and VRC. In SCRC
B2 85.4 69.6 70.2 1.23 1.22 mixtures, the flowability (T50 and V-funnel time), passing
B3 84.7 69.3 69.9 1.22 1.21 ability (H2/H1 of L-box), unit weight, compressive strength,
B4 82.7 67.9 68.5 1.22 1.21 and STS decreased as CR increased while the air content
increased.
B5 83.8 68.5 69.1 1.22 1.21
2. As the percentage of CR increased from 0 to 50%, the
B6 82.6 67.3 67.9 1.23 1.22 first crack load, concrete’s stiffness and beams’ flexural stiff-
B7 83.3 69.1 69.8 1.20 1.19 ness decreased. On the other hand, the deformation capacity,
B8 77.5 67.8 68.4 1.14 1.13 ductility, and toughness of the tested beams appeared to
improve with increases in the CR replacement from 0 to
B9 74.5 66.6 67.1 1.12 1.11
20% and started to drop with further increases (20 to 50%).
B10 69.2 65.4 65.8 1.06 1.05 3. No significant difference was noticed between VRC and
B11 70.0 66.2 66.7 1.06 1.05 SCRC beams in terms of their behavior under flexural load.
B12 67.2 63.7 64.1 1.05 1.05 However, at 40% CR, the development of SCRC needed the
use of air entrainment to obtain successful SCRC mixtures
Note: 1 kN.m = 0.0088 kip.in.
Fig. 8—Effect of CR content on predictions of ultimate moment capacity.

with acceptable passing ability. This essential use of air & Building Materials, V. 27, No. 1, 2012, pp. 521-530. doi: 10.1016/j.
conbuildmat.2011.07.013
entrainment in SCRC mixtures resulted in a slight reduction 3. Fattuhi, N. I., and Clark, L. A., “Cement-Based Materials Containing
in the compressive strength and STS of SCRC compared Shredded Scrap Truck Tyre Rubber,” Construction & Building Materials,
to VRC. V. 10, No. 4, 1996, pp. 229-236. doi: 10.1016/0950-0618(96)00004-9
4. Zheng, L.; Huo, X. S.; and Yuan, Y., “Experimental Investiga-
4. Using up to 10% CR can improve the beam’s deformation on Dynamic Properties of Rubberized Concrete,” Construction &
tion capacity, ductility, and toughness without affecting the Building Materials, V. 22, No. 5, 2008, pp. 939-947. doi: 10.1016/j.
ultimate flexural load. However, 10 to 20% CR replacement conbuildmat.2007.03.005
5. Ganesan, N.; Raj, B.; and Shashikala, A. P., “Behavior of Self-
may continue to improve the beam’s deformation capacity, Consolidating Rubberized Concrete Beam-Column Joints,” ACI Materials
ductility, and toughness but with a slight reduction in the Journal, V. 110, No. 6, Nov.-Dec. 2013, pp. 697-704.
ultimate flexural load. 6. Topçu, I. B., “Assessment of the Brittleness Index of Rubberized
Concretes,” Cement and Concrete Research, V. 27, No. 2, 1997, pp. 177-183.
5. In this investigation, it was possible to develop SCRC doi: 10.1016/S0008-8846(96)00199-8
with a maximum CR percentage of 40%. This percentage 7. Pelisser, F.; Zavarise, N.; Longo, T. A.; and Bernardin, A. M.,
could be increased to 50% with VRC. However, the 10% “Concrete Made with Recycled Tire Rubber: Effect of Alkaline Activation
and Silica Fume Addition,” Journal of Cleaner Production, V. 19, No. 6-7,
increase of CR gave VRC the advantage over SCRC in terms 2011, pp. 757-763. doi: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2010.11.014
of reducing self-weight while it had a limited advantage in 8. Najim, K. B., and Hall, M. R., “A Review of the Fresh/Hardened
terms of the overall structural behavior of the tested beams. Properties and Applications for Plain- (PRC) and Self-Compacting Rubber-
ised Concrete (SCRC),” Construction & Building Materials, V. 24, No. 11,
6. Increasing the percentage of CR more than 20% 2010, pp. 2043-2051. doi: 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2010.04.056
appeared to affect the conservative estimation for the beams’ 9. Sadek, D. M., and El-Attar, M. M., “Structural Behavior of Rubber-
moment capacity based on the current ACI 318-08 and ized Masonry Walls,” Journal of Cleaner Production, V. 89, Feb, 2014,
pp. 174-186.
CSA-04 design codes. However, ACI 318-08 and CSA-04 10. MnDOT, “Properties and Mix Designations,” Concrete Manual,
can be used to obtain a conservative estimate of the ultimate Minnesota Department of Transportation, St. Paul, MN, 2003, 10 pp. http://
moment capacity as well as to provide adequate load factor www.dot.state.mn.us/materials/manuals/concrete/Chapter2.pdf
11. Marar, K., and Eren, O., “Effect of Cement Content and Water/
against failure. Cement Ratio on Fresh Concrete Properties without Admixtures,” Interna-
tional Journal of Physical Sciences, V. 6, No. 24, Oct. 2011, pp. 5752-5765.
AUTHOR BIOS 12. Madandoust, R., and Mousavi, S. Y., “Fresh and Hardened Prop-
Mohamed K. Ismail is a Graduate Research and Teaching Assistant in the erties of Self-Compacting Concrete Containing Metakaolin,” Construc-
Faculty of Engineering and Applied Science, Memorial University of Newfound- tion & Building Materials, V. 35, Oct, 2012, pp. 752-760. doi: 10.1016/j.
land, St. John’s, NL, Canada. He received his BSc in civil engineering and MSc conbuildmat.2012.04.109
in structural engineering from Cairo University, Giza, Egypt, in 2010 and 13. Hassan, A. A. A., and Mayo, J. R., “Influence of Mixture Compo-
2013, respectively. His research interests include developing and investigating sition on the Properties of SCC Incorporating Metakaolin,” Magazine of
the structural performance of self-consolidating concrete, semi-lightweight and Concrete Research, V. 66, No. 20, 2014, pp. 1036-1050. doi: 10.1680/
lightweight concrete, and rubberized concrete. macr.14.00060
14. ASTM C618-12, “Standard Specification for Coal Fly Ash and Raw
Assem A. A. Hassan is an Assistant Professor in the Faculty of Engineering and or Calcined Natural Pozzolan for Use in Concrete,” ASTM International,
Applied Science at Memorial University of Newfoundland. His research inter- West Conshohocken, PA, 2012, 5 pp.
ests include development and use of self-consolidating, high-performance, and 15. ASTM C494/C494M-13, “Standard Specification for Chemical
high-strength concretes; rheology of cement paste and concrete mixtures; Admixtures for Concrete,” ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA,
durability (porosity, diffusivity, chloride permeability) of concrete struc- 2013, 10 pp.
tures; corrosion monitoring and accelerated corrosion testing of reinforced 16. ASTM C260/C260M-10, “Standard Specification for Air-Entraining
concrete structures; service life prediction of concrete structures; and Admixtures for Concrete,” ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA,
performance of large-scale structural members under loading. 2010, 3 pp.
17. EFNARC, “The European Guidelines for Self-Compacting Concrete
Specification, Production and Use,” European Federation for Specialist
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Construction Chemicals and Concrete Systems, English edition, Norfolk,
The authors would like to acknowledge the Research & Development UK, May 2005.
Corporation of Newfoundland and Labrador (RDC) for sponsoring this 18. ASTM C231/C231M-14, “Standard Test Method for Air Content of
work as part of a larger research project. Freshly Mixed Concrete by the Pressure Method,” ASTM International,
West Conshohocken, PA, 2014, 9 pp.
19. ASTM C39/C39M-11, “Standard Test Method for Compressive
NOTATION Strength of Cylindrical Concrete Specimens,” ASTM International, West
C/F = coarse-to-fine aggregate
Conshohocken, PA, 2011, 7 pp.
CR = crumb rubber
20. ASTM C496/C496M-11, “Standard Test Method for Splitting Tensile
HRWRA = high-range water-reducer admixture
Strength of Cylindrical Concrete Specimens,” ASTM International, West
MA = micro air
Conshohocken, PA, 2011, 5 pp.
MK = metakaolin
21. Gencel, O.; Ozel, C.; Brostow, W.; and Martinez-Barrera, G., “Mechan-
SCC = self-consolidating concrete
ical Properties of Self-Compacting Concrete Reinforced with Polypropylene
SCM = supplementary cementitious material
Fibres,” Research Innovations, V. 15, No. 3, 2011, pp. 216-225. doi: 10.1179
SCRC = self-consolidating rubberized concrete
/143307511X13018917925900
STS = splitting tensile strength
22. Cyr, M., and Mouret, M., “Rheological Characterization of Super-
VRC = vibrated rubberized concrete
plasticized Cement Pastes Containing Mineral Admixtures: Consequences
w/b = water-binder ratio
on Self-Compacting Concrete Design,” Seventh CANMET/ACI Interna-
tional Conference on Superplasticizers and Other Chemical Admixtures
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Title No. 113-M21
Tensile Behavior of Steel-Polypropylene Hybrid Fiber-

Reinforced Concrete
by Lihua Xu, Le Huang, Yin Chi, and Guodong Mei
The present study deals with the uniaxial tensile behavior of and parameters for various loading scenarios.7-14 The corre-
steel-polypropylene hybrid fiber-reinforced concrete (HFRC). The sponding stress-strain responses of both PC and FRC have
tensile strengths and complete stress-strain responses of HFRC also been researched in the literature.15-20 However, previous
were measured in terms of different volume fraction and aspect investigations appear to have concentrated on PC, or single
ratio. It was observed that the uniaxial tensile behavior of plain
FRC with steel fiber-reinforced concrete (SFRC) in partic-
concrete can be significantly improved upon with the addition of
ular.16,17,20-24 However, it was found that the mechanical
hybrid fibers. The steel fiber primarily increases the peak tensile
strength, while the polypropylene fiber mainly contributes to performance of hybrid fiber-reinforced concrete (HFRC)
increasing residual strength in post-peak response. Subsequently, was better balanced, owing to the potential synergistic effects
predictive equations for both the tensile strength and complete of different fiber combination; both the strength and defor-
stress-strain relation of HFRC were developed, and the results mation capacity were significantly improved.3-5,18,25,26 For
were found in satisfactory agreement with experimental results. HFRC, as a relative new cementitious composite, although
Furthermore, a simple elliptic-cap model in tension region was its mechanical behavior under compression is critical and
also proposed for the tensile meridian of HFRC within the frame- the corresponding testing method has also been standard-
work of elastoplasticity, representing a three-dimensional scenario ized.27,28 However, the tensile properties of HFRC have not
of strength criterion capable of predicting the multiaxial stress been well documented thus far, which can lead to the hesi-
state of HFRC in tension region.
tancy in design of the structural elements within the civil
Keywords: fiber-reinforced concrete; hybrid effect; polypropylene fiber; infrastructure when hybrid fibers are involved.
steel fiber; strength criterion, stress-strain relations; uniaxial tension. The objective of this research is to investigate the mechan-
ical properties of HFRC materials under uniaxial tension.
INTRODUCTION The complete stress-strain responses of HFRC under
In its natural state, concrete is widely applied in engi- uniaxial tension were captured and the influences of fiber
neering applications, owing to essential advantages such as parameters were analyzed. A preliminary analysis of hybrid
low production cost, formability, and favorable strength and effect of different fiber volume fraction on tensile strength
deformation in compression. However, traditional concrete was presented. Moreover, predictive equations for the
has its disadvantages, such as inherent brittleness, suscep- strength and complete stress-strain relation of HFRC under
tibility to cracking, low tensile strength and deformation uniaxial tension were developed and an elliptic-cap model
threshold, and limited ductility, and at times these disadvan- for tensile meridian of HFRC was also proposed, which can
tages have been the key determinants, resulting in the selec- be properly combined with the model in compression regime
tion of other, alternative materials. In an attempt to address for its applicability in finite element simulation of HFRC.
some of the aforementioned deficiencies and improve the
performance of plain concrete (PC) while reducing the RESEARCH SIGNIFICANCE
dependency on steel reinforcement, extensive investiga- In comparison to single FRC, the mechanical performance
tions have been undertaken by various researchers over can be better balanced through hybrid fiber technology,
decades. To date, the majority of innovations published have owing to the potential synergistic effects of different fiber
succeeded in using fiber-reinforced concrete (FRC) materials to combination. The hybrid fibers act as reinforcement capable
effectively enhance the composite performance.1,2 of enhancing the matrix performance at a different stage and
With the rapid development of FRC theory and its appli- scale. This paper reports the behavior of steel-polypropylene
cations, it becomes well acknowledged that the contribu- HFRC under uniaxial tension. The HFRC has shown a
tion of fiber is far more apparent when FRC fails in tension favorable combined performance and demonstrated a posi-
rather than in compression.3-6 Because the fibers can provide tive hybrid effect in regard to the tensile strength. This
bridging forces to suppress the crack opening and restrict research provides basic tensile properties in precise control
the crack propagation in the concrete matrix, the tensile and assessment of HFRC composite’s behavior.
properties of the composite can be increased substantially
due to the incorporation of fibers. To evaluate the benefits ACI Materials Journal, V. 113, No. 2, March-April 2016.
of fiber reinforcement in mechanical performance, consid- MS No. M-2015-169.R2, doi: 10.14359/51688641, received June 19, 2015, and
erable experimental efforts have been made over the past Institute. All rights reserved, including the making of copies unless permission is
obtained from the copyright proprietors. Pertinent discussion including author’s
few years to investigate the influence of varying fiber types closure, if any, will be published ten months from this journal’s date if the discussion

Table 1—Physical performance of PF and SF
Tensile strength,
Fibers Type Length, mm (in.) Diameter, μm (in.) Density, g/cm3 (lb/ft3) MPa (ksi) Elongation rate, % Aspect ratio
Monofilament
PF 19 (0.75) 48 (0.0019) 0.91 (56.78) > 400 (58) 15 to 35 396
Shear corrugated
13.5, 27, 36
SF 450 (0.018) 7.8 (486.72) ≥ 600 (87) — 30, 60, 80
(0.53, 1.06, 1.42)
EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM
Materials and mixture proportions
The concrete matrix was designed at a 28-day compres-
sive strength of 45 MPa (6.5 ksi). Ordinary portland cement
(P.O 42.5) was used as the binder for the mixtures. Local
crushed stone with a size between 5 and 20 mm (0.20 and
0.79 in.) was used as coarse aggregate. Normal river sand
including 5% of water (by weight) was used as fine aggre-
gate. A highly efficient naphthalene-based water-reducing
agent (WRA) with a reducing rate of 20% (reducing water
content by 20%) was adopted in the mixture design. The
mixture proportion of cement, water, sand, crushed
stone, and WRA per cubic meter of the concrete matrix
is 441, 150, 794, 1097, and 2.3 kg (742.3, 252.5, 1336.5,
1846.5, and 3.9 lb/yd3), respectively.
The mixture design of HFRC was undertaken in accor-
dance to the standard CECS 2004,27 which suggests that,
to make full use of the advantage from the improvement of
strength and toughness, the volume fracture of steel fiber
(SF) should be used between 0.5 and 2.0%, with the aspect
ratio (length/diameter) between 30 and 80; and for polypro-
pylene fiber (PF), a low volume fraction, from 0.05 to 0.2%,
is recommended, considering the homogeneity and a smooth
distribution of PF. Hence, in this study, corrugated SF
were used in volume fractions (with respect to the volume Fig. 1—Specimen dimension.
of concrete) of 1.1, 1.5, and 1.9% with three aspect ratios
of 30, 60, and 80 employed. For PF, early experimental were custom-fabricated for the uniaxial tension test. The
evidence claimed that the aspect ratio of PF has no discern- dimension of the specimen is illustrated in Fig. 1. It has a vari-
able effect on the variation of mechanical performance of able cross section with a total length of 460 mm (18.1 in.). The
concrete under tension.12,29 Therefore, the PF (trade name cross section of both top and bottom part of the specimen
of CTA fiber) with a fixed aspect ratio of 396 was chosen is 150 x 150 mm (5.91 x 5.91 in.) with a length of 80 mm
throughout the study with volume fractions used in 0.11%, (3.15 in.). The cross section of the middle measuring part
0.15% and 0.19%, respectively. The corresponding physical (colored in gray) is 100 x 100 mm (3.94 x 3.94 in.) with a
properties of fiber texture of both SF and PF are listed in length of 120 mm (4.72 in.), and the variable cross-sectional
Table 1. To achieve proper dispersion of the hybrid fibers, segment has a length of 90 mm (3.54 in.), which is curve-
the coarse aggregates combined with SF were stirred in a designed with a curvature radius of 174.5 mm (6.87 in.). For
mixer for 1 to 2 minutes. The cement and fine aggregates such an instance, the cross-sectional area of the measuring
were then added in the mixture. Within 1 to 2 minutes of part is smaller than that of variable cross-sectional segment,
vibrating, the PF were gradually scattered. Finally, the water precipitating the occurrence of fracture in the expected
and WRA were mixed to complete the mixture preparation. gauge length. In addition, a threaded screw with steel wire
It is noted herein that the mixture slump was controlled at claws was embedded at each end of the specimen to avoid
around 80 mm (3.15 in.) by adjusting the dosage of WRA to stress-concentration-induced potential pullout failure. The
ensure the workability. diameter of the threaded screw is 20 mm (0.79 in.) and the
length is 150 mm (5.91 in.) with an embedded depth in the
Specimen preparation specimen of 80 mm (3.15 in.) (refer to Fig. 2). All the spec-
Dog-bone-shaped specimens (a modified shape from the imens were demolded after 24 hours and stored in a curing
recommendation of CECS 13: 200930 with identical effec- room at a temperature of 20 ± 2°C (68 ± 3.6°F) and a rela-
tive cross section and length) were cast in steel molds that tive humidity of 95% until 28-day strength was achieved.

