Chapter Two: Vapor Power Cycles

Power Plant Vapor Power Cycles
Chapter Two
Vapor Power Cycles

2-1 Introduction :
A power plant is assembly of systems or subsystems to generate electricity,
i.e., power with economy and requirements. The power plant itself must be
useful economically and environmental friendly to the society.
A power plant may be defined as a machine or assembly of equipment that
generates and delivers a flow of mechanical or electrical energy.
The major power plants are:

1. Steam power plant
2. Diesel power plant
3. Gas turbine power plant
4. Nuclear power plant
5. Hydro electric power plant
The Steam Power Plant, Diesel Power Plant, Gas Turbine Power Plant and
Nuclear Power Plants are called THERMAL POWER PLANT, because
these convert heat into electric energy.
Steam Power Plant (SPP) is a power plant in which the prime mover is
steam driven. Water is heated, turns into steam and spins a steam turbine
which drives an electrical generator. After it passes through the turbine, the
steam is condensed in a condenser. Figure 2.1shown the block diagram of
steam power plant.
1
Figure 2.1: Steam Power Plant
2-2 Power plant cycles

Thermodynamic cycles which are used in devices producing power are
called power cycles. Power production can be had by using working fluid
either in vapour form or in gaseous form. When vapour is the working fluid
then they are called vapour power cycles, whereas in case of working fluid
being gas these are called gas power cycles.
Power plants cycle generally divided in to the following groups,

Vapor Power Cycle
Vapor power cycles can be further classified as,
1. Carnot vapour power cycle
2. Rankine cycle
3. Reheat cycle
4. Regenerative cycle.
2
Gas Power Cycles

Gas Power Cycles can be further classified as,
1. Otto cycle 2. Dual combustion cycle
3. Gas turbine cycle 4. Diesel cycle
2-2-1 Carnot vapor power cycle

Carnot cycle has already been defined earlier as an ideal cycle having
highest thermodynamic efficiency. Carnot cycle uses to get positive work
with steam as working fluid. As shown in figure 2.2 arrangements proposed
for using Carnot vapour power cycle is as follows:
Figure 2.2: Arrangement of Carnot cycle
3
Pump:
Water enters the pump at state 1 as saturated liquid and is compressed
isentropically to the operating pressure of the boiler. The water temperature
increases somewhat during this isentropic compression process due to a
slight decrease in the specific volume of water.
Boiler
Water enters the boiler as a compressed liquid at state 2 and leaves as a
superheated vapor at state 3. The boiler is basically a large heat exchanger
where the heat originating from combustion gases, nuclear reactors, or other
sources is transferred to the water essentially at constant pressure. The
boiler, together with the section where the steam is superheated (the
superheater), is often called the steam generator.
Turbine
The superheated vapor at state 3 enters the turbine, where it expands
isentropically and produces work by rotating the shaft connected to an
electric generator.
Condenser
Condenser is a closed vessel in which steam is condensed by abstracting the
heat and where the pressure is maintained below atmospheric pressure.
The pressure and the temperature of steam drop during this process to the
values at state 4, where steam enters the condenser. At this state, steam is
usually a saturated liquid–vapor mixture with a high quality. Steam leaves
the condenser as saturated liquid and enters the pump, completing the cycle.
4
Thermal analysis for Carnot cycle:
The network for unit mass flow:

Wnet = WT - Wp
Wnet  h3  h4   h2  h1 
For Boiler:
Qadd  h3  h2 
For Condenser:
Qrejected  h4  h1 
The thermal efficiency:

Wnet
carnot 
Qadd
carnot 
h3  h4   h2  h1 
h3  h2 
The heat added and rejected can be given as function of temperature and
entropy as follows:
5
Since : Q  Ts
Qadd  T2 s3  s2 
Qrejected  T1 s4  s1 
Also : s1 = s2 and s3 = s4
TL
carnot  1 
TH
T1
 1
T2
EXAMPLE 1
A Carnot cycle works on steam between the pressure limits of 7 MPa and
7 kPa. Determine thermal efficiency, turbine work and compression work
per kg of steam.
SOLUTION:
6
7
2-2-2 Ideal Rankine cycle:

Many of the impracticalities associated with the Carnot cycle can be
eliminated by superheating the steam in the boiler and condensing it
completely in the condenser. As shown in figure 2.3 the cycle called
Rankine cycle, which is the ideal cycle for vapour power plants.
Figure 2.3: Schematic Layout of ideal Rankine cycle.
8
The T-S diagram of ideal Rankine cycle is shown in figure 2.4.
Figure 2.4: T-S diagram of ideal Rankine cycle
The ideal Rankine cycle consists of the following four processes:

1-2 Isentropic compression in a pump
2-3 Constant pressure heat addition in a boiler
3-4 Isentropic expansion in a turbine
4-1 Constant pressure heat rejection in a condenser
9
2-2-2-1Energy Analysis of the Ideal Rankine Cycle

All four components associated with the Rankine cycle (the pump, boiler,
turbine, and condenser) are steady-flow devices, and thus all four processes
that make up the Rankine cycle can be analyzed as steady-flow processes.
The boiler and the condenser do not involve any work. The pump and the
turbine are assumed to be isentropic.
1-2 Pump Work process:

Wpump= Wp = (h2 – h1) kJ/kg
= vf (P2 – P1) kJ/kg
Where:
vf for P2 from steam table and P1 and P2 are in kPa
.
Pump power  mWP in kW
2-3 Heat Supplied in Boiler: Qsupply process
Qsup ply  h3  h2  kJ/kg

.
Qsup ply  mh3  h2  kW
3-4 Turbine work

WT  h3  h4  kJ/kg
.
Turbine power  mh3  h4  in kW
.
Where : m is the mass flow rate of steam in kg/sec
10
h1 and h2 can be taken from steam table for P1 and P2 respectively.

P2 = high pressure (or) boiler pressure (or) inlet to turbine pressure
P1 = low pressure (or) condenser pressure
Also, we can use Mollier diagram to find h1 and h2.
4-1 Constant pressure condensation

Qrejected  h4  h1  kJ/kg
.
Qrejected in kW  mh4  h1 
h1 = hf at low pressure P1
Net Work
Wnet = WT - Wp
Thermal Efficiency: It is ratio of network to the heat supplied.
Wnet
cycle or  rankine or thermal 
Qsupply
WT  WP h3  h4   h2  h1 
 
Qsupply h3  h2
Specific steam consumption. ‘SSC’ (or) steam flow rate per kW
3600 kg
SSC 
Wnet kW - hr
11
Wnet
Work ratio 
WT
WP h2  h1
The back work ratio : bwr  
WT h3  h4
EXAMPLE 2
Steam is the working fluid in an ideal Rankine cycle. Saturated vapor enters
the turbine at 8.0 MPa and saturated liquid exits the condenser at a pressure
of 0.008 MPa. The net power output of the cycle is 100 MW.
Determine for the cycle:
(a) the thermal efficiency, (b) the back work ratio, (c) the mass flow rate of
the steam, in kg/h, (d ) the mass flow rate of the condenser cooling water, in
kg/h, if cooling water enters the condenser at 15º C and exits at 35º C.
SOLUTION
12
State 1 pump : P1 = 0.008 MPa, h1 = hf@P1 = 173.88 kJ/kg

saturated liquid v1=vf@P1 = 1.0084×10-3 m3/kg
State 2 boiler : p2 = 8.0 MPa

s2 = s1
Wpump=v1(P2 - P1)= 1.0084×10-3 (8 - 0.008)
= 8.06 kJ/kg
h2=h1 + Wpump
= 173.88 + 8.06 = 181.94 kJ/kg
State 3: p3 = 8.0 MPa h3 = 2758.0 kJ/kg
saturated vapor s3 = 5.7432 kJ/kg . K
State 4: p4 = 0.008 MPa

s3 = s 4 s4= s3 = 5.7432 kJ/kg . K
s4  s f 5.7432  0.5926
x4  
s fg 7.6361
x4  0.6745
h4= hf + x4 hfg= 173.88 + 0.6745*2403.1
h4=1794.8 kJ/kg
(a) The thermal efficiency is:
thermal 
Wnet h  h   h2  h1 
 3 4
Qsupply h3  h2
13
thermal 
h3  h4   h2  h1 
h3  h2
thermal 
2758.0  1794.8  181.94  173.88
2758.0  181.94
thermal  0.371  37.1%
(b) The back work ratio is
WP h2  h1
bwr  
WT h3  h4
W 181.94  173.88
bwr  P 
WT 2758.0  1794.8
bwr  8.37 103  0.84%
(c) The mass flow rate of the steam can be obtained from the expression for
the net power given in part (a)
.
. Wcycle
m
(h3  h4 )  (h2  h1 )
.
(100)  103  3600
.
m
(963.2)  (8.06)
.
m  3.77 105 kg / h
. .
(d) m s h4  h1   m w Cw Twout  Twin 
.
3.77 10 1794.8  173.88  m w  4.235  15
5
.
m w  7.2  106 kg / h
14
2-2-3 Real Vapour Power Cycles:
Fig. 2.5 : Temperature–entropy diagram showing the effects of turbine and