ment control was applied throughout the testing process with
a constant loading rate of 0.04 mm/min (0.0016 in./min).
The sampling frequency of the data acquisition system for
the measuring device was set to 2 Hz to ensure the synchro-
nization of data collection. Preloading (<3 kN [0.674 kip])
was performed to ensure every joint was smooth and tight.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Typical stress-strain responses
Representative stress-strain curves of HFRC in
comparison to single SFRC and single polypropylene
fiber-reinforced concrete (PFRC) are plotted in Fig. 4.
Every stress-strain curve represents the averaged behavior
from three specimens. The averaged curve representing the
integral trend of the experimental curves was calculated
according to Reference 31. The advantages of hybrid fiber,
clearly demonstrated in Fig. 4, are that the elastic limit,
peak stress, and deformation capacity can be significantly
improved. A rough explanation is that the randomly distrib-
uted hybrid fibers form a spatial network in the matrix,
Fig. 2—Embedded screw with claws.
bridging the cracks and gaps, carrying the tensile forces at
After that, they were ground to a smooth surface and ready for different scales during the whole loading process and dissi-
the uniaxial tension test. A total of 102 specimens (34 batches) pating energy, consequently resisting the crack opening
were tested with respective variables summarized in Table 2, and propagation until the fibers are pulled out or rupture.
where the nomenclature of specimens is defined as S-A/B/C- However, unlike HFRC, the PC failed in an extremely brittle
Vs-P-Vp, where S and P stand for the type of fibers (S is SF, manner; a sudden fracture was observed during the uniaxial
and P is PF), A/B/C is the aspect ratio of SF (A = 30, B = 60, tension test with no valid post-peak response captured. The
and C = 80), and Vs and Vp represent the volume fractions of crack pattern is discussed in the “Reinforcing mechanism”
SF and PF, respectively. For example, the name of SA11P15 section further in the paper.
represents an HFRC specimen whose volume fractions of Furthermore, in all cases shown, the addition of SF can
SF and PF are 1.1% and 0.15%, respectively, and the aspect significantly improve both the peak and residual tensile
ratio of SF is 30. strengths of HFRC (refer to Fig. 4(a)), as well as the pre-peak
stiffness slightly. The advantage of adding PF is clearly
Testing setup demonstrated, as the post-peak behavior obviously improved
The specimens were tested under a specifically designed with increasing volume fraction (Fig. 4(b)). In spite of a
experimental setup, as shown in Fig. 3. Loading fixtures certain strength reduction occurring occasionally, the rate of
were gripped on the actuators and connected to the spec- strength loss in the post-peak region gradually reduced with
imen. It contains a spherical joint, protecting the specimen the increasing amount of PF, leading to the further increase
from possible flexural load. It also represents an ideal hinge in residual strength at failure state. This phenomenon is
boundary condition and ensures that the uniaxial stresses mainly attributed to the fact that the pullout behavior of SF
are generated in the specimen. To improve the entire stiff- from the matrix plays a dominant role in bridging the macroc-
ness of the testing setup under tensile loading, a rigid frame rack throughout the tension, in particular at the post-cracking
composed of four dynamometer rods (d = 20 mm [0.79 in.]) stage when the width of crack becomes larger. The pullout
and two steel plates was installed around the specimen. process of SF can help to hinder the crack propagation and
The measured stiffness of the four steel dynamometer delay the failure. In this way, the strength can be significantly
rods is 122 N/mm (0.7 kip/in.). Ball nuts were used at all improved. However, the PF mainly contributes to the energy
the joints of the frame to reduce the potential friction effect. absorption during crack development owing to its appealing
The deformation and the reaction force of the rods were elongation characteristics upon which it persists to transfer
inspected and recorded throughout testing, which were taken the stress and dissipate energy even under large deformation,
into account when the strength and deformation capacity such that an expected improvement in post-peak ductility is
of specimen are evaluated. Two linear variable differential then observed. This is evidenced by the index Φpost in Table 2
transformers (LVDTs) were mounted at the two opposite ( Φ post = ∫ε1 f (ε )d ε , where ε1 is uniformly set as 3000 × 10–6),
lateral sides of specimen to capture the deformation of which quantitatively indicates the post-peak energy dissipa-
the measuring section. Strain gauges of size 100 x 3 mm tion capacity to some extent.
(3.94 x 0.12 in.), also attached at the lateral, were used to Consequently, it can be concluded that the behavior of
monitor the surface cracking. The uniaxial tensile test was HFRC is in fact a combined behavior of SFRC and PFRC,
then performed using a universal testing machine. Displace- benefitting from the advantages of both SF and PF in terms
of strength, deformation capacity, and post-peak ductility.

Table 2—Uniaxial tensile strengths of HFRC
Aspect ratio Average tensile Percentage of Average peak strain Index Φpost, MPa ×
No. Specimens Vs, % of SF Vp, % strength fft, MPa (ksi) strength increase, % εft (10–6) 10–6 (ksi × 10–6)
1 SA11P11 1.1 30 0.11 3.640 (0.53) 23.1 198.0 3413.9 (495.5)
2 SB11P11 1.1 60 0.11 3.996 (0.58) 35.2 212.9 4425.3 (642.3)
3 SC11P11 1.1 80 0.11 4.165 (0.60) 40.9 212.7 5345.3 (775.8)
4 SA11P15 1.1 30 0.15 3.730 (0.54) 26.2 217.7 4413.2 (640.5)
5 SB11P15 1.1 60 0.15 4.097 (0.60) 38.6 194.5 4995.7 (725.1)
6 SC11P15 1.1 80 0.15 4.221 (0.61) 42.8 205.5 6565.9 (953.0)
7 SA11P19 1.1 30 0.19 3.849 (0.56) 30.2 198.8 5035.9 (730.9)
8 SB11P19 1.1 60 0.19 4.177 (0.61) 41.3 206.9 5210.4 (756.2)
9 SC11P19 1.1 80 0.19 4.344 (0.63) 46.9 215.3 7699.6 (1117.5)
10 SA15P11 1.5 30 0.11 3.746 (0.54) 26.7 225.8 4638.6 (673.2)
11 SB15P11 1.5 60 0.11 4.228 (0.61) 43.0 212.8 5412.2 (785.5)
12 SC15P11 1.5 80 0.11 4.579 (0.66) 54.9 246.4 8205.2 (1190.9)
13 SA15P15 1.5 30 0.15 4.049 (0.59) 36.9 222.9 5687.6 (825.5)
14 SB15P15 1.5 60 0.15 4.524 (0.66) 53.0 231.8 6710.5 (973.9)
15 SC15P15 1.5 80 0.15 4.694 (0.68) 58.8 259.6 7950.0 (1153.8)
16 SA15P19 1.5 30 0.19 4.087 (0.59) 38.2 212.1 6500.7 (943.5)
17 SB15P19 1.5 60 0.19 4.509 (0.65) 52.5 222.6 7126.7 (1034.4)
18 SC15P19 1.5 80 0.19 4.884 (0.71) 65.2 242.5 9186.6 (1333.3)
19 SA19P11 1.9 30 0.11 3.909 (0.57) 32.2 225.0 5153.4 (748.0)
20 SB19P11 1.9 60 0.11 4.499 (0.65) 52.2 239.3 6943.0 (1007.7)
21 SC19P11 1.9 80 0.11 5.139 (0.75) 73.8 252.1 7753.3 (1125.3)
22 SA19P15 1.9 30 0.15 4.122 (0.60) 39.4 223.8 6382.7 (926.4)
23 SB19P15 1.9 60 0.15 4.384 (0.64) 48.3 249.8 7794.9 (1131.3)
24 SC19P15 1.9 80 0.15 5.490 (0.80) 85.7 271.3 8591.3 (1246.9)
25 SA19P19 1.9 30 0.19 4.917 (0.71) 66.3 235.9 7663.6 (1112.3)
26 SB19P19 1.9 60 0.19 4.511 (0.65) 52.6 269.5 8186.7 (1188.2)
27 SC19P19 1.9 80 0.19 5.238 (0.76) 77.2 279.6 9013.5 (1308.2)
28 SB11 1.1 60 — 3.780 (0.55) 27.9 181.9 3338.7 (484.6)
29 SB15 1.5 60 — 4.158 (0.60) 40.6 203.0 4412.5 (640.4)
30 SB19 1.9 60 — 4.378 (0.63) 48.1 222.3 5495.1 (797.5)
31 P11 — — 0.11 3.222 (0.47) 9.0 139.1 255.5 (37.1)
32 P15 — — 0.15 3.185 (0.46) 7.7 142.4 258.7 (37.5)
33 P19 — — 0.19 3.184 (0.46) 7.7 148.7 297.7 (43.2)
34 PC — — — 2.957 (0.43) 0.0 123.6 192.7 (28.0)
Tensile strength to have insignificant improvement on the tensile strength. In the

Table 2 summarizes the test results showing the peak following sections, particular emphasis is placed on the analysis
stresses and peak strains of HFRC with various fiber param- of the influence of fiber parameters on the tensile strength.
eters as well as those of PC and single FRC subjected to
uniaxial tension. All the listed data are the averaged value Influence of SF
from three test specimens. Figures 5(a), (b), and (c) show the relationship between
It is observed from Table 2 that the peak tensile strengths the uniaxial tensile strength and the volume fraction of
can be invariably improved from the inclusion of hybrid SF (Vs) at polypropylene fiber volume fractions of 0.11%,
fibers. The percentage of increase ranges from approxi- 0.15%, and 0.19%, respectively, where the aspect ratio of SF
mately 25% up to 80% with varying fiber combinations. in each comparison stays constant throughout.
It is also noted that the main contributor to the substantial It can be observed from the figures that the tensile strengths
increase in uniaxial tensile strength is SF, while PF is found gradually increase with increasing steel fiber volume frac-

Fig. 3—Experimental setup for uniaxial tension: on-site
testing (photograph courtesy of Mei G.D).
Fig. 5—Relationship between uniaxial tensile strength and

Fig. 4—Representative stress-strain curves of HFRC. volume fraction of SF.
tion, and an approximate linear relationship is observed. scale pullout response of SF. The pullout response with
The physical reason for this phenomenon is that the signif- different fiber orientation and content can help delay the
icant increase in the peak strength of SFRC observed in the crack propagation and dissipate energy, which eventually
macro-scale experiment is due to the contribution of meso- governs the composites tensile behavior.32,33 Even though an

Fig. 6—Relationship between uniaxial tensile strength and aspect ratio of SF.
occasional decrease in strength of Specimen SB19P15 (refer it is noted that tensile strength is also associated with a
to Fig. 5(b)) is noticed, where high aspect ratio is combined hybrid effect stemming from various combinations of fiber
with high volume fraction of both SF and PF, the strength parameters. The hybrid effect thereof may practically result
degradation is mainly attributed to the difficulties in proper in a varying trend of improvement of tensile strength. Either
dispersion of an excessive amount of fibers. It is reason- a “positive” or a “negative” hybrid effect can be found when
able that a combination of high volume fraction and high the overall performance is compared to the performance
aspect ratio is likely to generate more inherent defects and evaluated by a simple superposition of individual fiber
weaknesses as a result of the voids and microcracks. This is effect.25 In other words, as previously stated, because effect
thought to eventually lead to the strength degradation. of PF can be ignored during the analytical formulation of
In addition, Fig. 6 demonstrates the influence of steel fiber tensile strength of HFRC, the strength of HFRC seems to
aspect ratio on uniaxial tensile strength. The aspect ratio of SF solely depend on the SF; however, there is a strong indica-
has also demonstrated a significant effect on the improvement tion in Table 2 that, in comparison to the tensile strength of
of tensile strengths of HFRC samples. For almost all of the single SFRC, the strength of HFRC with same steel fiber
cases, a higher aspect ratio results in a higher tensile strength. parameter is higher in the majority of cases shown. Hereby,
As mentioned previously and once again proved by the a preliminary qualitative analysis on the influence of various
results, the uniaxial tensile strength of HFRC increases combinations of fiber parameters is performed by defining a
with the increase in both steel fiber volume fraction and hybrid effect coefficient γH35
aspect ratio, and a maximum increase in the tensile strength
of 85.7% (Specimen SC19P15) in comparison to PC is f ft − f mt
observed from the experimental data points. This observa- γH = (1)
V Vp
tion agrees with the previous findings18,26,29 that SF is the ( f s − f mt ) s + ( f p − f mt )
Vtot Vtot
primary determinant on improving the strength.
Influence of PF where fs, fp, fft, and fmt denote the uniaxial tensile strength
Figures 7(a), (b), and(c) illustrate the relationship between of SFRC, PFRC, HFRC and PC, respectively; and Vtot =
uniaxial tensile strength and the volume fraction of PF (Vp) Vs + Vp is the total fiber volume fraction. Thereafter, one
at the specified volume fractions of 1.1, 1.5, 1.9% of SF, can easily understand from Eq. (1) that if γH > 1, the hybrid
respectively, where the aspect ratio of SF in each figure effect is considered to be a positive hybrid effect, otherwise
is kept constant throughout. No apparent improvement if γH < 1, it is then regarded as a negative hybrid effect.
in overall tensile strength associated with the increase of The values of hybrid effect coefficient γH with different
polypropylene fiber volume fraction is observable from the fiber volume fraction combinations are shown in Table 3,
plots. The plots show strength peaks and troughs with no where the aspect ratio of SF is fixed at 60 (SB series). It is
clear indication of the effect of increasing the fiber’s volume clearly illustrated that all the values of γH are greater than 1,
fraction. In some cases (refer to Fig. 7(c)), the strengths are indicating an excellent synergistic effect between SF and PF
noted to actually decrease with increasing volume fraction. as well as the positive hybrid effects can be mostly expected.
Some other published works12,34 also reported that the A rough interpretation is shown as follows: because the
addition of PF has no discernable impact on improving the pullout process of SF is usually accompanied with extensive
uniaxial tensile strength. Therefore, the effect of PF is not microcracking within the surrounding matrix, the PF can be
taken into account individually as SF when developing the active as bridging mechanism that results in the improve-
mathematical formulation of tensile strength of HFRC in the ment in the debonding and pullout behavior as well as the
following section. overall tensile properties. In addition, the hybrid effect
coefficient for tensile strength seems to generally increase
Preliminary analysis of hybrid effect with the increasing volume fraction of PF, while it basically
Of the limited research available on the tensile perfor- decreases with an increase of volume fraction of SF. The
mance of HFRC along with the present experimental study, hybrid effect coefficient of Specimen SB11P19 gives the

Table 3—Hybrid effect of fiber volume fraction on
tensile strength
γH Vs, %
Vp, % 0 1.1 1.5 1.9

0 — 1 1 1
0.11 1 1.345 1.118 1.136
0.15 1 1.517 1.408 1.070
0.19 1 1.659 1.422 1.184
from those in PC. Figure 8 representatively shows the crack

morphology of both PC and FRCs. To illustrate the crack
patterns and the fiber’s role in inhabiting crack propagation
more clearly, the pictures of the local region (approximately
half of the full cross section) were exhibited. From them, it
is evident that, for PC, a single major macrocrack traverses
through the specimen, a sudden fracture occurred, and the
fracture plane is found in a direction nearly perpendicular to
the axial loading direction. For PFRC, it is very clear that the
failure pattern is quite similar to that of PC. However, the frac-
ture surfaces were observed to be connected by the PF with
some of the fibers ruptured. For SFRC, during the loading
process, one major crack was formed owing to the propaga-
tion and coalescence of microcracks, which is accompanied
by the debonding and pullout of SF. The residual stress was
mainly carried by the SF without occurrence of specimen
fracture. For HFRC, the failure of the specimens seems to be
induced by formation of multiple cracks in both macro- and
micro-levels with different inclinations; no fiber exposure
and concrete spalling were observed.
The previously illustrated phenomenon is mainly
attributed to the following: for FRC, once the nucleation of
microcrack in the matrix is either triggered by microscopic
defects or initiated at the weakest link due to the increasing
tensile loading, the propagation of microcrack can be effec-
tively restricted by the randomly dispersed hybrid fibers in
the matrix. As the load increases, the microcrack develops
and runs into a spatial fiber network, where the fibers help
to bridge the cracks, carry the tensile stresses, and provide
resistance to the further crack opening. Thereafter, the crack
encountering the fibers is then branched out or shifted to the
other weakest links, resulting in a formation of a set of irreg-
ular inclined cracks. As opposed to the failure mode of PC,
where a brittle fracture is observed with the specimen sliced
into two parts by a main crack, the non-uniformly distrib-
uted hybrid fibers can effectively hinder the growth of cracks
through an arrest mechanism, dissipating the fracture energy,
which significantly improves the matrix fracture toughness.
Fig. 7—Relationship between uniaxial tensile strength and The potential role of fiber in the growth of microcracks was
volume fraction of PF. also reported36 in that the microcrack propagation can be
arrested by the fiber, resulting in crack bifurcation. Those
highest value of 1.659 with a 1.1% volume fraction of SF crack branches further develop and coalesce during loading,
and a 0.19% volume fraction of PF. which eventually leads to the occurrence of a combination of
multiple inclined micro- and macro-cracks.
Reinforcing mechanism
The crack patterns and failure modes were observed for the Analytical formulations
test specimens. Generally, the failure modes observed in the On the basis of the aforementioned tested data, an equa-
FRC specimens under uniaxial tension are saliently different tion to calculate the uniaxial tensile strength was developed.

Fig. 8—Fracture/crack morphology of PC and FRCs.
For the sake of simplicity, a linear relationship between α1 = 1.2(1 + 0.265λs + 0.277λp) (6)
the tensile strength and the fiber reinforcement index is
assumed with a term considering a positive hybrid effect The parameter αt determines the slope of the descending
added in the equation: branch. It is also associated with the fiber reinforcement
indexes of hybrid fibers
fft = fmt(1 + αλs + βλsλp) (2)
0.312 f mt 2
where the coefficient α was determined as α = 0.379. Because αt = (7)
1 + 3.366λ s + 3.858λ p
the positive hybrid effect varies with different fiber combi-
nations of SF and PF, for simplicity, the coefficient β = 0.02
is suggested in this study for a conservative estimation of the It is noted that the parameters α1 and αt respectively lie
hybrid effect. For other hybrid fiber combinations in particular within the range of 1.2 ≤ α1 ≤ 2 and 0 < αt ≤ 1.5 in this
applications with various fiber types or scales, these coeffi- study. For PC, Eq. (6) and (7) reduce to α1 = 1.2 and αt =
cients can be calibrated through their specific test results. In 0.312fmt2(λs = λp = 0), which is consistent with the equation
addition, the parameters fft and fmt denote the uniaxial tensile suggested in literature.38
strength of HFRC and PC, respectively. λs is the steel fiber Figure 9 shows the typical comparisons of experimental
reinforcement index, calculated as λs = Vs × ls/ds. Vs is the stress-strain curves and the fitted curves from predictive
volume fraction of SF, and ls/ds is the aspect ratio of SF. λp equations. The model parameters are respectively calibrated
is the polypropylene fiber reinforcement index, calculated as as α1 = 1.813 and αt = 0.352 for SB19P19, and α1 = 1.45
λp = Vp × lp/dp. Vp is the volume fraction of PF, and lp/dp is and αt = 0.72 for SA11P11. It is evident that, despite certain
the aspect ratio of PF. fluctuations in the prediction of the strength degradations in
Furthermore, a phenomenological constitutive model post-peak region that are mainly sourced from the regressed
for predicting the uniaxial tensile behavior of HFRC is Eq. (6) and (7), the predictions can still provide fairly good
presented below. It contains a damage parameter dt, of which estimation of the stress-strain behavior of HFRC.
the evolution involves a parabola function37 and consists of a
curvilinear ascending portion and a descending portion Elliptic-cap model
In an attempt to predict the multiaxial stress state of
σ = (1 – dt)Eftε (3) HFRC in tension region, a strength criterion was general-
ized according to the theory of elastoplasticity. Based on
1 − ρt [α1 + (1.5 − 1.25α1 ) x + (0.25α1 − 0.5) x 5 ] x ≤ 1 the one-dimensional uniaxial tensile strengths, a simple
 elliptic-cap model in the tension region (hydrostatic pres-
dt =  ρt (4)
x >1 sure ξ > 0) was proposed in this study, which represents
1 − α ( x − 1)1.7 + x
 t a three-dimensional scenario. The aim is to describe the
tensile meridian of HFRC, accounting for the notable
effect on the addition of hybrid fibers. It was developed
ε f
x= , ρt = mt (5) in conjunction with the plasticity model of HFRC in
ε ft E ft ε ft compression regime (ξ < 0) proposed in the literature.4
The mathematical formulation of the elliptic-cap model is
where εft is the strain at peak stress that is regressed according expressed by the following
to the results in Table 2 as: εft = εt(1 + 0.498λs + 0.697λp),
and fmt is the uniaxial tensile strength of concrete matrix. The f(ρ,ξ) = ρ2 – Aξ2 + Bξ – C = 0 (8)
physical meaning of α1 is the ratio of initial elastic modulus
(Eft) and tangential modulus at peak stress (Ep) under tension where the function f(ρ,ξ) defines the shape of meridian that
(that is, α1 = Eft/Ep), which is developed empirically as func- binds the ultimate strength of HFRC in the tension region.
tion fiber reinforcement indexes of hybrid fiber by fitting the The equation is expressed in terms of Haigh-Westergaard
experimental curves, given as coordinates ξ and ρ, where ξ = I1/√3 and ρ = 2 J 2 (I1 is the

Fig. 10—Boundary conditions.
the boundary condition equations that ρthf defines the tensile
meridian of HFRC in compression region and yields
2
ξ  ρhf   ρhf 
= a2  t  + a1  t  + a0 (12)
f cu  f cu   f cu 
where ρthf = ktρt, and kt = 1 + 0.08λs + 0.132λp is a reinforce-

ment coefficient of hybrid fibers. More explanations of the
parameters in tensile meridian (Eq. (12)) are detailed in the
literature.4
Consequently, the coefficients A, B, and C of the cap model
can be explicitly calibrated according to the three boundary
conditions, and are given by
Fig. 9—Typical experimental stress-strain curves are
compared with predictions. 2
 2   f ft 
first invariant of stress tensor, and J2 is the second invariant of  3 f ft  + B   − C
  3
deviatoric stress tensor). A, B, and C are material constants, A= 2
(13)
which can be determined in accordance with three boundary  f ft 
conditions, formulated as  3 
B = 0.16124ktfcu (14)
f ft 2
ξ= , ρ= f ft (9)
3 3 C = 0.01449(ktfcu)2 (15)
ρ = ρthf in which fcu denotes the uniaxial compressive strength of

(ξ = 0) (ξ = 0) (10)
plain concrete matrix.
Figure 11 shows representative calibrated elliptic-cap
envelopes in conjunction with the tensile meridian of HFRC
∂ρ ∂ρthf
(ξ = 0) = (ξ = 0) (11) with varying kt values. The Parameters of A, B, and C and
∂ξ ∂ξ the reinforcement coefficient kt were respectively calibrated
according to the equations listed above. For PC, kt = 1.0, and
These three boundary conditions respectively indicate parameters A, B, C were calculated as 3.59, 7.26, and 29.34,
that: 1) the failure envelope passes through the HFRC’s respectively. For HFRC, the values are respectively cali-
stress value at failure (that is, the uniaxial tensile strength brated as kt = 1.1, A = 1.2, B = 7.98, C = 35.5 (for SB11P11),
of HFRC); 2) the cap envelope has a connecting point with and kt = 1.2, A = 0.22, B = 8.71, and C = 42.25 (for SC15P19).
the envelope in compression region; and 3) the gradient of Furthermore, the cap envelope is compared to the triaxial
tangential line for both envelopes at the connecting point tension results reported in the literature,39 where the volume
should be identical (refer to Fig. 10). It is also noted from fraction of SF is 1% with an aspect ratio of 50. The test points
lying on the tensile meridian of 0-degree Lode angle with

4. A simple elliptic-cap model was also proposed within
the framework of elastoplasticity, aiming to describe the
failure envelope of HFRC in tension regime, which can
serve as a reference to predict the stress state of HFRC in
other complex loading conditions.
AUTHOR BIOS
Lihua Xu is a Professor in the School of Civil Engineering at Wuhan
University, Wuhan, China. She received her PhD from Wuhan University
of Hydraulic and Electric Engineering, Wuhan, China. Her research inter-
ests include structural and seismic engineering, mechanical behavior, and
multi-scale modeling of fiber-reinforced concrete (FRC) materials.
Le Huang is a PhD Student in the School of Civil Engineering at Wuhan

University. His research interests include the experimental investigation of
FRC material and the response of concrete-filled steel tube element.
Yin Chi is an Associate Professor in the School of Civil Engineering at

Wuhan University. He received his PhD from the University of Nottingham,
Nottingham, UK. His research interests include constitutive modeling of
FRC materials and numerical simulation of concrete structures.
Fig. 11—Calibrated elliptic-cap envelopes.
Guodong Mei is a PhD Student in the School of Civil Engineering at
respective stress ratios of 0.25:0.25:1, 0.5:0.5:1, 0.75:0.75:1, Wuhan University. His interests include the constitutive relation of FRC
materials and analysis of FRC structural response.
and 1:1:1 were added in Fig. 11; it is clearly observed that
the model provides a close and more conservative estimation
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
of strength of FRC in multiaxial tensions. The authors are grateful for the ﬁnancial support from the National Natural
It is also worth mentioning that the proposed elliptic-cap Science Foundation of China (No. 51508425 and No. 51078295); the
model is capable of reflecting the increase of stress in hydro- Natural Science Foundation of Hubei Province, China (No. 2015CFB171);
and the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities
static tension that should be usually arise as a result of (No. 2042015kf0003 and No. 2042014kf0010).
increasing fiber content. The suggested elliptic-cap model
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pp. 14-23.

NEW
Symposium
Publications from ACI
SP-304, Sustainable Performance SP-305, Durability and Sustainability

of Concrete Bridges and Elements of Concrete Structures
Subjected to Aggressive In October 2015, the Italy Chapter – ACI (ACI IC) and
Environments: Monitoring, the Department of Civil, Chemical, Environmental, and
Material Engineering (DICAM) of the University of
Evaluation, and Rehabilitation Bologna sponsored the First International Workshop
This collection contains 10 papers selected from on “Durability & Sustainability of Concrete Structures”
the three special sessions held at The Concrete in Bologna, Italy. The proceedings of the workshop
Convention and Exposition in Washington, DC, consist of 48 papers concerning reduction in
October 2014. Topics include: Performance greenhouse gases in cement and concrete industry,
Reliability of Reinforced Concrete Beams recycled materials, innovative binders and
Strengthened with Fiber-Reinforced Polymer geopolymers, life-cycle cost assessment in concrete
(FRP) Sheets, Reducing Deck Cracking in construction, reuse and functional resilience of
Composite Bridges by Controlling Long-Term reinforced concrete structures, repair and main-
Properties, and many more. tenance, testing, inspection, and monitoring.
Available in CD/DVD or PDF format: $76.50 Available in PDF format: $101.50

(ACI members: $46.00) ($30.50 savings) (ACI members: $61.00) ($40.50 savings)
+1.248.848.3700 • www.concrete.org    
Title No. 113-M22
Nano-Modified Fly Ash Concrete: A Repair Option for

Concrete Pavements
by A. Ghazy, M. T. Bassuoni, and A. Shalaby
Efficient repair of concrete pavements typically requires a rapid-set- Recently, nanomaterials have been progressively applied
ting material to accelerate opening the road to traffic. While numerous in the field of concrete research, attracting considerable
high-early-strength cementitious repair materials are commercially scientific interest due to the new potential uses of nano-
available, many of them are vulnerable to premature deterioration. On meter-sized particles in cementitious binders. Concrete
the other hand, despite its improved long-term performance, concrete
with superior properties can be produced by incorporating
incorporating fly ash is rarely used as a repair material due to the
nanoparticles with fly ash.8-11 As a result of their ultrafine
delay in setting time, strength gain, and microstructural development
at early ages. Nevertheless, these performance limitations can be miti- nature (size scale of 1-100 billionth of a meter), nanoparti-
gated by incorporation of nanoparticles (for example, nanosilica) in fly cles can vigorously speed up the kinetics of cement hydra-
ash concrete. In this study, an effort was made to develop nano-modi- tion in concrete.8-11 Hence, the delay in setting time, strength
fied fly ash concrete as a repair material for concrete pavements. The gain, and microstructural development of fly ash concrete
performance of the newly developed mixtures was compared to that may be mitigated.
of two commercial cementitious products. The results indicate that the
nano-modified fly ash concrete has balanced performance in terms of RESEARCH SIGNIFICANCE
hardening time, strength development, bonding with substrate concrete, Carefully balancing the early-age and long-term perfor-
and resistance to infiltration of fluids and salt-frost scaling. mance of cement-based repair materials remains a chal-
Keywords: durability; early age; fly ash; nanosilica; repair.
lenging task, which warrants further investigation. In
comparison to two cementitious products specified by trans-
INTRODUCTION portation agencies in Manitoba for partial-depth repair of
Premature failure of repairs in concrete pavements and concrete pavements, an effort was made in the present study
bridge decks is frequently observed, resulting in significant to develop nano-modified fly ash concrete as a repair mate-
life-cycle, economic, and social losses.1,2 Efficient repair of rial for concrete pavements to achieve balanced performance
concrete pavements typically requires a rapid-setting mate- in terms of hardening time, strength development, bonding
rial that can be placed and hardened within a relatively short with substrate concrete, and durability to infiltration of fluids
period of time for quick opening to traffic. While numerous and salt-frost scaling.
high-early-strength cementitious repair materials are commer-
cially available, many of these materials are vulnerable to EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
cracking, poor bonding, and premature deterioration, for Materials
example, due to incompatibility with the existing concrete General use (GU) portland cement and fly ash (Class F),
pavement.2,3 In addition, some studies have shown concerns which meet the requirements of the CAN/CSA-A300112
of using high-early-strength concrete in repair applications standard, were used as the main components of the binder.
for pavements.4 These materials can lead to stress concen- Their chemical and physical properties are shown in Table 1. In
trations because of their susceptibility to thermal gradients addition, a commercial nano-silica sol (50% solid content of
and autogenous shrinkage, resulting in high levels of micro- SiO2 dispersed in an aqueous solution [Table 1]) was incor-
cracking and, in turn, durability issues. porated in all binders. Six concrete mixtures were prepared
Extensive research on the use of supplementary cementi- and a non-chloride accelerator, complying with ASTM
tious materials (SCMs) such as fly ash showed that incorpo- C494/C494M13 Type E, was used in three mixtures to accel-
ration of Class F fly ash generally improves the long-term erate the setting time. Locally available coarse aggregate
performance and durability of concrete.5-7 Despite the benefits (natural gravel with a maximum size of 9.5 mm [0.375 in.])
of fly ash concrete, practical limitations remain unresolved in and fine aggregate (well-graded river sand with a fineness
field applications. The delay in setting time, strength gain, and modulus of 2.9) were used. The specific gravity and absorp-
microstructural development at early ages of fly ash concrete tion were 2.65 and 2%, respectively, for gravel, and 2.53 and
are considered to be the major issues, which deter its wider 1.5%, respectively, for sand. A high-range water-reducing
acceptance as a repair material.6-8 Also, a number of laboratory
studies have indicated inferior scaling resistance of concrete ACI Materials Journal, V. 113, No. 2, March-April 2016.
MS No. M-2015-185.R1, doi: 10.14359/51688642, received June 18, 2015, and
containing dosages of fly ash in excess of 25 to 30% of the reviewed under Institute publication policies. Copyright © 2016, American Concrete
binder when subjected to cycles of freezing and thawing in Institute. All rights reserved, including the making of copies unless permission is
obtained from the copyright proprietors. Pertinent discussion including author’s
the presence of deicing chemicals.6,7 closure, if any, will be published ten months from this journal’s date if the discussion

Table 1—Properties of GU cement, fly ash, and Table 2–Composition and properties of
nanosilica commercial products according to manufacturers’
Cement Fly ash Nanosilica
datasheets
SiO2,% 19.21 55.20 99.17 A B
Al2O3,% 5.01 23.13 0.38 Composition, % by mass
Fe2O3,% 2.33 3.62 0.02 Hydraulic cement * 7 to 13
CaO,% 63.22 10.81 — Silica sand, crystalline  >60
MgO,% 3.31 1.11 0.21 Titanium dioxide  0.1 to 1
SO3,% 3.01 0.22 — Borax  1 to 5

Na2Oeq,% 0.12 3.21 0.20 Physical properties
Specific gravity 3.15 2.12 1.40 Specific gravity 2.7 2.75
Mean particle size, 13.15 16.56 35 × 10–3 Water content, L/22.7 kg 2.1 to 2.8 1.6 to 1.8
µm (in.) (8.45 × 10–6) (6.52 × 10–6) (1.38 × 10–6) (gal/50 lb) (0.56 to 0.75) (0.42 to 0.47)
Fineness, m2/kg 390 290 80,000 Mixing time, min 4 to 5 4
(ft2/lb) (1.90 × 103)* (1.41 × 103)* (0.39 × 106)†
Extension †
50% 50%
8
Viscosity, Cp (ft·s/lb) — — Wet cure surface with water and polyeth-
(0.537 × 10–2)
Curing procedures ylene sheets at least 1 day, or use a curing
pH — — 9.5 compound
*
Blaine fineness. *Range is not specified in datasheet.
†
Fineness was determined by titration with sodium hydroxide. †
Coarse aggregate extension by mass of repair material per bag, 22.7 kg (50 lb).
admixture (HRWRA) based on polycarboxylic acid and for 30 seconds. The cement and fly ash were then added to
complying with ASTM C494/C494M13 Type F was added to the aggregate and mixed together for 60 seconds. The nanos-
maintain a slump range of 50 to 100 mm (1.97 to 3.94 in.). ilica and the admixtures (air-entraining admixture, HRWRA,
In addition, an air-entraining admixture was used to provide and accelerator) were added to the remaining water while
a fresh air content of 6 ± 1%. For comparison purposes, two stirring vigorously for 45 seconds to obtain a liquid phase
commercial cementitious repair materials were evaluated. containing well-dispersed nanoparticles and admixtures.
These products are approved and used in the province of Finally, the liquid phase was added to the mixture and
Manitoba based on the premise that they achieve early-age mixing continued for 2 minutes. After mixing and casting
performance and adequate service life. Table 2 shows their the concrete, a vibrating table was used to ensure good
composition and physical properties according to each compaction of specimens. Polyethylene sheets were used
manufacturer’s datasheet. to cover the surface of specimens for 24 hours. The spec-
imens were then demolded and cured in a standard curing
Procedures room (maintained at a temperature of 22 ± 2°C [72 ± 3.6°F]
The formulations of the nano-modified fly ash concrete stem and a relative humidity of more than 95%) until testing.
from a compatibility perspective between repair and parent The proportions of the nano-modified mixtures are shown
concrete; thus, all the repair mixtures comprised fly ash compa- in Table 3. For the commercial products, the manufacturers’
rable to concrete pavements in Manitoba, in which 15% fly recommendations were carefully followed in the propor-
ash is typically used. Three normal-setting concrete mixtures tioning, mixing, casting, and curing procedures (Table 2).
(designated as N) were prepared with GU cement and vari-
able dosages of fly ash (15%, 22.5%, and 30% replacement by Testing methods
mass of the base binder (385 kg/m3 [24 lb/ft3]) comprising GU To determine the setting time, the mortar fraction of each
cement and fly ash); nanosilica was added to the mixtures at mixture (portion passing sieve No. 4 [4.75 mm (0.19 in.)])
a single dosage of 6% by mass of the base binder (that is, a was placed in a container at room temperature as specified
solid content of 23 kg/m3 [1.44 lb/ft3]). In addition, three corre- by ASTM C403.14 At regular time intervals, the penetration
sponding rapid-setting concrete mixtures (designated as R) resistance was determined by standard needles. In addition,
were produced with an accelerating admixture. For all mixtures, paste samples with identical proportions to the paste frac-
the total cementitious materials (ternary binder: GU cement, tion in the concrete mixtures (Table 3) were prepared to
fly ash, and nanosilica) content and water cementitious mate- measure the heat released from the hydration reactions by
rials ratio (w/cm) were kept constant at 408 kg/m3 (25 lb/ft3) an isothermal calorimeter kept at 23°C (73°F) following the
and 0.38, respectively. general guidelines of ASTM C1679.15 The rate of heat gener-
Constituent materials were mixed in a concrete mixer ated was monitored and recorded every minute continuously
with a speed of 60 rpm. To attain homogenous dispersion for 100 hours, and it was normalized by the mass of the
of components, a specific sequence of mixing was adopted sample. Also, the cumulative heat released was determined.
based on experimental trials. First, approximately 15% of For each mixture, triplicate 100 x 200 mm (4 x 8 in.)
the mixing water was added to the aggregate while mixing concrete cylinders were prepared for the compressive