pump irreversibilities.
TURBINE: The principal internal irreversibility experienced by the

working fluid is associated with expansion through the turbine. The work
developed in this process per unit of mass flowing is less than that for the
corresponding isentropic expansion 3–4s.The isentropic turbine efficiency
is:
PUMP: The work input to the pump required to overcome irreversibilities

also reduces the net power output of the plant. As illustrated by Process 1–2
of Fig. 2.5, the work input per unit of mass flowing is greater than that for
the corresponding isentropic process 1–2s. The isentropic pump efficiency
is:
15
EXAMPLE 3
A steam power plant operates on the cycle shown in Figure. If the isentropic
efficiency of the turbine is 87 percent and the isentropic efficiency of the
pump is 85 percent, determine (a) the thermal efficiency of the cycle and (b)
the net power output of the plant for a mass flow rate of 15 kg/s.
SOLUTION:
16
17
2-3 How Can Increase the Efficiency of the Rankine Cycle?
1. Lowering the Condenser Pressure (Lowers Tlow,avg)

The effect of lowering the condenser pressure on the Rankine cycle
efficiency is illustrated on a T-s diagram in Fig. 2-6. The colored area on this
diagram represents the increase in net work output as a result of lowering the
condenser pressure. The heat input requirements also increase (represented
by the area under curve 2'-2), but this increase is very small. Thus the overall
effect of lowering the condenser pressure is an increase in the thermal
efficiency of the cycle.
Figure 2.6 The effect of lowering the condenser pressure on the ideal
Rankine cycle.
To take advantage of the increased efficiencies at low pressures, the

condensers of steam power plants usually operate well below the
atmospheric pressure. This does not present a major problem since the vapor
power cycles operate in a closed loop.
18
2. Superheating the Steam to High Temperatures (Increases Thigh,avg)

The average temperature at which heat is transferred to steam can be
increased without increasing the boiler pressure by superheating the steam to
high temperatures. The colored area on this diagram represents the increase
in the net work. The total area under the process curve 3-3' represents the
increase in the heat input. Thus both the net work and heat input increase as
a result of superheating the steam to a higher temperature. The overall effect
is an increase in thermal efficiency, however, since the average temperature
at which heat is added increases.
Superheating the steam to higher temperatures has another very desirable
effect: It decreases the moisture content of the steam at the turbine exit, as
can be seen from the T-s diagram (the quality at state 4' is higher than that at
state 4).
Figure 2.7: The effect of superheating the steam to higher temperatures on

the ideal Rankine cycle.
19
3. Increasing the Boiler Pressure (Increases Thigh,avg)

Another way of increasing the average temperature during the heat-addition
process is to increase the operating pressure of the boiler, which
automatically raises the temperature at which boiling takes place. Notice that
for a fixed turbine inlet temperature, the cycle shifts to the left and the
moisture content of steam at the turbine exit increases.
Figure 2.8: The effect of increasing the boiler pressure on the ideal Rankine
cycle.
20
EXAMPLE 4
Consider a steam power plant operating on the ideal Rankine cycle. Steam
enters the turbine at 3 MPa and 350°C and is condensed in the condenser at
a pressure of 10 kPa. Determine (a) the thermal efficiency of this power
plant, (b) the thermal efficiency if steam is superheated to 600°C instead of
350°C, and (c) the thermal efficiency if the boiler pressure is raised to 15
MPa while the turbine inlet temperature is maintained at 600°C.
SOLUTION: Solution (a)
21
Solution (b)
(b) States 1 and 2 remain the same in this case, and the enthalpies at state 3
(3 MPa and 600°C) and state 4 (10 kPa and s4 = s3) are determined to be
Solution (c)
(c) State 1 remains the same in this case, but the other states change. The
enthalpies at state 2 (15 MPa and s2 = s1), state 3 (15 MPa and 600°C), and
state 4 (10 kPa and s4 = s3) are determined in a similar manner to be
22
2-4 Reheat
There are some methods to improve cycle performance. The thermal
efficiency of the cycle can be improved by following methods:
(i) By reheating of steam
(ii) By regenerative feed heating
(iii) By water extraction
(iv) By using binary vapour
Reheating System
The T-s diagram of the ideal reheat Rankine cycle and the schematic of the
power plant operating on this cycle are shown in Fig. 2.9.
In the first stage (the high pressure turbine), steam is expanded

isentropically to an intermediate pressure and sent back to the boiler where it
is reheated at constant pressure, usually to the inlet temperature of the first
turbine stage. Steam then expands isentropically in the second stage (low-
pressure turbine) to the condenser pressure. Thus the total heat input and the
total turbine work output for a reheat cycle become:
23
Figure 2.9: The ideal reheat Rankine cycle
24
Advantages (or) effects of Re-heating:

(1) Network done increases
(2) Heat supply increases
(3) Thermal efficiency increases
(4) The turbine exit steam dryness fraction increases, thus moisture
decreases, therefore blade erosion becomes minimum, and that lead to
increase the life of the turbine.
(5) Erosion and corrosion problems in the steam turbine are eliminated/or
may be avoided
Disadvantages of Reheating:
1- Reheating requires more maintenance.
2- The increase in thermal efficiency is not appreciable in comparison to the

expenditure incurred in reheating.
25
EXAMPLE 5
Consider a steam power plant operating on the ideal reheat Rankine cycle.
Steam enters the high-pressure turbine at 15 MPa and 600°C and is
condensed in the condenser at a pressure of 10 kPa. If the moisture content
of the steam at the exit of the low-pressure turbine is not to exceed 10.4
percent, determine (a) the pressure at which the steam should be reheated
and (b) the thermal efficiency of the cycle. Assume the steam is reheated to
the inlet temperature of the high-pressure turbine.
SOLUTION:
26
27
H.W
A smaller power plant produces steam at 3 MPa, 600◦C, in the boiler. It
keeps the condenser at 45◦C by the transfer of 10MW out as heat transfer.
The first turbine section expands to 500 kPa, and then flow is reheated
followed by the expansion in the low-pressure turbine. Find the reheat
temperature so that the turbine output is saturated vapor. For this reheat, find
the total turbine power output and the boiler heat transfer.
[Answer. (Reheat temperature= 529ºC , total turbine power output= 6487
kW, the boiler heat transfer= 16 475 kW)]
28
2.5 The Ideal Regenerative Rankine Cycle

A practical regeneration process in steam power plants is accomplished by
extracting, or “bleeding,” steam from the turbine at various points. This
steam, which could have produced more work by expanding further in the
turbine, is used to heat the feedwater instead. The device where the
feedwater is heated by regeneration is called a regenerator, or a feedwater
heater (FWH). Most modern steam power plants use between 5-8 feedwater
heaters.
A feedwater heater is basically a heat exchanger in which heat is transferred

from the steam to the feedwater. There are two types of feedwater as follow:
1.Open or direct contact type.
2.Closed type with:
a- drains cascaded backward
b- drains pumped forward.
feedwater
Open feedwater heaters Closed feedwater heaters

mixing the two fluid without mixing them
streams
Backward Forward
cascaded drain pumped drain
29
Advantages of Regenerative cycle over Simple Rankine cycle :

1. Reducing the heating process in the boiler.
2. The thermal stresses set up in the boiler are minimised. This is due to the
fact that temperature ranges in the boiler are reduced.
3. Improving The thermal efficiency because the average temperature of heat
addition to the cycle is increased.
4. A small size condenser is required.
Disadvantages :
1. The plant becomes more complicated.
2. Because of addition of heaters greater maintenance is required.
3. The heaters are costly and the gain in thermal efficiency is not much in
comparison to the higher costs.
Generally the advantages of FWHS can be surmised as below:
Open FWHs Closed FWHs
1- Simple and inexpensive 1- Complex and expensive because

of the internal tubing network
2- More efficient heat transfer 2- Less efficient since the two streams
due to direct contact are not allowed being in direct
contact.
3- Each FWH requires separate 3- One pump can be used for
pump several FWHs
4- Usually only one open FWH 4- Up to 7 closed FWH are used in
is used large power plants.
30
2.5.1Open feedwater heaters:

An open (or direct-contact) feedwater heater is basically a mixing
chamber, where the steam extracted from the turbine mixes with the
feedwater exiting the pump. Ideally, the mixture leaves the heater as a
saturated liquid at the heater pressure. The schematic of a steam power plant
with one open feedwater heater (also called single-stage regenerative cycle)
and the T-s diagram of the cycle are shown in Fig. 2.10.
In an ideal regenerative Rankine cycle, steam enters the turbine at the boiler
pressure and expands isentropically to an intermediate pressure. Some steam
is extracted at this state and routed to the feedwater heater, while the
remaining steam continues to expand isentropically to the condenser
pressure. This steam leaves the condenser as a saturated liquid at the
condenser pressure. The condensed water, which is also called the
feedwater, then enters an isentropic pump, where it is compressed to the
feedwater heater pressure (state 2) and is routed to the feedwater heater,
where it mixes with the steam extracted from the turbine.
Figure 2.10: The ideal regenerative Rankine cycle with an open feedwater
heater.
31
Thermal analysis of open feedwater heater
Where:
Energy - balance
Assume 1 kg of working fluid is circulated
Energy in = energy out
32
Energy entering regenerator = Energy leaving regenerator
EXAMPLE 6
Consider a steam power plant operating on the ideal regenerative Rankine
cycle with one open feedwater heater. Steam enters the turbine at 15 MPa
and 600°C and is condensed in the condenser at a pressure of 10 kPa. Some
steam leaves the turbine at a pressure of 1.2 MPa and enters the open
feedwater heater. Determine the fraction of steam extracted from the turbine
and the thermal efficiency of the cycle.
SOLUTION:
33
34
35
2.5.2 Closed feedwater heaters:

Closed FWH
 Closed FWH are shell-and-tube type heat exchanger in which
feedwater temperature increases as the extracted steam condenses on
the outside of the tubes carrying the feedwater.
 The two streams can be at different pressures since the two streams do
not mix.
 The extracted stream condenses in the closed feedwater while heating
the feedwater from the pump.
 The heated feedwater is send to the boiler and condensate from the
feedwater heater.
There are two types of closed feedwater heaters
Closed FWH with Closed FWH with Drain

Drain Pumped Forward Cascaded Backward
36
Closed FWH with Drain Cascaded Backward

•This type of feedwater heaters is the simplest and most commonly used.
•It is shell and tube heat exchanger.
•The feedwater passes in the tubes and the bled steam in the shell.
•Only one pump is required as the steam does not mix with the feedwater.
•If a deaerating heater is used then another pump should be used after it to
be the boiler feed pump.
•The bled steam is feed back to the next lower pressure feedwater heater by
throttling and then led back to the condenser, which is called cascade from
high pressure to low pressure.
• There is always a temperature difference between the bled steam entering

the feedwater heater and the exit temperature of the subcooled water in the
pipes, this is called Terminal Temperature Difference (TTD) as shown in
figure 2.11, and it is represented as:
TTD = Saturation temperature of bled steam –exit water temperature

The TTD is positive and often of order 0- 5ºC.
C = Condenser
DC = drain cooler
DS = desuperheater
Figure 2.11: Terminal Temperature Difference (TTD)
37
Figure 2.12is shown the closed FWH with drain cascaded backward
Figure 2.12: Closed FWH with Drain Cascaded Backward
38
m1= mass flow rate extracted for the high pressure closed FWH
m2 = mass flow rate extracted for the low pressure closed FWH
ms = m@6 + m@7 + m@8 = total steam mass flow
Energy - balance
The energy balance on the high pressure FWH is given as :

m1 h6 + h3 = m1h9 + h4 m1 (h6 - h9) = h4 - h3
at throttling process is a constant enthalpy process , so that:

h9 = h10
39
The energy balance on the low pressure FWH is given as :

m1 h10 + m2 h7 + h2 = (m1+ m2) h11 + h3
m1 (h10 - h11) + m2 (h7 - h11) = h3 - h2

h11 = h12
Thermal analysis of cycle

For Boiler:
qin  h5  h4 
For Condenser:
qout  1  m1  m2 h8  h1   m1  m2 h12  h1 
For Pump:
Win  h2  h1   v1 P2  P1 
40
For Turbine:
Wout  h5  h6   1  m1 h6  h7   1  m1  m2 h7  h8 
Network:
Wnet  Wout  Win
Thermal efficiency:
Wnet

qin
41
EXAMPLE 7
Consider a steam power plant operating on the ideal regenerative Rankine
cycle with two closed feedwater heater. Steam enters the turbine at 15 MPa
and 600°C and is condensed in the condenser at a pressure of 10 kPa. Some
steam leaves the turbine at a pressure of 4 MPa and 0.5 MPa enters the
closed feedwater heater respectively. Determine the thermal efficiency of the
cycle and mass flow rate of steam entering the two closed FWH.
SOLUTION:
42
 State 1 pump : P1 = 10 kPa h1 = hf@P1 = 191.81 kJ/kg

saturated liquid v1=vf@P1 = 0.00101 m3/kg
s1= 0.6492 kJ/kg K
 State 2 : p2 = p5 = 15 MPa
s 2 = s1
Wpump= v1(P2 - P1)= 0.00101 (15000 - 10)
= 15.14 kJ/kg
h2=h1 + Wpump
= 191.81+ 15.14 = 206.95 kJ/kg
 State 5: p5 = 15 MPa h5 = 3582.3 kJ/kg