Table 3—Proportions of mixtures per cubic meter of concrete
Coarse aggregate, Fine aggregate,
Mixture ID Cement, kg Fly ash, kg Nanosilica, kg Water*, kg kg kg HRWRA, L/m3 Accelerator, L/m3
F15 327 58 0 147 858 858 0.7 0
F30 269 116 0 147 850 850 0.4 0
NF15 327 58 46 131 830 830 2.3 0
NF22.5 298 87 46 131 830 830 2.1 0
NF30 269 116 46 131 830 830 1.9 0
RF15 327 58 46 131 830 830 1.8 6.9
RF22.5 298 87 46 131 830 830 1.7 6.9
RF30 269 116 46 131 830 830 1.5 6.9
*
Adjusted amount of mixing water considering water content of nanosilica (aqueous solution with 50% solid content of SiO2).
Notes: 1 kg = 2.205 lb; 1 L/m3 = 7.48 × 103 gal/ft3.
strength test according to ASTM C3916 and splitting tensile the diameter of each half specimen. This depth is considered
strength test according to ASTM C496,17 which were to be an indication of the ease of ingress of external fluids
performed at different ages. To evaluate the bond between and, thus, the continuity of the microstructure.21 In addition,
the repair mixtures and concrete substrate along with the ASTM C672/C672M19 was conducted for all the mixtures to
resistance of the composite assembly to environmental evaluate their resistance to surface scaling due to deicing salts
conditioning, the pulloff test was used according to CSA (4% calcium chloride) and F/T cycles. The resistance to surface
A23.2-6B.18 Concrete slabs of 300 x 400 mm (11.8 x 15.8 in.) scaling was evaluated when the curing method (by a chemical
surface area and 140 mm (5.5 in.) thickness were used as compound or a standard curing room) and time (3 to 14 days)
concrete substrate (350 kg [772 lb] GU cement with 15% fly were varied. Moreover, the resistance to surface scaling was
ash as a binder replacement and 0.38 w/cm). After casting, evaluated qualitatively by visual examination, and quantita-
the slabs were demolded and moist cured for 7 days in the curing tively by mass of scaled materials.
room and then maintained in normal laboratory conditions. At Thermal and microscopy studies were conducted to evaluate
90 days, the top surface (finished surface) was wire brushed and the evolution of microstructure in the concrete mixtures. The
cleaned; subsequently, the repair mixtures were placed on the top quantity of portlandite (calcium hydroxide) in the matrix was
surface with a thickness of 80 mm (3.15 in.). After moist curing determined up to 90 days to assess the effect of nanosilica and
for 28 days, the slabs were partially cored to determine the fly ash on the hydration and pozzolanic reactions. Thermo-
pulloff strength according to CSA A23.2-6B.18 Furthermore, gravimetry (TG) at a heating rate of 10°C/min (18°F/min) was
the bond strength of companion slabs was evaluated after used for this purpose on powder samples extracted from the
consecutive freezing-and-thawing (F/T) and wetting-and- concrete mixtures. The content of portlandite was calculated
drying (W/D) cycles. A total of 25 F/T cycles followed by 25 by determining the percentage drop of an ignited mass of
W/D cycles were applied. This customized procedure simu- the TG curves at a temperature range of 400 to 450°C (752
lates climatic conditions of successive winter and summer to 842°F) and multiplying it by 4.11 (ratio of the molecular
seasons, which correlates to in-service conditions. For the mass of portlandite to that of water). Backscattered scanning
F/T stage, ASTM C672/C672M19 regime was applied for 25 electron microscopy (BSEM) with elemental dispersive
cycles. Subsequently, the specimens were exposed to 25 W/D X-ray (EDX) were conducted on polished thin sections from
cycles, where each cycle consisted of ponding (3 to 5 mm the concrete mixtures. At 28 days, slices were cut from spec-
[0.12 to 0.20 in.]) the surface of specimens with 4% calcium imens, which were then dried and impregnated by a low-
chloride solution for 16 hours at a temperature of 22 ± viscosity epoxy resin under vacuum pressure and polished
2°C (73 ± 3.6°F), followed by drying at 40 ± 2°C (104 ± by successive diamond surface-grinding to a thickness of 30
3.6°F) and 40 ± 5% RH for 8 hours. to 50 µm (1.18 × 10–3 to 1.97 × 10–3 in.). The sections were
At 28 days, the resistance of the mixtures to the penetra- coated with carbon to enhance the conductivity for the BSEM
bility of aggressive ions was evaluated by the rapid chlo- analysis. Finally, selected tests (setting time, heat of hydra-
ride penetrability test (RCPT) according to ASTM C1202.20 tion, and thermal analysis) were also done on reference fly
To avoid the electrolysis bias of this method, the pene- ash concrete mixtures (without nanosilica) comprising 15%
tration depth of chloride ions into concrete, which better and 30% fly ash (F15 and F30) to exemplify the difference
correlates to the physical characteristics of the pore struc- in behavior relative to the nano-modified fly ash concrete.
ture, was determined according to the procedure described
by Bassuoni et al. in 2006.21 After the RCPT, the specimens EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
were axially split and sprayed with 0.1 M silver nitrate solu- Fresh properties and heat of hydration
tion, which forms a white precipitate of silver chloride in Table 4 shows the properties of fresh concrete, including
approximately 15 minutes, to measure the physical penetra- density, slump, and setting times (initial and final). Prod-
tion depth of chloride ions. The average depth of the white ucts A and B showed very dry consistency (zero slump) and
precipitate was determined at five different locations along had very short hardening times (40 to 60 minutes), as indi-

Table 4—Density, slump, and initial and final setting times
Mixture ID. A B F15 F30 NF15 NF22.5 NF30 RF15 RF22.5 RF30
Density, kg/m 3
2312 2280 2249 2233 2224 2224 2224 2231 2231 2230
Slump, mm 0 0 75 95 55 65 80 75 90 100
Initial, min 40 40 450 550 270 345 360 165 175 210
Final, min 45 60 605 830 415 475 505 285 295 340
Notes: 1 kg/m3 = 0.0624 lb/ft3; 1 mm = 0.0394 in.
Fig. 1—Penetration resistance versus time. (Note: 1 MPa = 145 psi.)

cated by the acute increase of the penetration resistance curves Isothermal calorimetry was conducted on paste samples
(Fig. 1). This may imply critical placement, consolidation, and to complement the trends observed in the setting time test.
finishing, as all these procedures should be completed within A rapid rise in the first segment of the heat flow curve may
40 minutes. Also, when large patches are repaired, there will indicate initial setting (end of the dormant period) of the paste,
be a high potential for cold joints as repair mortars/concretes while the peak of the curve indicates its final setting (end of
are typically mixed on site in small batches. Comparatively, acceleration stage).22,23 For comparison purposes, the heat flow
the nano-modified fly ash concrete mixtures had better work- data presented herein are shown over 48 to 80 hours; however,
ability, especially the R mixtures owing to the effect of Type E the steady-state stage was developed up to 100 hours. The
(water reducer and accelerator) admixture combined with the heat flow and cumulative heat released at 23°C (73°F) for the
HRWRA. Also, they had ample setting times (Fig. 1), which reference pastes as well as the N and R mixtures are shown
would allow more flexibility in the repair process, especially for in Fig. 2. It can be noted that the heat of hydration curves
large or multiple patches. for the reference samples (without nanosilica) were different
The effect of higher dosages of fly ash on retarding the from that for the fly ash pastes with nanosilica. The curves
setting time of concrete is well-documented,5-7 as depicted for the reference cement pastes were likely dominated by
in Fig. 1. For example, the reference concrete mixture hydration of tricalcium silicate (C3S), similar to the hydra-
containing 30% fly ash (F30) exhibited initial and final tion features observed for neat portland cement pastes22,23;
setting times of, respectively, 100 and 225 minutes longer however, the nano-modified fly ash pastes (both the N and
than that of the reference mixture with 15% fly ash (F15). R mixtures) were typified by a second peak (Fig. 2(b) and
However, the setting times of the nano-modified mixtures 2(c)) with a higher magnitude of heat flow, likely due to the
were significantly shortened relative to the reference accelerating effect of nanosilica on the reactions. Previous
mixtures. For example, the initial setting times for NF15 and studies attributed the accelerated hydration of C3S to the
RF15 were 270 and 165 minutes, respectively, compared to higher conversion rate of the protective hydrate layer formed
450 minutes for the corresponding reference mixture, F15. close to the C3S surface to a less permeable form due to the
Also, at a higher dosage of fly ash, Mixtures NF30 and RF30 abundance of silicate ions24 from nanosilica aggregates
exhibited final setting times 40% and 60%, respectively, (agglomerates of nanosilica in the pore solution, for example
shorter than the reference mixture F30. This is ascribed to due to high pH25 or bridging of silica particles by calcium
the addition of ultrafine silica particles, which accelerated ions26) and reduction of calcium ions through fast pozzo-
the kinetics of hydration and pozzolanic reactions.8-11 This lanic activity (within a few hours).9,27 This led to short-
effect was magnified with the incorporation of an acceler- ening the induction period and initial setting time of nano-
ating admixture. For example, RF15 and RF30 exhibited modified fly ash concrete. In addition, it has been postulated
final setting times of 130 and 165 minutes shorter than that that silica aggregates can accelerate the hydration of cement
of NF15 and NF30, respectively. by creating additional surfaces for early precipitation of

Fig. 2—Isothermal calorimetry curves (normalized heat flow and cumulative heat released) at 23°C (73.4°F): (a) reference
mixtures; (b) N mixtures; and (c) R mixtures. (Note: 1 mW/g = 1.548 BTU/(h·lb); 1 J/g = 0.43 BTU/lb.)
hydration products and, thus, reducing the final setting peaks of the normalized heat flow curves of the RF15,
time.9,11,27 RF22.5, and RF30 mixtures were obtained at, respectively,
For the reference pastes, the peak of the heat flow curve approximately 175, 155, and 130 minutes earlier than that
was observed at 615 and 675 minutes for the reference pastes of the corresponding N mixtures (shifted to the left), and the
comprising 15% and 30% fly ash, respectively (Fig. 2(a)). total cumulative heat of the R mixtures was higher (16 to
Comparatively, the hydration of the N nano-modified fly 21%) than that of the N mixtures.
ash pastes was significantly accelerated (Fig. 2(b)) and the In compliance with the setting time trends that captured the
length of the dormant period was markedly shortened (by retarding effect of the higher dosage of fly ash, it can be noted
approximately 120 minutes). At a dosage of 6% nanos- that there is a slight delay in the hydration of the mixtures
ilica, the first peaks of the hydration curves for NF15 and containing 30% fly ash (Fig. 2(b) and 2(c)). The first hydra-
NF30 were obtained at, respectively, approximately 150 and tion peaks of mixtures NF30 and RF30 were shifted to the
180 minutes earlier than that of the corresponding reference right by approximately 30 and 15 minutes, respectively, rela-
pastes. In addition, the total heat evolved over 80 ours was tive to that of mixtures NF15 and RF15. Correspondingly, at
12 to 18% higher for the N nano-modified fly ash pastes 80 hours, the total cumulative heat released from the pastes
relative to the reference pastes. Again, this catalytic effect comprising 30% fly ash was lower than that from pastes with
of nanosilica was magnified with the incorporation of the 15% fly ash by 18% and 12% for the N and R mixtures,
accelerating admixture (Fig. 2(c)). For instance, the first respectively. These results suggest that this retarding effect

Table 5—Results of compressive and tensile strengths
Mixtures A B NF15 NF22.5 NF30 RF15 RF22.5 RF30
Compressive strength, MPa (psi × 10 ) 3
8h 15 (2.2) 16 (2.3) — — — 10 (1.5) 8 (1.2) —

1 day 16 (2.3) 18 (2.6) 14 (2.0) 13 (1.9) 10 (1.5) 20 (2.9) 17 (2.5) 13 (1.9)
3 days 21 (3.0) 25 (3.6) 24 (3.5) 20 (2.9) 18 (2.6) 32 (4.6) 30 (4.3) 22 (3.1)
7 days 28 (4.1) 35 (5.1) 31 (4.5) 30 (4.3) 27 (3.9) 38 (5.5) 37 (5.3) 31 (4.5)
28 days 34 (4.9) 38 (5.5) 41 (5.9) 43 (6.2) 36 (5.2) 42 (6.1) 41 (5.9) 38 (5.5)
56 days 35 (5.1) 43 (6.2) 43 (6.2) 45 (6.5) 47 (6.8) 44 (6.4) 45 (6.5) 42 (6.1)
Tensile strength, MPa (psi)
1 day 1.1 (160) 1.8 (260) 1.4 (205) 1.3 (190) 0.9 (130) 2.1 (305) 1.9 (275) 1.2 (175)
3 days 1.9 (275) 2.8 (405) 2.6 (375) 2.7 (390) 1.9 (275) 2.8 (405) 2.8 (405) 2.3 (335)
7 days 2.8 (405) 3.1 (450) 3.8 (550) 3.7 (335) 3.5 (505) 3.8 (550) 3.2 (465) 2.7 (390)
28 days 3.2 (465) 4.1 (595) 5.1 (740) 5.3 (770) 5.7 (825) 4.9 (710) 5.2 (755) 5.5 (800)
was marginal, because it was discounted by the addition of in comparison to the N mixtures. This is ascribed to the pres-
nanosilica, which markedly sped up the kinetics of reac- ence of the accelerating admixture, which sped up the rate of
tions, as discussed previously. Hence, the addition of nanos- hydration reactions and consequently increased the early-age
ilica to the fly ash binders enhanced the hydration level and strength. However, this trend diminished between 7 to 56 days
shortened the hardening time, which affects the early-age for the R mixtures, which conforms to effect of accelerators
strength, as will be discussed in the next section. on the compressive strength development of concrete at later
ages due to the slower diffusion of water through thicker
Strength hydration products.22,23 Although increasing the dosage of fly
Table 5 shows the average compressive and splitting ash in the mixtures led to reducing the compressive strength
tensile strengths of specimens from all mixtures at different at early age, the N and R specimens with 30% fly ash (NF30
ages. The results generally indicated that the commercial and RF30) had compressive strength values of 18 and 22 MPa
products (A and B) gained the highest compressive strength (2610 and 3190 psi) at 3 days, respectively. For the NF30
at 8 hours; however, the increase in strength for these prod- mixture, the compressive development was significant after
ucts was not significant until 1 day, while the RF15 and 7 days (70% increase between 7 to 56 days) and achieved
RF22.5 specimens achieved higher or comparable compres- the highest strength at 56 days (47 MPa [6817 psi]), which
sive strengths of 20 and 17 MPa (2900 and 2465 psi), respec- is consistent with the well-known effect of Class F fly ash on
tively, at 1 day. In addition, the rate of strength development compressive strength of concrete.6
for products A and B was insignificant up to 3 days. This was The early-age (1 to 7 days) results generally indicate that
statistically supported by the analysis of variance (ANOVA) the compressive strength of the N and R nano-modified fly
at a significance level α = 0.05.28 For example, for Product ash mixtures markedly improved with the addition of nanos-
A, ANOVA for the compressive results at 8 hours and 3 days ilica, as no low values were observed for any mixture. These
had an F value of 6.71, which is smaller than the critical results are consistent with other studies.8,10 Hence, the slow
value (Fcr) of 7.71. This insignificant change in compressive rate of strength development for concrete incorporating
strength up to 3 days may be attributed to the very rapid Class F fly ash can be controlled by the addition of a small
reactions during the first 8 hours, which might have formed dosage of nanosilica. It appears that nanosilica aggregates
thick hydration shells that discounted the diffusion of water effectively contributed to the strength development of the
and kinetics of hydration afterward. Comparatively, the rate mixtures up to 7 days through high pozzolanic activity,11
of strength development of the nano-modified mixtures was filler effect,29,30 and water absorption.30 Moreover, nanos-
significant (an increase of 53 to 80%) up to 3 days. For instance, ilica can catalyze the reactivity of fly ash at earlyage,8 while
ANOVA for the compressive strength at 1 and 3 days for the the long-term improvement in strength of the mixtures can
NF15 and RF15 specimens yielded F values of 28.6 and 33.7, be ascribed to the continual pozzolanic effect of fly ash with
respectively, which are larger than the corresponding Fcr of time.6 These mechanisms are discussed in detail later in the
7.71. The results of the nano-modified mixtures at 28 and TG and microscopy analyses section.
56 days indicated that there was continuous and significant The splitting tensile strength of concrete mixtures was deter-
improvement in strength beyond 7 days in comparison to the mined at different ages, as listed in Table 5. The early-age
commercial products. The significant increase in strength of tensile strength of product A was low, and this product had the
these mixtures with time can be ascribed to the synergistic lowest tensile strength at 28 days. Comparatively, product B
effects of nanosilica and fly ash, as will be discussed later in gained higher tensile strength (1.8 MPa [261 psi]) at 1 day;
the TG results. in addition, the increase of tensile strength for product B
For specimens from the R mixtures, the average early-age was significant up to 28 days. Complying with the compres-
(up to 7 days) strength significantly increased (15 to 43%) sive strength results, all the nano-modified fly ash concrete

Fig. 3—Bond strength of repair assembly from pulloff test. (Note: 1 MPa = 145 psi; error bars in this figure represent standard
error.)
mixtures exhibited comparable or higher tensile strength up of incompatibility) or in the repair products due to their lower
to 7 days (2.7 to 3.8 MPa [391 to 551 psi]) and 28 days tensile capacity (Table 5). Comparatively, the bond strength for
(4.9 to 5.7 MPa [710 to 827 psi]) with a significant rate of the N and R mixtures ranged between 1.9 to 3.3 MPa (275 to
increase. The effect of the accelerating admixture on the 478 psi), and it significantly increased by 23% to 43% after
early-age results of tensile strength was similar to that of the the combined exposure. In addition, the failure in speci-
compressive strength. Also, it was observed that the tensile mens prepared with the N and R mixtures shifted toward
strength slightly decreased with the fly ash content at early the substrate concrete, suggesting that the assembly behaved
age; however, this trend was reversed at 28 days due to the as an integral system with a high degree of compatibility.
continual reactivity of fly ash, as the N and R specimens with Unlike the commercial products, the nano-modified fly ash
30% fly ash had the highest tensile strength (Table 5). This system offset the deleterious debonding effects induced by
behavior may be attributable to the densification of the inter- cyclic environments and improved the later-age bonding with
facial transition zone (ITZ) between aggregate and cement substrate concrete. This improvement in the bond strength
paste as a result of the combined effects of nanosilica and fly after the combined exposure is thought to be attributed to the
ash, as shown later in the microscopy analysis section. continual reactivity of the ternary binder with time of expo-
sure, which might be facilitated by the enhanced moisture
Bonding level in the repair concrete due to the use of a salt solution
Bond failure is a critical cause of deterioration in pave- rather than fresh water.32
ment repairs. Therefore, the pulloff test was used to assess The evolution of the bond strength significantly increased
the bond strength of the repair mixtures with substrate (by 45% to 57%) for the R mixtures in comparison to corre-
concrete; this represents a severe scenario for the assembly, sponding specimens from the N mixtures. This may be
as it is subjected to a direct tension configuration. Also, the ascribed to the presence of the accelerating admixture, which
pulloff test was used to evaluate the residual bond strength sped up the rate of hydration reactions and consequently
of the mixtures to substrate concrete after combined cyclic improved the bond at the interface with substrate concrete
environments, which should capture performance risks orig- since the early stage. In addition, increasing the dosage of
inating from incompatibility between the repair mixtures fly ash led to increasing the bond strength notably, especially
and substrate concrete. Therefore, a combined exposure for the R mixtures, as depicted in Fig. 3. This improvement
protocol was adopted to replicate consecutive winter and in bonding of the assembly might stem from the chemical
summer seasons, which correlate to in-service conditions. interaction between nanosilica and fly ash with the avail-
Li et al.31 used a similar technique to evaluate the bonding able Ca(OH)2 in the substrate concrete forming secondary
performance of rapid-setting repair materials subjected to calcium-silicate-hydrate (C-S-H) at the bond interface and,
F/T cycles. thus, enhancing the mechanical interlock between the two
The average bond strength values before and after the layers. The latter argument is substantiated by the efficient
combined exposure are shown in Fig. 3. The average value reactivity of binder and densified microstructure observed
of pulloff strength from specimens (four cores) produced a for mixtures comprising higher dosages of fly ash, as shown
coefficient of variation of less than 20% (except for product by the RCPT and thermal and microscopy tests.
A). The results showed that the commercial products A and
B had bond strength of 1.3 and 1.6 MPa (188 and 232 psi), Penetrability
respectively. The bond strength of these products decreased The penetrability of all repair mixtures was evaluated
significantly after the combined exposure by 48 and 31%, by the RCPT at 28 days, and the results of passing charges
respectively, relative to the initial values. The failure of these and physical penetration depth are listed in Table 6. The
specimens occurred mainly at the interface between the commercial product A had a high passing charge value,
repair products and substrate concrete (reflecting some level indicating coarse and continuous pore structure despite

achieving a compressive strength of 34 MPa (4930 psi) at this Surface scaling
age. According to the classification of ASTM C1202,20 all The results of surface scaling due to the combined action
the nano-modified fly ash concrete mixtures had “very low” of deicing salt and F/T cycles (ASTM C672)19 are shown
penetrability, as their passing charges were below 1000 in Fig. 4 and 5. Product A showed a high tendency to surface
coulombs, with comparable performance among the N and scaling after approximately 10 cycles. After 50 cycles, products
R mixtures incorporating similar dosages of fly ash. Corre- A and B had cumulative mass losses of 2.4 kg/m2 (0.49 lb/ft2)
spondingly, these mixtures had markedly lower penetration (visual rating of 4 to 5) and 0.5 kg/m2 (0.10 lb/ft2) (visual
depths (less than 10 mm [0.39 in.]) relative to that of the repair rating of 1 to 2), receptively. Bureau du normalization du
products A (50 mm [1.97 in.]) and B (15 mm [0.59 in.]). Quebec (BNQ)33 and the Ministry of Transportation, Ontario
The dosage of fly ash in the mixtures had a significant effect (MTO)34 stipulate that the failure limits in salt-frost scaling
on the penetration depth. Considerable reduction of penetra- tests are 0.50 and 0.80 kg/m2 [0.10 and 0.16 lb/ft2], respec-
bility was achieved for the N and R mixtures containing 30% tively. According to these criteria, considering the difference
fly ash, which had comparable compressive strength to that of in procedures among the three tests (for example, BNQ and
the commercial repair products at 28 days. ANOVA for the MTO use a less aggressive solution of 3% sodium chloride),
penetration depth results showed that increasing the fly ash products A and B are deemed unacceptable, as they will likely
content from 15% to 30% in the N and R mixtures had F have surface scaling issues in the field. In contrast, all the
values 50.3 and 46.2, which are more than the critical value nano-modified concrete mixtures had limited surface scaling
Fcr of 4.1. This trend indicates the densification and discon- (maximum mass loss of 0.25 kg/m2 [0.05 lb/ft2] [Fig. 4])
tinuity of the pore structure, which can be explained by and low visual ratings (0 to 1 [Fig. 5]), without a significant
the effects of nanosilica and fly ash, as shown later in the difference between the N and corresponding R mixtures. Minor
thermal and microscopy analyses section, thus improving popouts were observed, likely due to the deterioration of some
the durability of the mixtures to the ingress of fluids and, in porous aggregates near the surface of concrete.
turn, their projected long-term performance. It has been reported that the resistance to salt-frost scaling
decreases with increasing the dosage of fly ash in concrete,
which is among the key reasons that deter the wider use of
higher dosages of fly ash in concrete pavements.5-7 High
Table 6—Rapid chloride penetrability test (RCPT)
contents of Class F fly ash in concrete may lead to signif-
results
icant proportions of unbound fly ash particles in the paste,
Passing Chloride ion penetra- Average penetration resulting in coarse microstructure and higher tendency to
Mixture charges, bility class depth, mm surface scaling.5-7 In the current study, incorporation of
ID coulombs (ASTM C1202) [standard error]
30% fly ash in concrete led to a marginal increase in surface
A > 4000 High 50 [0] scaling as the binders were modified with nanosilica, indi-
B 1443 Low 15 [1.0] cating improved durability. This was shown by ANOVA for
NF15 772 Very low 8 [0.4] the results of surface scaling that showed a statistically insig-
nificant difference between 15% and 30% fly ash in the N and
NF22.5 621 Very low 5 [0.7]
R mixtures at 50 F/T cycles, as the F values were 3.8 and 9.4,
NF30 522 Very low 3 [0.3] respectively, which are less than the Fcr of 18.51. In addition,
RF15 921 Very low 9 [0.7] when the curing method and time were varied (Table 7), the
RF22.5 644 Very low 6 [0.7] mass loss results for Mixtures NF30 and RF30 were still
below 0.5 kg/m2 (0.10 lb/ft2). The limited surface scaling of
RF30 602 Very low 5 [0.4]
the concrete mixtures can be attributed to the incorporation
Note: 1 mm = 0.0394 in. of nanosilica with fly ash, which enhanced the reactivity and
Fig. 4—Mass loss of slabs tested according to ASTM C672. (Note: 1 g/m2 = 2.05 × 10–4 lb/ft2.)

Table 7—Effect of curing time and method on average mass loss results after 50 freezing-and-thawing cycles
Mass loss, g/m2
Curing method NF15 NF22.5 NF30 RF15 RF22.5 RF30
14 days curing and 14 days in air (ASTM C672)
*
123 132 189 196 226 247
3 days curing and 14 days in air
*
147 229 398 152 248 410
Curing* the concrete until strength of 20 MPa and 14
142 221 331 210 363 489
days in air
Curing by a chemical compound† and 14 days in air 163 177 236 241 274 376
*
Maintained at a temperature of 23 ± 2°C (73.4 ± 35.6°F) and relative humidity of more than 95%.
†
Curing compound met CSA A23.1-14 (Clause 7.7.2.2) specifications.
Note: 1 g/m2 = 2.05 × 10–4 lb/ft2.
Fig. 5—Exemplar visual ratings of slabs after 50 freezing-and-thawing cycles.

binding of Class F fly ash, as indicated, for example, by the postulated that a very rapid pozzolanic activity is possible
evolution of compressive and tensile strengths. According to as silicate ions from nanosilica aggregates engage with CH
the glue-spall theory,35 which employs fracture mechanics forming pozzolanic C-S-H gel, which subsequently precip-
to explain the process of salt-frost scaling by crack propa- itate on the surface of silica aggregates, resulting in slower
gation into the surface of concrete, the strength of cementi- reactivity at later ages.9,27,30 Whether this mechanism is a
tious matrix substantially controls its resistance to scaling. through-solution process9 or topochemical growth30 is still
The combination of fly ash with nanosilica led to a dense debatable. Moreover, nanosilica can accelerate the hydration
matrix/ITZ (further densifying with time) and higher tensile of cement by creating additional surfaces for early precipi-
capacity, as shown by various tests (for example, bonding, tation of hydration products.9,11,27 Also, It has been shown
RCPT, BSEM), which might discount the process of crack that commercial nanosilica sols (originally dispersed to their
propagation in the surface of concrete and, thus, improve its primary sizes) form small-enough agglomerates to impart a
resistance to salt-frost scaling. filler effect in the cementitious matrix.29,30 All these factors
might have contributed to improving the early-age strength
Thermal and microscopy analyses (up to 7 days) of nano-modified fly ash concrete, even for
The consumption of portlandite (CH) in the cementi- mixtures incorporating 30% fly ash (Table 5).
tious matrix was determined at different ages to capture the It has been documented that the pozzolanic effect of fly ash
evolution of hydration and pozzolanic reactions, as shown in in concrete starts at later ages5,22,23 (typically after 28 days;
Fig. 6. At a constant dosage of nanosilica (6%), consumption F15 and F30 in Fig. 6); therefore, most standard codes for
of CH in the N and R mixtures started at a very early age. For concrete (for example, CSA A23.1 2014)36 require the prop-
example, at 1 day, the normalized CH contents for NF15 and erties of fly ash concrete to be assessed at 56 or 91 days. It
NF30 relative to the corresponding reference mixtures were was reported11 that the pozzolanic action of nanosilica aggre-
less than 1.0 (Fig. 6), which may be linked to a vigorous gates is completed within 7 days; however, Fig. 6 shows a
pozzolanic activity at early age, as observed in the heat of significant consumption in CH in the N and R mixtures from
hydration (Fig. 2) and strength tests (Table 5). It has been 7 to 90 days relative to the reference mixtures, especially at

Fig. 6—Thermogravimetry results for portlandite content (at temperature range of 400 to 450°C [752 to 842°F]) in nano-
modified fly ash concrete mixtures.
Fig. 7—BSEM analysis for a thin section from product A, showing: (a) porous ITZ and coarse microstructure; and (b) associ-
ated EDX spectrum of C-S-H in locations indicated in (a). (Note: S.E. is standard error.)
higher dosages of fly ash (NF30 and RF30). This pinpoints (30%) dosages of fly ash were observed. For instance, Fig. 8
that the presence of nanosilica catalyzed the reactivity of fly shows dense microstructure and refined ITZ at 28 days of
ash in concrete, resulting in an improved level of hydration a specimen from NF30 owing to the synergistic effects
and an evolution of microstructure. The continual reactivity of nanosilica and fly ash, as described previously. EDX
of the ternary binder up to 90 days is attributed to the pozzo- analysis for C-S-H in the ITZ in this specimen showed that
lanic activity of fly ash with time, as, for example, noted in the average C/S was 1.05, indicating an efficient pozzolanic
the results of later-age strength (Table 5) and bonding after activity, and densification of ITZ with secondary C-S-H. It
the combined exposure (Fig. 3). This explains the significant was reported that the C/S of secondary C-S-H from pozzo-
densification and refinement of the pore structure at 28 days lanic reactions is lower than that of conventional C-S-H
in the nano-modified fly ash concrete mixtures, which had produced from cement hydration reactions, the former has
limited penetration depth (average of 6 mm [0.24 in.]). a ratio of approximately 1.1, whereas the latter has a ratio
BSEM was conducted on thin sections to complement of approximately 1.7.37 In addition, Kong et al.30 stated that
the trends observed in the mechanical, durability, and TG when small agglomerates of nanosilica form, water absorp-
tests. In comparison to the commercial product A, all the tion into their ultra-high nano-porosity can reduce the water-
nano-modified fly ash mixtures had a significant degree of binder ratio (w/b) in the paste, thus improving the micro-
refinement and densification in the hydrated paste and ITZ structure of the matrix.
at 28 days. Product A (Fig. 7) showed coarse microstructure in
addition to microcracks in the paste and ITZ; the EDX analysis CONCLUSIONS
for C-S-H in the ITZ showed a high calcium-silicate ratio (C/S) Considering the materials, mixture designs, and testing
(average of 2.0). These features reflect an insufficient level of methods implemented in this study, the following conclu-
hydration conforming to the inferior performance observed sions can be drawn:
for this product in the mechanical and durability tests. On 1. This study indicates that the high early-strength of
the contrary, homogenous and dense matrix in various spec- rapid-setting materials is an insufficient criterion to consider
imens from the N and R mixtures with low (15%) and high a product acceptable as a repair material for concrete pave-

Fig. 8—BSEM analysis for a thin section from NF30, showing: (a) refined ITZ and dense microstructure; and (b) associated
EDX spectrum of C-S-H in locations indicated in (a). (Note: S.E. is standard error.)
ments. Except for early-age strength, the commercial product A of repair applications in concrete pavements, with an antici-
had adverse performance in many aspects such as placement/ pated measurable impact on reducing life cycle costs. Yet, its
finishability and salt-frost scaling. Comparatively, product B field performance needs to be documented, which is recom-
had better performance in early-age strength and resistance mended for future work.
to the ingress of fluids and salt-frost scaling.
2. The normal and rapid nano-modified fly ash concrete AUTHOR BIOS
mixtures developed herein had ample hardening times, ACI member A. Ghazy is a PhD Candidate at the University of Mani-
toba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada. He received his BSc and MSc from Alex-
without excessive delay, which improves the flexibility and andria University, Egypt. His research interests include durability of
quality of the repair process with suitability for different concrete pavements.
repair applications (for example, multiple/large patch areas
ACI member M. T. Bassuoni is an Associate Professor in the Depart-
with less critical opening time to traffic). ment of Civil Engineering at the University of Manitoba. He is a member
3. The incorporation of 6% nanosilica in concrete with up of ACI Committees 201, Durability of Concrete; 236, Material Science of
to 30% fly ash significantly shortened the dormant period and Concrete; 237, Self-Consolidating Concrete; and 241, Nanotechnology of
Concrete. His research interests include cementitious materials and dura-
accelerated the rate of hydration reactions, which discounted bility of concrete.
some of the retarding effect of Class F fly ash on the rate of
hardening of concrete. A. Shalaby is a Professor in the Department of Civil Engineering at the
University of Manitoba. His research interests include pavement engi-
4. The synergistic effects of nanosilica and fly ash in neering and infrastructure management.
both the N and R mixtures improved the early-age and
long-term compressive, tensile, and bond (even after the ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
combined exposure) strengths of concrete, which indicate The authors highly appreciate the financial support from Natural Sciences
that the inherently slower rate of strength and microstruc- and Engineering Research Council of Canada, University of Manitoba
Graduate Fellowship, and City of Winnipeg. The new IKO Construction
tural development of concrete containing Class F fly ash can Materials Testing Facility at the University of Manitoba in which these
be controlled by the addition of small dosages of nanosilica. experiments were conducted has been instrumental to this research.
5. The combination of fly ash with nanosilica led to a
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REVIEWERS IN 2015
In 2015, the individuals listed on these pages served as technical reviewers of papers offered for publication in ACI periodicals.
A special “thank you” to them for their voluntary assistance in helping ACI maintain the high quality of its publication program.
£aźniewska-Piekarczyk, Beata Aguiar, Amaury

Silesian University of Technology Belem, Brazil
Gliwice, Poland Ahmad, Shamsad
Abaza, Osama King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals
University of Alaska Anchorage Dhahran, Saudi Arabia
Anchorage, AK, United States Ahmed, Ehab
Abbasnia, Reza University of Sherbrooke
University of Science and Technology Sherbrooke, QC, Canada
Tehran, Islamic Republic of Iran Ahmed, Zeyad
Abd El-Aleem, Saleh Michigan Technological University
Fayoum University Houghton, MI, United States
El-Fayoum, Egypt Aire, Carlos
Abd-Elfatah, Sahar National Autonomous University of Mexico
Higher Institute for Engineering and Technology Mexico, DF, Mexico
Alexandria, Egypt Akalin, Ozlem
Abdalla, Jamal Plustechno Ltd
American University of Sharjah Istanbul, Turkey
Sharjah, United Arab Emirates Akbarnezhad, Ali
Abdel-Mohti, Ahmed The University of New South Wales
Ohio Northern University Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
Ada, OH, United States Akcay, Burcu
Abdelatif Mohammed, Amged Osman Kocaeli University
University of Khartoum Kocaeli, Turkey
Khartoum, Sudan Akınay, Yuksel
Abdelaziz, Gamal Iron and Steel Institution/Material Researcher Center
Benha University Karbuk, Turkey
Cairo, Egypt Akiyama, Mitsuyoshi
Abdelgader, Hakim Waseda University
Tripoli University Tokyo, Japan
Tripoli, Libyan Arab Jamahiriya Al-Amoudi, Omar
Abdulla, Nwzad King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals
University of Salahaddin Dhahran, Saudi Arabia
Erbil, Iraq Al-Azzawi, Adel
Aboutaha, Riyad Nahrain University
Syracuse University Baghdad, Iraq
Syracuse, NY, United States Al-Chaar, Ghassan
Abu Bakar, Badorul Hisham USAERDC
Universiti Sains Malaysia Champaign, IL, United States
Nibong Tebal, Pulau Pinang, Malaysia Al-Hadithi, Abdulkader
Abu Yosef, Ali University of Anbar
Pivot Engineers Ramadi, Al-Anbar, Iraq
Austin, TX, United States Al-Harthy, Ali
Achintha, Mithila Sultan Qaboos University
University of Oxford Al-Khaudh, Oman
Oxford, UK Alam, A. K. M. Jahangir
Acun, Bora Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology (BUET)
University of Houston Dhaka, Bangladesh
Houston, TX, United States Alam, M. Shahria
Adamczewski, Grzegorz The University of British Columbia
Warsaw University of Technology Kelowna, BC, Canada
Warsaw, Poland Alam, Mahbub
Stamford University Bangladesh
Agarwal, Pankaj Dhaka, Bangladesh
Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee
Roorkee, Uttarakhand, India

REVIEWERS IN 2015
Albuquerque, Albéria Aslani, Farhad
Federal Institute of Technological Education of Mato Grosso University of Technology Sydney
Cuiabá, Mato Grosso, Brazil Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
Alexander, Mark Assaad, Joseph
University of Cape Town Notre Dame University
Cape Town, South Africa Beirut, Lebanon
Aljewifi, Hana Astarlioglu, Serdar
Université de Cergy-Pontoise University of Florida
Cergy-Pontosie Cedex, France Gainesville, FL, United States
Alkhairi, Fadi Atamturktur, Sez
Drake and Scull Construction Clemson University
Riyadh, Saudi Arabia Clemson, SC, United States
Almeida, Joao Athanasopoulou, Adamantia
IST Metropolitan College
Lisbon, Portugal Xalandri, Attiki, Greece
Almuhsin, Bayrak Attia, Walid
University of Technology Cairo University
Karrada, Baghdad, Iraq Giza, Egypt
Almusallam, Tarek Aviram, Ady
King Saud University Simpson Gumpertz & Heger, Inc.
Riyadh, Saudi Arabia San Francisco, CA, United States
Alqam, Maha Awida, Tarek
The University of Jordan KEO International Consultants
Amman, Jordan Kuwait
Alsiwat, Jaber Awwad, Elie
Saudi Consulting Services Lebanese University, Branch II
Riyadh, Saudi Arabia Mount Lebanon, Lebanon
Altunişik, Ahmet Can Aydin, Abdulkadir Cuneyt
Karadeniz Technical University Ataturk University
Trabzon, Turkey Erzurum, Turkey
Amani Dashlejeh, Jafar Aydin, Ertug
Bauhaus University of Weimar European University of Lefke
Weimar, Germany Nicosia, Turkey
Andersson, Ronny Aykac, Sabahattin
Hollviken, Sweden Gazi University
Ansari, Abdul Aziz Ankara, Turkey
Quaid-e-Awam Engineering University Azari, Hoda
Nawabshah, Sindh, Pakistan The University of Texas at El Paso
Aravinthan, Thiru El Paso, TX, United States
University of Southern Queensland Azimov, Umid
Toowoomba, Queensland, Australia Atkins Global
Ardahl, Jon Houston, TX, United States
Lecompton, KS, United States Aziz, Ali
Arel, Hasan Al-Mustenseriaha University
Izmir, Turkey Baghdad, Iraq
Arisoy, Bengi Bai, Shaoliang

Ege University Chongqing University
Izmir, Turkey Chonqqing, China
Aristizabal-Ochoa, Jose Bai, Xu

National University Jiangsu University of Science and Technology
Medellín, Antioquia, Colombia Zhenjiang, Jiangsu, China
Arockiasamy, Madasamy Bai, Yongtao

Florida Atlantic University Kyoto University
Boca Raton, FL, United States Kyoto, Japan
Ashrafy, Mohammad Balaji Rao, K.