Ts = 600ºC s5 = 6.6775 kJ/kg . K
s5 = s6 = s7 = s8
 State 6: p6 = 4 MPa h6 = 3152 kJ/kg

s6 = 6.6775 kJ/kg . K T6 = 375 ºC
 State 7: p7 = 0.5 MPa hf = h11 = 640.21 kJ/kg

s7 = 6.6775 kJ/kg . K hfg = 2108.47 kJ/kg
mixture sf = 1.8606 kJ/kg . K
sfg = 4.9606 kJ/kg . K
43
s7  s f 6.6775  1.8606
x7  
s fg 4.9606
x7  0.971
h7= hf + x7 hfg= 640.21 + 0.971* 2108.47
h7=2687.5 kJ/kg
 State 8: p8 = 10 kPa hf = 191.81 kJ/kg

s8 = s7 = 6.6775 kJ/kg . K hfg = 2392.82 kJ/kg
sfg = 7.501 kJ/kg . K
s8  s f 6.6775  0.6492
x8  
s fg 7.501
x8  0.803
h8= hf + x8 hfg= 191.81 + 0.803* 2392.82
h8=2113.2 kJ/kg
 State 9: p9 = 4 MPa h9 = 1087.29 kJ/kg

Sat. T9 = 250.4 ºC
 State 3: Assume TTD = 2 ºC

TTD = T11 - T3 (T11 = Tsat, 500 kPa.)
2 = 151.86 - T3
44
T3 = 149.86 ºC T3 ≈ 150 ºC
at T3 = 150 ºC h3 = hf = 632.18 kJ/kg
 State 4: Assume TTD = 2 ºC

TTD = T9 - T4 (T9 = Tsat, 4MPa.)
2 = 250.4 – T4
T4 = 248.4 ºC T4 ≈ 248 ºC
at T4 = 248 ºC h4 = hf = 1074 kJ/kg

m1 h6 + h3 = m1h9 + h4 m1 (h6 - h9) = h4 - h3
m1 (3152 – 1087.29) = 1074 – 632.18
m1 = 0.214 kg
45

m1 h10 + m2 h7 + h2 = (m1+ m2) h11 + h3
m1 (h10 - h11) + m2 (h7 - h11) = h3 - h2

h9 = h10
h11 = h12
h11 = hsat, 500 kPa = 640.21 kJ/kg
0.214(1087.29 - 640.21) + m2(2687.5 - 640.21) = 632.18 - 206.95

m2 = 0.161 kg
qin  h5  h4  qin  3582.3  1074

qin  2508.3kJ / kg
46
qout  1  m1  m2 h8  h1   m1  m2 h12  h1 

qout  1  0.214  0.1612113 .2  191.81  0.214  0.161640.21  191.81
qout  1369kJ / kg
Wnet q
  1  out
qin qin
1369
  1
2508.3
  0.454  45.4%
47
Closed FWH with Drain Pumped Forward

In this type, the heat is transferred from the extracted (bleeded) steam to the
feed water without any mixing taking place. The two streams now can be at
difference pressures, since they do not mix. In an ideal closed (FWH), the
feed water heated to exit temperature of the extracted (bleeded) steam,
which ideally leaves the heater as a saturated liquid at the extraction
(bleeding) pressure. See the following figure 2.13. The condensed steam is
then either pumped to the feed water line as shown in the figure 2.14.
Figure 2.13: The ideal regenerative Rankine cycle an closed FWH with drain
pumped forward .
48
Figure 2.14: Closed FWH
m1= mass flow rate extracted for the closed FWH

ms = m7 + m8
Energy - balance
The energy balance on the closed FWH is given as :

m1 h7 + (1-m1) h2 = m1h3 + (1-m1) h9
49
Thermal analysis of cycle

For Boiler:
qin  h6  h5 
For Condenser:
qout  1  m1 h8  h1 
For Pump:
Win  1  m1 h2  h1 
Network:
Thermal efficiency:
Wnet

qin
50
EXAMPLE 8
Repeat the solution of EXAMPLE 6 using the same data with FWHs
installed in forward pumped drain arrangement.
.
SOLUTION:
51
From previous example 6 :

h1 = hf@P1 = 191.81 kJ/kg
h2=206.95 kJ/kg
h7=3582.3 kJ/kg
h8=2113.2 kJ/kg
h9 = 3152 kJ/kg
h10 =2687.5 kJ/kg
h11 =1087.29 kJ/kg
h13 = 640.21 kJ/kg
Assume TTD = 2 ºC to fined h3 and h5

TTD = T13 - T3 (T11 = Tsat, 500 kPa.)
2 = 151.86 - T3
T3 = 149.86 ºC T3 ≈ 150 ºC
at T3 = 150 ºC h3 = hf = 632.18 kJ/kg
TTD = T11 – T5 (T11 = Tsat, 4MPa.)