Islamic Azad University – Arak Branch CSIR-Structural Engineering Research Centre
Kermanshah, Islamic Republic of Iran Chennai, India

REVIEWERS IN 2015
Balouch, Sana Bektas, Fatih
University of Dundee Iowa State University
Dundee, UK Ames, IA, United States
Banibayat, Pouya Belkowitz, Jon
ARUP Stevens Institute of Technology
New York, NY, United States Freehold, NJ, United States
Banić, Davor Belleri, Andrea
Civil Engineering Institute of Croatia University of Bergamo
Zagreb, Croatia Dalmine, Italy
Baran, Eray Benliang, Liang
Middle East Technical University Shanghai, China
Ankara, Turkey Bentz, Evan
Barbosa, Andre University of Toronto
Oregon State University Toronto, ON, Canada
Corvallis, OR, United States Bernard, Erik Stefan
Barišić, Ivana TSE P/L
Osijek, Croatia Penrith, Australia
Barros, Joaquim Bernardo, Luis
University of Minho University of Beira Interior
Guimaraes, Portugal Covilhã, Portugal
Bashandy, ALaa Berry, Michael
Menofiya University Montana State University
Shibin El-Kom, Menoufia, Egypt Bozeman, MT, United States
Batson, Gordon Bettadapura, RaghuPrasad
Clarkson University Indian Institute of Science
Potsdam, NY, United States Bangalore, Karnataka, India
Bayrak, Oguzhan Bilcik, Juraj
University of Texas at Austin Slovak University of Technology in Bratislava
Austin, TX, United States Bratislava, Slovakia
Bayraktar, Alemdar Bilek, Vlastimil
Trabzon, Turkey ZPSV a.s.
Bažant, Zdeněk Brno, Czech Republic
Northwestern University Bilir, Turhan
Evanston, IL, United States Bülent Ecevit University
Bebawy, Mena Zonguldak, Turkey
Lawrence Technological University Bill, Herbert
Southfield, MI, United States University of Cincinnati
Bedarev, Vladimir Cincinnati, OH, United States
Novocuznetsk, Russian Federation Bimschas, Martin
Beddar, Miloud Regensdorf, Switzerland
M’sila University Binici, Baris
M’sila, Algeria Middle East Technical University
Ankara, Turkey
Bederina, Madani
University Amar Telidji Biolzi, Luigi
Laghouat, Algeria Politecnico di Milano
Milan, Italy
Bediako, Mark
CSIR - Building and Road Research Institute Birely, Anna
Kumasi, Ashanti, Ghana Texas A&M University
College Station, TX, United States
Bedirhanoglu, Idris
Dicle University Bisby, Luke
Diyarbakir, Turkey University of Edinburgh
Edinburgh, Midlothian, UK
Begum, Mahbuba
BUET Bisschop, Jan
Dhaka, Bangladesh University of Oslo
Oslo, Norway
Behnoud, Ali
Iran University of Science and Technology Blanco, Ana
Tehran, Islamic Republic of Iran Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya
Barcelona, Spain

REVIEWERS IN 2015
Bobko, Christopher Cairns, John
North Carolina State University Heriot-Watt University
Raleigh, NC, United States Edinburgh, UK
Bolhassani, Mohammad Calixto, José
Drexel University UFMG
Philadelphia, PA, United States Belo Horizonte, Brazil
Bondar, Dali Campione, Giuseppe
Tehran, Islamic Republic of Iran Universita Palermo
Bonetti, Rodolfo Palermo, Italy
Pontificia Universidad Católica Madre y Maestra Canbay, Erdem
Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic Middle East Technical University
Borzovič, Viktor Ankara, Cankaya, Turkey
Slovak University of Technology Cano Barrita, Prisciliano
Bratislava, Slovakia Instituto Politécnico Nacional/CIIDIR Unidad Oaxaca
Bradberry, Timothy Oaxaca, Mexico
TxDOT Bridge Division Capozucca, Roberto
Austin, TX, United States Ancona, Italy
Braestrup, Mikael Carreira, Domingo
Ramboll Hannemann and Hojlund A/S Chicago, IL, United States
Virum, Denmark Carvalho, Alessandra
Brand, Alexander Pontifical Catholic University of Goiás
University of Illinois Goiânia, Goiás, Brazil
Urbana, IL, United States Castro, Javier
Breen, Andrea Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile
Johnson Creek, WI, United States Santiago, Chile
Breysse, Denis Cattaneo, Sara
University Bordeaux Politecnico di Milano
Talence Cedex, France Milan, Italy
Broujerdian, Vahid Cavalaro, Sergio Henrique
Iran University of Science and Technology Universidad Politécnica de Cataluña
Tehran, Islamic Republic of Iran Barcelona, Spain
Brown, Michael Çavuşoğlu, İbrahim
WDP & Associates Gümüşhane University
Austin, TX, United States Gümüşhane, Turkey
Bujnak, Jan Cervenka, Vladimir
Peikko Group Corporation Cervenka Consulting
Kralova Nad Vahom, Slovakia Petriny, Czech Republic
Bulavytskyi, Maksym Cetisli, Fatih
Donbas National Academy of Civil Engineering and Architecture Pamukkale University
Makiyivka, Donetska Oblastj, Ukraine Denizli, Turkey
Burdet, Olivier Chai, Hwa Kian
EPFL - ENAC Tobishima Corporation
Lausanne, Switzerland Noda, Chiba, Japan
Burgoyne, C. Chang, Jeremy
University of Cambridge Holmes Fire & Safety
Cambridge, UK Christchurch, New Zealand
Büyükkaragöz, Alper Chang, Ta-Peng
Faculty of Technology NTUST
Ankara, Turkey Taipei, Taiwan, China
Byard, Benjamin Chaudhary, Sandeep
University of Tennessee at Chattanooga Malaviya National Institute of Technology Jaipur
Chattanooga, TN, United States Jaipur, Rajasthan, India
Bzeni, Dallshad Chaunsali, Piyush
University of Salahaddin Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Erbil, Iraq Cambridge, MA, United States

REVIEWERS IN 2015
Chellappan, Selin Ravikumar C. Christou, Petros
Adhiparasakthi Engineering College Frederick University
Melmaruvathur, Tamil Nadu, India Nicosia, Cyprus
Chen, Chun-Tao Chun, Sung-Chul
National Taiwan University of Science and Technology Incheon National University
Taipei, Taiwan, China Incheon, Republic of Korea
Chen, Qi Chung, Jae
Boral Materials Technology University of Florida
San Antonio, TX, United States Gainesville, FL, United States
Chen, Xia Chung, Lan
Changjiang River Scientific Research Institute Dankook University
Wuhan, China Seoul, Republic of Korea
Cheng, Min-Yuan Climent, Miguel
National Taiwan University of Science and Technology University of Alacant
Taipei, Taiwan, China Alacant, Spain
Chi, Maochieh Coelho, Jano
WuFeng University AltoQi Informatica
Chiayi County, Taiwan, China Florianopolis, Santa Catarina, Brazil
Chiang, Chih-Hung Cordova, Carlos
Chaoyang University of Technology La Paz, Bolivia
Wufong, Taichung, Taiwan, China Coronelli, Dario
Chindaprasirt, Prinya Politecnico di Milano
Khon Kaen University Milano, Italy
Khon Kaen, Thailand Cortes, Douglas
Cho, Soon-Ho New Mexico State University
Gwangju University Las Cruces, NM, United States
Gwangju, Republic of Korea Crespi, Pietro
Choi, Bong-Seob Politecnico of Milan
Chungwoon University Milano, Italy
Hongseong-Gun, Republic of Korea Cueto, Jorge
Choi, Chang-Sik Universidad de La Salle
Hnayang University Bogota, Colombia
Seoul, Republic of Korea Dancygier, Avraham
Technion
Choi, Eunsoo Haifa, Israel
Hongik University
Seoul, Republic of Korea Dao, Vinh
University of Queensland
Choi, Kyoung-Kyu Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
Soongsil University
Seoul, Republic of Korea Das Adhikary, Satadru
National University of Singapore
Choi, Sejin Singapore
University of California, Berkeley
Albany, CA, United States Das, Diptesh
National Institute of Technology, Durgapur
Choong, Kokkeong Durgapur, West Bengal, India
Universiti Sains Malaysia
Pulau Pinang, Seberang Perai Selatan, Malaysia Daugevičius, Mykolas
Vilnius Gediminas Technical University
Chorzepa, Migeum Vilnius, Lithuania
Park Ridge, IL, United States
De Brito, Jorge
Chowdhury, Sharmin IST/TUL
Bogazici University Lisbon, Portugal
Istanbul, Turkey
De Frutos, Jose
Chowdhury, Subrato Universidad Politecnica de Madrid
Ultra Tech Cement ltd Madrid, Spain
Mumbai, Maharashtra, India
De la Fuente, Albert
Christen, Robert Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya
American Engineering Testing, Inc. Barcelona, Spain
Port Charlotte, FL, United States

REVIEWERS IN 2015
De Rooij, Mario Dongxu, Li
TNO Nanjing University of Technology
Delft, the Netherlands Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
Deb, Arghya Dontchev, Dimitar
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur University of Chemical Technology and Metallurgy
Kharagpur, West Bengal, India Sofia, Bulgaria
Degtyarev, Vitaliy Dotreppe, Jean-Claude
Columbia, SC, United States University of Liege-Mehanique Genie Civil
Liege, Belgium
Demis, Sotiris
University of Patras Du, Hongjian
Patra, Greece National University of Singapore
Singapore
Den Uijl, Joop
Delft University of Technology Du, Jinsheng
Delft, the Netherlands Beijing Jiao Tong University
Beijing, China
Deng, Yaohua
Iowa State University Du, Lianxiang
Ames, IA, United States The University of Alabama at Birmingham
Birmingham, AL, United States
Detwiler, Rachel
Braun Intertec Corp. Dutta, Anjan
Minneapolis, MN, United States Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati
Guwahati, Assam, India
Dheilly, Rose-Marie
Laboratoire des Technologies Innovantes Duvallet, Tristana
Dury, France University of Kentucky
Lexington, KY, United States
G. Dhinakaran
Sastra University El-Ariss, Bilal
Thanjavur, India United Arab Emirates University
Al Ain, United Arab Emirates
Dhole, Rajaram
St. John’s, NL, Canada El-Dash, Karim
College of Technological Studies
Dhonde, Hemant
Kuwait
University of Houston
Houston, TX, United States El-Dieb, Amr
Ain Shams University
Di Ludovico, Marco
Abbasia, Cairo, Egypt
University of Naples Federico II
Naples, Italy El-Hawary, Moetaz
Diao, Bo Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research
Beihang University Safat, Kuwait
Beijing, China El-Maaddawy, Tamer
Diaz Loya, Eleazar United Arab Emirates University
Louisiana Tech University Al-Ain, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
Ruston, LA, United States El-Metwally, Salah
Dinev, Dobromir University of Hawaii at Manoa
UACEG Honolulu, HI, United States
Sofia, Bulgaria El-Refaie, Sameh
Diniz, Sofia Maria El-Gama City, Mataria, Cairo, Egypt
Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais El-Salakawy, Ehab
Be lo Horizonte, Brazil University of Manitoba
Dogan, Unal Winnipeg, MB, Canada
Istanbul Technical University El-Sayed, Ahmed
Istanbul, Turkey University of Sherbrooke
Doh, Jeung-Hwan Sherbrooke, QC, Canada
Griffith University Elahi, Ayub
Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia Taxilla, Pakistan
Dolan, Charles Elamin, Anwar
University of Wyoming University of Nyala
Laramie, WY, United States Nyala, Sudan
Dongell, Jonathan
Pebble Technologies
Scottsdale, AZ, United States
REVIEWERS IN 2015
Elbahar, Mohamed Ferguson, Bruce
Ken Okamoto & Associates - Stuctural Engineers University of Georgia
Rancho Santa Margarita, CA, United States Athens, GA, United States
Eldarwish, Aly Fernandez Montes, David
Alexandria, Egypt Madrid, Spain
Elfgren, Lennart Fernández Ruiz, Miguel
Luleå University of Technology Ecole Polytechnique Federale de Lausanne
Luleå, Sweden Lausanne, Vaud, Switzerland
Elmasry, Mohamed Ferrara, Liberato
Arab Academy for Science and Technology and Politecnico di Milano
Maritime Transport Milan, Italy
Alexandria, Egypt Ferraris, Chiara
Elsayed, Tarek NIST
Cairo, Egypt Gaithersburg, MD, United States
Eltahawy, Reham Ferron, Raissa
Ain Shams University University of Texas at Austin
Cairo, Egypt Austin, TX, United States
Erdogan, Sinan Folino, Paula
Middle East Technical University University of Buenos Aires
Ankara, Turkey Buenos Aires, Argentina
Erdogan, Yasin Foraboschi, Paolo
Hatay, Iskenderun, Turkey Universita IUAV di Venezia
Ergün, Ali Venice, Italy
Technical Education Faculty Forth, John
Afyonkarahısar, Turkey University of Leeds
Esmaeily, Asad Leeds, UK
Kansas State University Fouad, Fouad
Manhattan, KS, United States University of Alabama at Birmingham
Esperanza, Menendez Birmingham, AL, United States
IETCC-CSIC Francüois, Buyle-Bodin
Madrid, Spain University of Lille
Fantilli, Alessandro Villeneuve d’Ascq, France
Politecnico di Torino Frosch, Robert
Torino, Italy Purdue University
Fardis, Michael West Lafayette, IN, United States
Patras, Greece Fuchs, Werner
Farghaly, Ahmed University of Stuttgart
University of Sherbrooke Stuttgart, Germany
Sherbrooke, QC, Canada Fuentes, Jose Maria
Faria, Duarte Polytechnic University of Madrid
Caparica-Lisbon, Portugal Madrid, Spain
Farrokhi, Farhang Fujikake, Kazunori

Zanjan, Islamic Republic of Iran National Defense Academy
Yokosuka Kanagawa, Japan
Farzam, Masood
Tabriz, Islamic Republic of Iran Gabrijel, Ivan
University of Zagreb
Fathi, Hamoon Zagreb, Croatia
Sanandaj Branch, Islamic Azad University
Sanandaj, Kurdistan, Islamic Republic of Iran Gajdosova, Katarina
Bratislava, Slovakia
Fattuhi, Nijad
Birmingham, UK Ganesan, N.
National Institute of Technology
Feldman, Lisa Calicut, India
University of Saskatchewan
Saskatoon, SK, Canada Gao, XiangLing
Tongji University
Fenollera, Maria Shanghai, China
Universidade de Vigo
Vigo, Spain

REVIEWERS IN 2015
Garcez, Estela Guo, Zixiong
Universidade Federal de Pelotas Huaqiao University
Pelotas, RS, Brazil Quanzhou, Fujian, China
Gayed, Ramez Gupta, Pramod
University of Calgary I.I.T. Roorkee
Calgary, AB, Canada Roorkee, Uttarakhand, India
Gergely, Janos Gupta, Rajiv
UNC Charlotte BITS Pilani
Charlotte, NC, United States Pilani, Rajasthan, India
Gesoglu, Mehmet Gupta, Rishi
Gaziantep University Vancouver, BC, Canada
Gaziantep, Turkey Gursel, Aysegul
Ghezal, Aïcha University of California, Berkeley
Ecole de Technologie de Montreal Berkeley, CA, United States
Montreal, QC, Canada Haach, Vladimir
Giaccio, Craig University of São Paulo
AECOM São Carlos, São Paulo, Brazil
Melbourne, Victoria, Australia Habbaba, Ahmad
Girgin, Canan Technische Universität München
Yildiz Technical University Garching, Germany
Istanbul, Turkey Haber, Zachary
Goel, Rajeev PSI
CSIR-Central Road Research Institute McLean, VA, United States
Delhi, India Haddadin, Laith
Gongxun, Wang United Nations
Hunan University of Science and Technology New York, NY, United States
Xiangtan, China Hadi, Muhammad
González, Javier University of Wollongong
University of Basque Country Wollongong, New South Wales, Australia
Bilbao, Basque Country, Spain Hadje-Ghaffari, Hossain
González, María John A. Martin & Assoc.
Polytechnic University of Madrid Los Angeles, CA, United States
Madrid, Spain Hagenberger, Michael
Gonzalez-Valle, Enrique The Ohio State University
Madrid, Spain Columbus, OH, United States
Grandić, Davor Hager, Angela
University of Rijeka City and County of Denver
Rijeka, Croatia Denver, CO, United States
Gribniak, Viktor Haggag, Hesham
Vilnius Gediminas Technical University Cairo, Egypt
Vilnius, Lithuania Hamid, Roszilah
Gross, Shawn Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia
Villanova University Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia
Villanova, PA, United States Haneefa Kolakkadan, Mohammad
Guadagnini, Maurizio SSN College of Engineering
The University of Sheffield Kalavakkam, Tamilnadu, India
Sheffield, UK Hao, Yifei
Güneyisi, Erhan Curtin University
Gaziantep University Bentley, Western Australia, Australia
Gaziantep, Turkey Harajli, Mohamed
Guo, Honglei American University of Beirut
Wuhan Polytechnic University Beirut, Lebanon
Wu Han City, Hu Bei Province, China Harbec, David
Guo, Liping Université de Sherbrooke
Southeast University Sherbrooke, QC, Canada
Nanjing, Jiangsu Province, China

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Hariri-Ardebili, Mohammad Amin Hrynyk, Trevor
University of Colorado University of Texas at Austin
Boulder, CO, United States Austin, TX, United States
Harmon, Thomas Hu, Jiong
Washington University in St. Louis University of Nebraska – Lincoln
Saint Louis, MO, United States Lincoln, NE, United States
Harries, Kent Hu, Nan
University of Pittsburgh Tsinghua University
Pittsburgh, PA, United States Beijing, China
Hashemi, Shervin Huang, Chang-Wei
Seoul National University Chung Yuan Christian University
Seoul, Republic of Korea Chung Li, Taiwan, China
Hassan, Assem Huang, Chung-Ho
Toronto, ON, Canada National Taipei University of Technology
Hassan, Maan Taipei, Taiwan, China
University of Technology Huang, Jianwei
Baghdad, Iraq Southern Illinois University Edwardsville
Hassan, Mohamed Edwardsville, IL, United States
University of Sherbrooke Huang, Qindan
Sherbrooke, QC, Canada The University of Akron
Hawileh, Rami Akron, OH, United States
American University of Sharjah Hung, Chung-Chan
Sharjah, United Arab Emirates University of Michigan
He, Xiaobing Ann Arbor, MI, United States
Chongqing Jiaotong University Hung, Mengfeng
Chongqing, China De Lin Institute of Technology
He, Zhiqi New Taipei City, Taiwan, China
Southeast University Husain, Mohamed
Nanjing, Jiangsu, China Zagazig University
Helene, Paulo Zagazig, Egypt
Universidade de São Paulo Hwang, Shyh-Jiann
São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil National Taiwan University
Helmy, Huda Taipei, Taiwan, China
Applied Science International Ibrahim, Amer
Durham, NC, United States Baquba, Iraq
Hemalatha, T. Ibrahim, Hisham
CSIR-Structural Engineering Research Centre Buckland and Taylor ltd
Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India North Vancouver, BC, Canada
Henry, Richard Ichinose, Toshikatsu
University of Auckland Nagoya Institute of Technology
Auckland, New Zealand Nagoya, Japan
Ho, Johnny Ilki, Alper
The University of Hong Kong Istanbul Technical University
Hong Kong, China Istanbul, Turkey
Hong, Sung-Gul Ince, Ragip
Seoul National University Firat University Engineering Faculty
Seoul, Republic of Korea Elazig, Turkey
Hossain, Khandaker Irassar, Edgardo
Ryerson University Dep. Ingenieria Civil - UNCPBA
Toronto, ON, Canada Olavarria, Buenos Aires, Argentina
Hossain, Tanvir Jain, Mohit
Louisiana State University Nirma University
Houston, TX, United States Ahmedabad, Gujarat, India
Hover, Kenneth C. Jain, Shashank
Cornell University Delhi Technological University (DTU)
Ithaca, NY, United States New Delhi, India

REVIEWERS IN 2015
Jamkar, Sanjay Kang, Thomas
Govt. College of Engineering, Aurangabad Seoul National University
Aurangabad, Maharashtra, India Seoul, Republic of Korea
Jang, Seung Yup Kankam, Charles
Korea Railroad Research Institute Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology
Uiwang, Gyongggi-do, Republic of Korea Kumasi, Ghana
Janotka, Ivan Kansara, Kunal
Building Testing and Research Institute Mouchel Infrastructure Services
Bratislava, Slovakia Bristol, UK
Jansen, Daniel Kantarao, Velidandi
California Polytechnic State University Central Road Research Institute
San Luis Obispo, CA, United States New Delhi, Delhi, India
Jarallah, Husain Kanwar, Varinder
The University of Mustansiriyah Chitkara University
Baghdad, Iraq Barotiwala, Himachal Pradesh, India
Jeng, Chyuan-Hwan Karayannis, Christos
National Chi Nan University-Taiwan Democritus University of Thrace
Puli/Nantou, Taiwan, China Xanthi, Greece
Jeon, Se-Jin Kashipurad, K. B. Prakash
Ajou University Government Engineering College
Suwon-si, Gyeonggi-do, Republic of Korea Haveri, Karnataka, India
Jiang, Hai-Jun Katz, Amnon
State Key Laboratory of Coal Resources and Safe Mining
Technion-Israel Institute of Technology
(CUMT) Haifa, Israel
Xuzhou, Jiangsu, China Kawamura, Mitsunori
Jiang, Hua Kanazawa, Ishikawa, Japan
University of Georgia Kazemi, Mohammad
Athens, GA, United States Sharif University of Technology
Jiang, Jiabiao Tehran, Islamic Republic of Iran
W. R. Grace (Singapore) Pte Ltd Kazemi, Sadegh
Singapore University of Alberta
Jin, Ruoyu Edmonton, AB, Canada
University of Nottingham Ningbo China Kenai, Said
Ningbo, Zhejiang, China Université de Blida
Jozić, Dražan Blida, Algeria
Split, Croatia Kenel, Albin
Juvandes, Luis Rapperswil University of Applied Sciences HSR
Universidade do Porto: FEUP Horw, Switzerland
Porto, Portugal Kevern, John
Kabashi, Naser University of Missouri – Kansas City
Prishtine Kosove, Albania Kansas City, MO, United States
Kaklauskas, Gintaris Khan, Mohammad
Vilnius Gediminas Technical University King Saud University
Vilnius, Lithuania Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
Kam, Weng Yuen Khan, Sadaqat
University of Canterbury Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS
Christchurch, Canterbury, New Zealand Tronoh, Perak, Malaysia
Kamanli, Mehmet Khennane, Amar
Selcuk University UNSW @ ADFA
Konya, Turkey Canberra, Australian Capital Territory, Australia
Kampmann, Raphael Kheyroddin, Ali
Florida State University University of Texas at Arlington
Tallahassee, FL, United States Arlington, TX, United States
Kanagaraj, Ramadevi Kianoush, M. Reza
Kumaraguru College of Technology Ryerson University
Coimbatore, Tamilnadu, India Toronto, ON, Canada

REVIEWERS IN 2015
Kilic, Sami Kumar, Ratnesh
Bogazici University Visvesaraya National Institute of Technology Nagpur
Istanbul, Turkey Nagpur, Maharashtra, India
Kim, Eunhye Kumar, Vinod
Colorado School of Mines Steel Authority of India Limited
Golden, CO, United States Ranchi, Jharkhand, India
Kim, Jang Hoon Kunnath, Sashi
Ajou University University of California, Davis
Suwon, Republic of Korea Davis, CA, United States
Kim, JunHee Kupwade-Patil, Kunal
Korea Institute of Construction Technology Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Goyang-si, Gyeonggi-do, Republic of Korea Cambridge, MA, United States
Kim, Kil-Hee Kusbiantoro, Andri
Kongju National University Universiti Malaysia Pahang
Kongju, Chungnam, Republic of Korea Gambang, Pahang, Malaysia
Kim, Sang Heon Kwan, Albert
Konkuk University The University of Hong Kong
Seoul, Republic of Korea Hong Kong, China
Kim, Yail Jimmy Kwan, Wai Hoe
University of Colorado Denver Universiti Sains Malaysia
Denver, CO, United States Gelugor, Penang, Malaysia
Kim, Yong Jic La Tegola, Antonio
Daewoo E&C University of Lecce
Suwon, Gyeonggi, Republic of Korea Lecce, Italy
Kim, Young Hoon Labibzadeh, Mojtaba
Oregon State University Ahvaz, the Islamic Republic of Iran
Corvallis, OR, United States
Lagaros, Nikos
Kishi, Norimitsu Institute of Structural Analysis & Seismic Research, National
Muroran Institute of Technology Technical University of Athens
Muroran, Japan Athens, Greece
Kisicek, Tomislav Lai, James
Zagreb, Croatia La Canada, CA, United States
Kitayama, Kazuhiro Lai, Jianzhong
Tokyo Metropolitan University Nanjing University of Science and Technology
Tokyo, Japan Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
Kode, Venkata Ramesh Lamanna, Anthony
Gitam University New Orleans, LA, United States
Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh, India
Lampropoulos, Andreas
Koenders, Eddie A. B. University of Patras
TU Darmstadt Patras, Greece
Darmstadt, Hessen, Germany
Laskar, Aminul
Kohler, Erwin National Institute of Technology
Dynatest Silchar, Assam, India
Davis, CA, United States
Laterza, Michelangelo
Kotsovos, Gerasimos University of Basilicata
National Technical University of Athens Potenza, Italy
Athens, Greece
Lau, Teck
Kotsovos, Michael University of Nottingham
Athens, Greece Semenyih, Selangor, Malaysia
Koyama, Tomoyuki Law, David
Fukuoka, Japan RMIT University
Krem, Slamah Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
University of Waterloo Lawler, John
Waterloo, ON, Canada Wiss, Janney, Elstner Associates, Inc.
Kumar, Rakesh Northbrook, IL, United States
Central Road Research Institute
Delhi, India

REVIEWERS IN 2015
Lee, Chadon Li, Zhu
Chung-Ang University Taiyuan University of Technology
Ansung, Kyungki-Do, Republic of Korea Taiyuan, China
Lee, Chi King Lignola, Gian Piero
Nanyang Technological University University of Naples Federico II
Singapore Naples, Italy
Lee, Deuck Hang Lima, Maria Cristina
University of Seoul Federal University of Uberlândia
Seoul, Republic of Korea Uberlandia MG, Minas Gerais, Brazil
Lee, Douglas Lin, Wei-Ting
Douglas D. Lee and Associates Ilan, Taiwan, China
Fort Worth, TX, United States Lin, Zhibin
Lee, Heui Hwang Fargo, ND, United States
Arup Liu, Jiepeng
San Francisco, CA, United States Chongqing University
Lee, Hung-Jen Chongqing, China
National Yunlin University of Science and Technology Liu, Jun
Douliu, Yunlin, Taiwan, China Beijing, China
Lee, Jae-Man
Lotte Engineering and Construction Liu, Junshan
Seoul, Republic of Korea Sargent Lundy LLC
Chicago, IL, United States
Lee, Nam Ho
SNC-Lavalin Nuclear Liu, Shuhua
Oakville, ON, Canada Wuhan University
Wuhan, HuBei, China
Lee, Seong-Cheol
KEPCO International Graduate School (KINGS) Liu, Xuejian
Ulsan, Republic of Korea University of Texas at Arlington
Arlington, TX, United States
Lee, Yoon-Si
Bradley University Liu, Yanbo
Peoria, IL, United States Florida Atlantic University
Dania Beach, FL, United States
Lee, Young Hak
Seoul, Republic of Korea Liu, Ze
China University of Mining & Technology, Beijing
Leone, Marianovella Beijing, China
University of Salento
Lecce, Italy Liu, Zhao
Southeast University
Lequesne, Remy Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
University of Kansas
Lawrence, KS, United States Lizarazo Marriaga, Juan
Coventry University
Li, Fumin Coventry, UK
China University of Mining and Technology
Xuzhou, Jiangsu, China Lodi, Sarosh
NED University
Li, Jiabin Karachi, Pakistan
Graz University of Technology
Graz, Austria Long, Adrian
Queens University
Li, Qingbin Belfast, UK
Tsinghua University
Beijing, China Long, Xu
Nanyang Technological University
Li, Qixuan Singapore
Xi’an, China
Loo, Yew-Chaye
Li, Shuguang Gold Coast, Australia
China Institute of Water Resources and Hydropower Research
Beijing, China Lopes, Anne
Furnas Centrais Electricas SA
Li, Wei Aparecida de Goiania, Goias, Brazil
Wenzhou University
Wenzhou, Zhejiang, China Lopes, Sergio
University of Coimbra
Li, Xinghe Coimbra, Portugal
University of New Hampshire
Durham, NH, United States

REVIEWERS IN 2015
López-Almansa, Francisco Manso, Juan
Technical University of Catalonia University of Burgos
Barcelona, Spain Burgos, Castilla - León, Spain
Lotfy, Abdurrahmaan Manzur, Tanvir
Lafarge Canada Inc. Bangladesh University of Engineering & Technology
Toronto, ON, Canada Dhaka, Bangladesh
Lou, Lei Marar, Khaled
S and R Engineers, P.C. Eastern Mediterranean University
Hamilton, NJ, United States Gazimagusa, Turkey
Lounis, Zoubir Mari, Antonio
National Research Council Universitat Politecnica de Catalunya
Ottawa, ON, Canada Barcelona, Spain
Lushnikova, Nataliya Markovic, Ivan
National University of Water Management and Nature
DSP Ingenieure & Planer AG
Resources Use Greifensee, Switzerland
Rivne, Ukraine Martinelli, Enzo
Ma, Zhongguo University of Salerno
University of Tennessee Fisciano, Italy
Knoxville, TN, United States Martin-Perez, Beatriz
Maage, Magne University of Ottawa
Skanska Norge AS Ottawa, ON, Canada
Trondheim, Norway Maslehuddin, Mohammed
Machida, Atsuhiko King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals
Saitama University Dhahran, Saudi Arabia
Saitama, Japan Matsagar, Vasant
Macht, Jürgen Lawrence Technological University
Kirchdorf, Austria Southfield, MI, United States
Madani, Hesam Matta, Fabio
Kerman Graduate University of Technology University of South Carolina
Kerman, Islamic Republic of Iran Columbia, SC, United States
Maggenti, Ric Maximos, Hany
Caltrans Pharos University in Alexandria
Sacrmento, CA, United States Alexandria, Egypt
Magliulo, Gennaro Mazzotti, Claudio
University of Naples Federico II University of Bologna
Naples, Italy Bologna, Italy
Maguire, Marc Mbessa, Michel
Utah State University University of Yaoundé I - ENSP
Paradise, UT, United States Yaoundé, Center, Cameroon
Mahdy, Mohamed Meddah, Mohammed Seddik
Masoura University Kingston University London
Mansoura, Dakhlia, Egypt Kingston, Surrey, London, UK
Mahfouz, Ibrahim Megally, Sami
Cairo, Egypt PBS&J
Mahrenholtz, Christoph San Diego, CA, United States
Berlin, Germany Mehanny, Sameh
Makul, Natt Cairo University
Phranakhon Rajabhat University Cairo, Egypt
Bangkok, Thailand Mejia, Luis Gonzalo
Mander, John LGM & Cia
Texas A&M University Medellín, Colombia
College Station, TX, United States Melo, José
Manfredi, Gaetano University of Porto
University of Naples Porto, Portugal
Naples, Italy Meng, Tao
Institution of Building Materials
Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China

REVIEWERS IN 2015
Mermerdaş, Kasım Motaref, Sarira
Hasan Kalyoncu University University of Connecticut
Gaziantep, Turkey Storrs, CT, United States
Mezhov, Alexander Moyo, Pilate
Moscow State University of Civil Engineering University of Cape Town
Moscow, Russian Federation Cape Town, South Africa
Micelli, Francesco Mubin, Sajjad
University of Salento University of Engineering and Technology
Lecce, Italy Lahore, Punjab, Pakistan
Michael, Antonis Muciaccia, Giovanni
University of Florida Politecnico di Milano
Gainesville, FL, United States Milan, Italy
Milestone, Neil Mukai, David
Callaghan Innovation University of Wyoming
Lower Hutt, New Zealand Laramie, WY, United States
Mishra, Laxmi Mukherjee, Abhijit
MNNIT Curtin University
Allahabad, UP, India Bentley, Western Australia, Australia
Misra, Sudhir Mulaveesala, Ravibabu
IIT Kanpur Indian Institute of Technology Ropar
Kanpur, India Rupnagar, India
Mo, Xiangyin Mullapudi, Taraka Ravi
Nanjing Normal University MMI Engineering
Nanjing, Jiangsu, China Houston, TX, United States
Mohamed, Ashraf Muñoz, Jose
Alexandria University Federal Highway Administration
Alexandria, Egypt McLean, VA, United States
Mohammadyan Yasouj, Seyed Esmaeil Murty, Devalraju
UTM University Andhra University
Johor, Malaysia Visakhapatnam, AP, India
Montes, Carlos Muttoni, Aurelio
Louisiana Tech University Swiss Federal Institute of Technology
Ruston, LA, United States Lausanne, Switzerland
Moradian, Masoud Na, Okpin
Oklahoma State University Korea Railroad Research Institute
Stillwater, OK, United States Uiwang-Si, Gyeonggi-do, Republic of Korea
Moreno, Carlos Nadeau, Joseph
Instituto Politécnico de Bragança Duke University
Bragança, Portugal Durham, NC, United States
Moreno, Eric Nafie, Amr
Universidad Autónoma de Yucatan Cairo, Egypt
Merida, Yucatan, Mexico Naganathan, Sivakumar
Moretti, Marina Universiti Tenaga Nasional
University of Thessaly Kajang, Selangor, Malaysia
Athens, Greece Naish, David
Morley, Christopher California State University, Fullerton
Cambridge University Fullerton, CA, United States
Cambridge, UK Najim, Khalid
Moser, Robert University of Anbar
U.S. Army Engineer Research and Development Center Ramadi, Anbar, Iraq
Vicksburg, MS, United States Najimi, Meysam
Mostafaei, Hossein University of Nevada, Las Vegas
University of Toronto Las Vegas, NV, United States
Toronto, ON, Canada Nakamura, Hikaru
Mostofinejad, Davood Nagoya University
Isfahan University of Technology Nagoya, Japan
Isfahan, Islamic Republic of Iran

REVIEWERS IN 2015
Nam, Boo Hyun Orr, John
University of Central Florida University of Bath
Orlando, FL, United States Bath, UK
Narayanan, Pannirselvam Orta, Luis
VIT University ITESM
Vellore, Tamilnadu, India Zapopan, Jalisco, Mexico
Narayanasamy, Rajeswari Ortiz-Lozano, Jose
Universidad Juarez del Estado de Durango Autonomous University of Aguascalientes
Gomez Palacio, Durango, Mexico Aguascalientes, Mexico
Negrutiu, Camelia Osifala, Kehinde
Technical University of Cluj Napoca Somolu, Lagos, Nigeria
Cluj Napoca, Cluj, Romania Otsuki, Nobuaki
Neves, Luís Tokyo Institute of Technology
University of Coimbra Tokyo, Japan
Coimbra, Portugal Ou, Yu-Chen
Ng, Ivan National Taiwan University of Science and Technology
Drainage Services Department Taipei, Taiwan, China
Hong Kong, China Oyamada, Tetsuya
Ng, Pui Lam Iwate University
The University of Hong Kong Morioka, Iwate, Japan
Hong Kong, China Ozbay, Erdogan
Nguyen, Hai Iskenderun, Hatay, Turkey
Huntington, WV, United States Ozbolt, Josko
Nili, Mahmoud Stuttgart, Germany
Bu-Ali Sina University Ozturan, Turan
Hamedan, Islamic Republic of Iran Bogazici University
Nimityongskul, Pichai Istanbul, Turkey
Asian Institute of Technology Pacheco, Alexandre
Pathumtahni, Thailand Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS)
Nokken, Michelle Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
Concordia University Palaniraj, Saravanakumar
Montreal, QC, Canada Sastra University
Noor, Munaz Thanjavur, Tamilnadu, India
Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology Palazzo, Gustavo
Dhaka, Bangladesh National Technological University
Noshiravani, Talayeh Ciudad Mendoza, Mendoza, Argentina
EPFL Palermo, Dan
Lausanne, Switzerland University of Ottawa
Oh, Hongseob Ottawa, ON, Canada
Jinju National University Palieraki, Vasiliki
Jinju, Kyeongnam, Republic of Korea National Technical University of Athens
Okelo, Roman Athens, Zografou, Greece
Dallas, TX, United States Palmisano, Fabrizio
Oliva, Michael Politecnico di Bari
University of Wisconsin Bari, Italy
Madison, WI, United States Pan, Zuanfeng
Ombres, Luciano Tongji University
University of Calabria Shanghai, China
Cosenza, Italy Pandit, Poorna
Omran, Ahmed National Institute of Technology Karnataka
University of Sherbrooke Mangalore, Karnataka, India
Sherbrooke, QC, Canada Pang, Xueyu
Orakcal, Kutay Halliburton
Bogazici University Houston, TX, United States
Istanbul, Bebek, Turkey Pantazopoulou, Stavroula
Demokritus University of Thrace
Xanthi, Greece