2 = 250.4 – T4
T5 = 248.4 ºC T5 ≈ 248 ºC
at T5 = 248 ºC h5 = hf = 1074 kJ/kg
52
For low pressure FWH , the work pump :

Wpump= v11(P7 – P11)= 0.001252 (15000 - 4000)
= 13.77 kJ/kg
h12=h11 + Wpump
= 1087.29 + 13.77 = 1101.06 kJ/kg

m1 h9 + (1-m1) h4 = m1h11 + (1-m1) h5
53

m2 h10 + (1- m1- m2 ) h2 = (1- m1- m2 ) h3 + m2h13
m1 = 0.1776 kg
m2 = 0.1414 kg
h4 = 636.284 kJ/kg
h6 = 1078.806 kJ/kg
qin  h7  h6  qin  3582.3  1078.806

qin  2503.5kJ / kg
qout  1  m1  m2 h8  h1 
qout  1  0.1776  0.14142113 .2  191.81
qout  1308.46kJ / kg
54
Wnet q
  1  out
qin qin
1308.46
  1
2503.5
  0.477  47.7%
2.6 The Placement of Feed Water Heaters

In order to get maximum increase in efficiency, it is very important to
choose the certain pressure at which steam is to be bled from the turbine.
What are the pressures at which steam is to be bled from the turbine that will
result in the maximum increase in efficiency?
TB  TC
Topt 
n 1
55
2.7 Cogeneration
Cogeneration is the simultaneous generation of electricity and steam (or
heat) in a power plant.
In all the cycles discussed so far, the purpose was to convert a portion of the
heat transferred to the working fluid to work, which is the most valuable
form of energy. The remaining portion of the heat is rejected to rivers, lakes,
oceans, or the atmosphere as waste heat, because its quality (or grade) is too
low to be of any practical use. Wasting a large amount of heat is a price we
have to pay to produce work, because electrical or mechanical work is the
only form of energy on which many engineering devices (such as a fan) can
operate. Many systems or devices, however, require energy input in the form
of heat, called process heat.
In general, cogeneration is the production of more than one useful form of
energy (such as process heat and electric power) from the same energy
source.
56
Ideal steam-turbine cogeneration plant shown in Fig. 2.15.
Figure 2.15: A cogeneration plant with adjustable loads.
All the energy transferred to the steam in the boiler is utilized as either
process heat or electric power. Thus it is appropriate to define a utilization
factor ϵu for a cogeneration plant as:
Where:
Qout = the heat rejected in the condenser, also includes all the undesirable
heat losses from the piping and other components.
57
m4 = total mass flow rate in kg/s

= m5 + m6 + m7
qin  h4  h3 
qout  1  m1  m2 h7  h1 
q p  m1h5  m2 h6  m1  m2 h8
Win  1  m1  m2 h2  h1   m1  m2 h9  h8 
Wout  1  m1 h4  h6   1  m1  m2 h6  h7 
Or
58
qin  h6  h5 
qout  1  m1 h8  h1 
q p  m1h7  m1h3
Win  1  m1 h2  h1   m1 h4  h3 

Wout  h6  h7   1  m1 h7  h8 
59
EXAMPLE 9
Steam is generated in the boiler of a cogeneration plant at 10 MPa and
450°C at a steady rate of 5 kg/s. In normal operation, steam expands in a
turbine to a pressure of 0.5 MPa and is then routed to the process heater,
where it supplies the process heat. Steam leaves the process heater as a
saturated liquid and is pumped to the boiler pressure. In this mode, no steam
passes through the condenser, which operates at 20 kPa.
(a) Determine the power produced and the rate at which process heat is
supplied in this mode.
(b) Determine the power produced and the rate of process heat supplied if
only 60 percent of the steam is routed to the process heater and the
remainder is expanded to the condenser pressure.
SOLUTION (a)
60
SOLUTION (a)
 State 1 pump : P1 = 20 kPa h1 = hf@P1 = 251.42 kJ/kg

v1=vf@P1 = 0.001017 m3/kg
 State 2 :
WpI= v1(P2 - P1)= 0.001017 (10000 - 20)
= 10.15 kJ/kg
h2=h1 + WpI
= 251.42+ 10.15 = 261.57 kJ/kg
 State 3: : P3 = 0.5 MPa h3 = hf@P3 = 640.09 kJ/kg

v3=vf@P3 = 0.001093 m3/kg
 State 4
WpII= v3(P4 – P3)= 0.001093 (10000 - 500)
= 10.38 kJ/kg
h4=h3 + WpII
= 640.09+ 10.38 = 650.47 kJ/kg
61
 State 6: p6 = 10 MPa h6 = 3242.4 kJ/kg