REVIEWERS IN 2015
Pantelides, Chris Pisani, Marco
Salt Lake City, UT, United States Politecnico di Milano
Pape, Torill Milan, Italy
University of Newcastle Pocesta, Ylli
Callaghan, New South Wales, Australia Debar, the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia
Parameswaran, Lakshmy Popovics, John
CSIR-Central Road Research Institute University of Illinois
New Delhi, Delhi, India Urbana, IL, United States
Parghi, Anant Potter, William
The University of British Columbia Florida Department of Transportation
Kelowna, BC, Canada Tallahassee, FL, United States
Park, Ki-bong Pourazin, Khashaiar
Chuncheon-Si, the Republic of Korea Pars AB Tadbir Consulting Engineers Co.
Parsekian, Guilherme Tehran, Islamic Republic of Iran
Federal University of São Carlos Prakash, M. N.
São Carlos, São Paulo, Brazil J.N.N. College of Engineering
Patil, Sanjay Shimoga, Karnataka, India
Caledonian College of Engineering Prashanth, P.
Seeb, Oman SJCE
Pauletta, Margherita Mysore, Karnataka, India
University of Udine Prasittisopin, Lapyote
Tavagnacco, Udine, Italy Oregon State University
Peixoto, Ricardo Andre Corvallis, OR, United States
Federal University of Ouro Preto Premalatha, P. V.
Ouro Preto, Minas Gerais, Brazil CARE School of Engineering
Pellegrino, Carlo Tiruchirappalli, India
University of Padova Prusinski, Jan
Padova, Italy Slag Cement Association
Peng, Cao Sugar Land, TX, United States
Harbin Institute of Technology Puertas, F.
Harbin, Heilongjiang, China Eduardo Torroja Institute
Pereira, Eduardo Madrid, Spain
University of Minho Puthenpurayil Thankappan, Santhosh
Guimaraes, Portugal Granite Construction Company
Pereyra, María Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
Instituto de Estructuras y Transporte Putra Jaya, Ramadhansyah
Montevideo, Uruguay Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
Perez Caldentey, Alejandro Skudai, Johor Bahru, Malaysia
Universidad Politécnica de Madrid Qasrawi, Hisham
Madrid, Spain The Hashemite University
Perez Ruiz, Diego Zarqa, Jordan
Pontificia Universidad Javeriana Sede Cali Qi, Guihai
Cali, Valle Del Cauca, Colombia Guiyang City, Guizhou Province, China
Persson, Bertil Qian, Kai
Bara, Sweden NTU
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Tulsa, OK, United States NED University of Engineering and Technology
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Sheffield, UK

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Cachan, France Cambridge, MS, United States
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Kuwait University University of Rome Tor Vergata
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Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur Université de Sherbrooke
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University of Nebraska St. John’s, NL, Canada
Lincoln, NE, United States Rizwan, Syed Ali
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Monte de Caparica, Portugal Roh, Hwasung
Ramyar, Kambiz Chonbuk National University
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Carinthia University of Applied Sciences Sofia, Bulgaria
Spittal/Drau, Austria Rukzon, Sumrerng
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Perth, Western Australia, Australia Russo, Gaetano
Rangaraju, Prasada Rao University of Udine
Clemson University Udine, Italy
Clemson, SC, United States Saatci, Selcuk
Rao, Sarella Izmir Institute of Technology
National Institute of Technology Izmir, Turkey
Warangal, Andhra Pradesh, India Sabet Divsholi, Bahador
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Zakho, Duhok, Iraq Sadiq, Muhammad
Ray, Indrajit National University of Sciences and Technology
Purdue University Calumet Risalpur, Pakistan
Hammond, IN, United States Sadowska-Buraczewska, Barbara
Reda Taha, Mahmoud Bialystok University of Technology
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Regan, Paul Niigata University
Trigram Niigata, Japan
London, UK

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Menoufia University Istanbul Technical University
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Research Unit Materials, Processes and Environment UR MPE/ Indian Institute of Technology Madras
Laboratory of Rheology/University of Boumerdes Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India
Boumerdes, Algeria Sengupta, Piyali
Sagaseta, Juan National University of Singapore
University of Surrey Singapore
Guildford, Surrey, UK Seyed Kolbadi, Seyed Mahdi
Sahmaran, Mustafa K.N. Toosi University of Technology
Gazi University Gorgan, Golestan, Islamic Republic of Iran
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Sajedi, Siavash Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
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Markham, ON, Canada Nadiad, Gujarat, India
Sancak, Emre Shahnewaz, Md
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University of Alicante KPK University of Engineering & Technology
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Instituto Tecnológico de Oaxaca Stanford, CA, United States
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Lisboa, Portugal Sharifi, Yasser
Saqan, Elias Vali-e-Asr University of Rafsanjan
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Sato, Ryoichi Institute of Construction Materials
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Sato, Yuichi Alexandria, Egypt
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Kyoto, Japan ARRB Group
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Zhejiang University of Technology ISISE
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Washington State University Queen’s University Belfast
Pullman, WA, United States Belfast, UK
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Tsinghua University Xi’an University of Architecture and Technology
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Rockville, MD, United States Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology

Shivali, Ram (KNUST)
Central Soil and Materials Research Station Kumasi, Ghana
New Delhi, India Souza, Regina Helena
Shuraim, Ahmed Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro
King Saud University Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
Riyadh, Saudi Arabia Söylev, Altug
Siad, Hocine Yeditepe University
Ryerson University Istanbul, Turkey
Toronto, ON, Canada Spadea, Giuseppe
Silfwerbrand, Johan University of Calabria
KTH Royal Institute of Technology Cosenza, Italy
Stockholm, Sweden Spainhour, Lisa
Silva, Jessica FAMU-FSU
University of Wisconsin–Madison Tallahassee, FL, United States
Madison, WI, United States Spinella, Nino
Singh, Harvinder University of Messina
Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College Messina, Italy
Ludhiana, Punjab, India Spyridis, Panagiotis
Singh, Shamsher Institute for Structural Engineering
Birla Institute of Technology and Science, Pilani Campus Vienna, Austria
Pilani, Rajasthan, India Stanton, John
Siva Kumar, M. V. N. University of Washington
National Institute Of Technology-Warangal Seattle, WA, United States
Warangal, Andhra Pradesh, India Stivaros, Pericles
Smadi, Mohammad Feld, Kaminetzky & Cohen, P.C.
Jordan University of Science and Technology Jericho, NY, United States
Irbid, Jordan Su, Yu-Min
Smith, Scott National Kaohsiung University of Applied Sciences
Southern Cross University Sanmin, Taiwan, China
Lismore, New South Wales, Australia Sujjavanich, Suvimol
Sneed, Lesley Kasetsart University
Missouri S&T Bangkok, Thailand
Rolla, MO, United States Suksawang, Nakin
So, Hyoung-Seok Florida Institute of Technology
Seonam University Melbourne, FL, United States
Namwon, Republic of Korea Sun, Zhihui
Sobuz, Md. Habibur University of Louisville
The University of Adelaide Louisville, KY, United States
Adelaide, South Australia, Australia Tadayon, Mohammad Hosein
Soliman, Ahmed University of Tehran
Western University Tehran, Islamic Republic of Iran
London, ON, Canada Tadros, Maher
E.Construct.US, LLC
Soltani, Masoud Omaha, NE, United States
Tarbiat Modares University
Tehran, Islamic Republic of Iran Tae, Ghi Ho
Leader Industrial Co.
Seoul, Republic of Korea

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Takase, Yuya Tepfers, Ralejs
Tobishima Corporation Ralejs Tepfers Consulting
Noda-shi, Chiba, Japan Göteborg, Sweden
Tan, Kefeng Thiagarajan, Ganesh
Southwest University of Science and Technology University of Missouri–Kansas City
Sichuan, China Kansas City, MO, United States
Tan, Kiang Hwee Thomas, Adam
National University of Singapore Europoles GmbH
Singapore Neumarkt, Germany
Tan, Sinjaya Thomas, Blessen
University of Houston Thiruvalla, Kerala, India
Houston, TX, United States Thorstensen, Rein Terje
Tang, Chao-Wei University of Agder
Cheng-Shiu University Grimstad, Norway
Niaosong District, Kaohsiung City, Taiwan, China Tian, Ying
Tang, Liqun University of Nevada, Las Vegas
South China University of Technology Las Vegas, NV, United States
Guangzhou, Guangdong, China Tixier, Raphael
Tang, Pei Western Technologies Inc.
Eindhoven, the Netherlands Phoenix, AZ, United States
Tangtermsirikul, Somnuk Tolentino, Evandro
Sirindhorn International Institute of Technology Centro Federal de Educação Tecnológica de Minas Gerais
Patumthani, Thailand Timóteo, Minas Gerais, Brazil
Tankut, Tugrul Topçu, İlker
Middle East Technical University Eskişehir Osmangazi University
Ankara, Turkey Eskişehir, Turkey
Tapan, Mücip Torrado-Gomez, Luz
Yuzuncu Yil University Universidad Pontificia Bolivariana Seccional Bucarmanga
Van, Turkey Bucaramanga, Santander, Colombia
Tarighat, Amir Tosun, Kamile
Tehran, Islamic Republic of Iran Dokuz Eylul University
Tassios, Theodosios Izmir, Turkey
Athens, Greece Triantafillou, Thanasis
Tastani, S. P. University of Patras
Demokritus University of Thrace Patras, Greece
Xanthi, Greece Tsubaki, Tatsuya
Tavio Yokohama National University
Sepuluh Nopember Institute of Technology (ITS) Yokohama, Japan
Surabaya, East Java, Indonesia Tsuruta, Hiroaki
Tawana, M. M. Kansai University
Tongji University Suita, Japan
Shanghai, China Tuchscherer, Robin
Northern Arizona University
Tawfic, Yasser Flagstaff, AZ, United States
Minia University
Minia, Egypt Tuken, Ahmet
King Saud University
Taylor, Michael Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
Granite Rock Co.
Sacramento, CA, United States Turgut, Paki
Harran University
Tazarv, Mostafa Sanliurfa, Turkey
University of Nevada, Reno
Reno, NV, United States Tutikian, Bernardo
Unisinos
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Salonica, Greece
Ueda, Naoshi
Teo, Wee Nagoya University
Universiti Teknologi Petronas Nagoya, Aichi, Japan
Tronoh, Perak Darul Ridzuan, Malaysia
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Kaunas, Lithuania

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Van Deventer, J. S. J. Wardhono, Arie
University of Melbourne The State University of Surabaya
Melbourne, Victoria, Australia Surabaya, Jawa Timur, Indonesia
Vaz Rodrigues, Rui Watkins, Melanie
EPFL Michigan Technological University
Lausanne, VD, Switzerland Houghton, MI, United States
Vazquez-Herrero, Cristina Wei, Ya
Civil Engineering School Tsinghua University
La Coruña, Spain Beijing, China
Veen, Cornelis Wei-Jian, Yi
Delft University of Technology Changsha, China
Delft, the Netherlands Weiss, Jason
Velázquez Rodríguez, Sergio Purdue University
Universidad Panamericana West Lafayette, IN, United States
Zapopan, Jalisco, Mexico Werner, Anne
Vellalapalayam Nallagounder, Vijayakumar SIUE
Bannari Amman Institute of Technology Edwardsville, IL, United States
Erode, Tamilnadu, India Wheat, Harovel
Venkatesh Babu, D. L. University of Texas at Austin
Kumaraguru College of Technology Austin, TX, United States
Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India Wheeler, Andrew
Venkiteela, Giri University of Western Sydney
NJDOT Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
Trenton, NJ, United States Williams, Rupert
Vercher, Jose University of the West Indies
Polytechnic University of Valencia Saint Augustine, Trinidad and Tobago
Valencia, Spain Wilson, William
Vimonsatit, Vanissorn Universite de Sherbrooke
Curtin University Sherbrooke, QC, Canada
Perth, Western Australia, Australia Windisch, Andor
Vintzileou, Elizabeth Karlsfeld, Germany
National Technical University of Athens Wittmann, Folker
Athens, Greece Aedificat Institute Freiburg
Viviani, Marco Freiburg, Germany
HEIG-VD Wong, Sook-Fun
Yverdon les Bains, Switzerland Nanyang Technological University
Vollum, Robert Singapore
London, UK Wood, Richard
Wagh, Prabhanjan University of California, San Diego
University of Cincinnati La Jolla, CA, United States
Cincinnati, OH, United States Woyciechowski, Piotr
Waldron, Christopher Warsaw University of Technology
University of Alabama at Birmingham Warsaw, Poland
Birmingham, AL, United States Wu, Chenglin
Wang, Huanzi Missouri S&T
San Jose, CA, United States Rolla, MO, United States
Wang, Jingquan Wu, Hui
Southeast University Beijing, China
Nanjing, Jiangsu, China Wu, Yu-You
Wang, Xiao-Yong Dania Beach, FL, United States
Kangwon National University Xia, Jin
Chuncheon, the Republic of Korea Zhejiang University
Wang, Yuli Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
Henan Polytechnic University Xiang, Tianyu
Jiaozuo, Henan, China Chengdu, Sichuan, China

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Xiangguo, Wu Yoon, Young-Soo
Harbin Institute of Technology Korea University
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Xiao, Xiao Youzhi, Liu
Zhejiang University China Institute of Water Resources and Hydropower Research
Hangzhou City, Zhejiang Province, China Beijing, China
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Hunan University Michigan State University
Changsha, Hunan, China East Lansing, MI, United States
Xingyi, Zhu Yüksel, Isa
Hangzhou, China Bursa Technical University
Xu, Aimin Bursa, Turkey
ARRB Group Zaidi, S. Kaleem
Melbourne, Victoria, Australia Aligarh Muslim University
Xuan, D. X. Aligarh, UP, India
The Hong Kong Polytechnic University Zatar, Wael
Kowloon, Hong Kong, China West Virginia University Institute of Technology
Yakoub, Haisam Montgomery, WV, United States
Ottawa, ON, Canada Zayed, Abla
Yaman, Ismail University of South Florida
Middle East Technical University Tampa, FL, United States
Ankara, Turkey Zeris, Christos
Yang, Changhui National Technical University of Athens
College of Materials Science and Engineering Zografou, Greece
Chongqing, China Zhang, Nan
Yang, Keun-Hyeok Nanjing Technical University
Kyonggi University Nanjing, Jiansu, China
Suwon, Kyonggi-Do, Republic of Korea Zhang, Peng
Yang, Yuguang Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT)
Delft, the Netherlands Karlsruhe, Germany
Yang, Zhifu Zhang, Wei Ping

Middle Tennessee State University Tongji University
Murfreesboro, TN, United States Shanghai, China
Yazıcı, Şemsi Zhang, Y. X.

Ege University The University of New South Wales
Izmir, Turkey Canberra, Australian Capital Territory, Australia
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American University of Sharjah Southeast University
Sharjah, United Arab Emirates Nanjing, China
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Sharif University of Technology Qingdao, China
Tehran, Islamic Republic of Iran Zhao, Xinyu
Yepez, Fabricio State Key Laboratory of Subtropical Building Science
Universidad San Francisco de Quito Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
Quito, Ecuador Zheng, Herbert
Yerramala, Amarnath Gammon Construction Limited
Dundee University Hong Kong, China
Dundee, Scotland, UK Zheng, Yulong
Yildirim, Hakki Kyushu Institute of Technology
Istanbul, Turkey Kitakyushu, Fukuoka, Japan
Yilmaz, Bulent Zhou, Changdong

Bilecik Seyh Edebali University Beijing Jiaotong University
Bilecik, Turkey Beijing, China
Yoon, Hyeong Jae Zhou, Shengjun

Taisei Corporation MacGregor, Queensland, Australia
Tokyo, Japan Zhu, Han
TianJin University
TianJin, China
ACI
MATERIALS
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V. 113, NO.

A JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN CONCRETE INSTITUTE

Past President Board Members

Engineering 243 Reviewers in 2015

ACI Materials Journal/March-April 2016 129

130 ACI Materials Journal/March-April 2016

Influence of Fiber Orientation on Bridging Performance of

ACI Materials Journal/March-April 2016 131

Table 2—Mixture proportion of HPFRCC

It is considered that the bridging performance—that is,

132 ACI Materials Journal/March-April 2016

ACI Materials Journal/March-April 2016 133

Fig. 6—Image analysis procedures. (Note: 1 mm = 0.0394 in.)

Fig. 7—Examples of fiber angle histograms.

134 ACI Materials Journal/March-April 2016

Fig. 10—Definition of principal orientation angle and orien-

Fig. 9—Approximation method based on elliptic function. k − (k − 1) sin 2 θ r

k C Approximation of visualization simulation results

ACI Materials Journal/March-April 2016 135

136 ACI Materials Journal/March-April 2016

relationships of the PVA fiber commonly exhibit the first †

ACI Materials Journal/March-April 2016 137

P, is given by Eq. (7), expressing the snubbing effect and the

P = Ppull · e f·ψ < Prup · e–f ′·ψ (once exceeded, P = 0) (7)

where σbridge is bridging stress; δ is crack width; Pbridge is bridging

138 ACI Materials Journal/March-April 2016

Fiber strength reduction factor f ′ 0.3 †

Horizontal casting 1.5

rupture more frequently. The balance between the increase

ACI Materials Journal/March-April 2016 139

140 ACI Materials Journal/March-April 2016

ACI Materials Journal/March-April 2016 141

Then become a REVIEWER for the

Did you know that the database for MANUSCRIPT

Strain Rate Sensitivity of Fiber-Reinforced Cementitious

ACI Materials Journal/March-April 2016 143

Fig. 2—Summary of concrete DIFs according to CEB-fib (2010).

144 ACI Materials Journal/March-April 2016

Table 1—Mixture proportions by weight and target compressive strength

ACI Materials Journal/March-April 2016 145

146 ACI Materials Journal/March-April 2016

This technique is previously calibrated using two drop

EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

ACI Materials Journal/March-April 2016 147

for matrixes with lower strengths, and the enhancement or

DIFs of flexural strength

148 ACI Materials Journal/March-April 2016

Table 7—Rate effect on flexural strength in high-speed loading rates

Fig. 10—Failure patterns in tested flexural specimens. (Note: 1 mm = 0.0394 in.)

ACI Materials Journal/March-April 2016 149

150 ACI Materials Journal/March-April 2016

Analysis of Compressive Strength Development and

ACI Materials Journal/March-April 2016 151

dence of carbonation resistance on the curing period was

cate hydrate (CSH) are determined as functions of the curing 4

age. The compressive strength development of cement-fly ∑ α i gi

152 ACI Materials Journal/March-April 2016

dFA eFA eFA rFA

ACI Materials Journal/March-April 2016 153

mCH(t) = RCHCE ∙ C0 ∙ α – νFA ∙ αFA ∙ P (13) W0 − Wcbm

154 ACI Materials Journal/March-April 2016

ACI Materials Journal/March-April 2016 155

Fig. 4—Chemically bound water contents. (Note: 1 g = 0.0022 lb.)

ACI Materials Journal/March-April 2016 129

130 ACI Materials Journal/March-April 2016