T6 = 450 ºC s6 = 6.4219 kJ/kg . K
 State 7: p7 = 0.5 MPa hf = 640.09 kJ/kg

s7 = s6 = 6.4219 kJ/kg . K hfg = 2108.0 kJ/kg
sfg = 4.9603 kJ/kg . K
s7  s f 6.4219  1.8604
x7  
s fg 4.9603
x7  0.9196
h7= hf + x7 hfg= 640.09 + 0.9196* 2108.0
h7=2578.6 kJ/kg
 State 8: p8 = 20 kPa hf = 251.42 kJ/kg

s8 = s6 = 6.4219 kJ/kg . K hfg = 2357.5kJ/kg
sfg = 7.0752 kJ/kg . K
s8  s f 6.4219  0.8320
x8  
s fg 7.0752
x7  0.7901
62
h8= hf + x8 hfg= 251.42 + 0.7901* 2357.5

h8=2114.0 kJ/kg
When the entire steam is routed to the process heater:
WT  5h6  h7 
WT  53242.4  2578.6
WT  3319 kW
WP  5h7  h3 
WP  52578.6  640.09
WP  9693 kW
SOLUTION (b)
63
When only 60% of the steam is routed to the process heater:

The energy balance:
Energy entering mixing chamber = Energy leaving mixing chamber
m1 h4 + (5- m1) h2 = 5h5
3*650.47 + 2* 650.47 = 5* h5
h5 = 494.91 kJ/kg
WT  5h6  h7   2h7  h8 
WT  53242.4  2578.6  22578.6  2114 .0 WT  3319 kW
WT  4248 kW
WP  3h7  h3 
WP  32578.6  640.09
WP  5816 kW
64
Power Plant Engineering TUTORIAL SHEET ‐ 1 ‫الجامعه المستنصريه – كليه الهندسه‬

Thermodynamic Review ‫قسم الهندسه الميكانيكيه‬
Carnot cycle
1- A Carnot cycle works on steam between the pressure limits of 7 MPa and
7 kPa. Determine thermal efficiency, turbine work and compression work
per kg of steam.
Answers: Thermal efficiency = 44.21%, Turbine work = 969.57 kJ/kg (+ve),
Compression work = 304.19 kJ/kg (–ve)
2‐ Consider a steady-flow Carnot cycle with water as the working fluid. The
maximum and minimum temperatures in the cycle are 350 and 60°C. The
quality of water is 0.891 at the beginning of the heat-rejection process and
0.1 at the end. Show the cycle on a T-s diagram relative to the saturation
lines, and determine (a) the thermal efficiency, (b) the pressure at the turbine
inlet, and (c) the net work output.
Answers: (a) 0.465, (b) 1.40 MPa, (c) 1623 kJ/kg
3- Determine the net work output and the thermal efficiency for the Carnot
cycle with steam as the working fluid. Steam enters the turbine in both cases
at 10 MPa as a saturated vapor, and the condenser pressure is 20 kPa. In the
Carnot cycle, the boiler inlet state is saturated liquid. Draw the T-s diagrams
for this cycle.
Answers: 565.4 kJ/kg , 43%
65
Ideal and actual Rankine cycle

1‐ Consider a 210-MW steam power plant that operates on a simple ideal
Rankine cycle. Steam enters the turbine at 10 MPa and 500°C and is cooled
in the condenser at a pressure of 10 kPa. assuming an isentropic efficiency
of 85 percent for both the turbine and the pump. Show the cycle on a T-s
diagram with respect to saturation lines, and determine (a) the quality of the
steam at the turbine exit, (b) the thermal efficiency of the cycle,
and (c) the mass flow rate of the steam.
Answers: (a) 0.874, (b) 34.1 percent, (c) 194 kg/s
2- Consider a steam power plant that operates on a simple ideal Rankine

cycle and has a net power output of 45 MW. Steam enters the turbine at 7
MPa and 500°C and is cooled in the condenser at a pressure of 10 kPa by
running cooling water from a lake through the tubes of the condenser at a
rate of 2000 kg/s. Show the cycle on a T-s diagram with respect to saturation
lines, and determine (a) the thermal efficiency of the cycle, (b) the mass
flow rate of the steam, and (c) the temperature rise of the cooling water.
Answers: (a) 38.9 percent, (b) 36 kg/s, (c) 8.4°C
3- Repeat Prob. 22 assuming an isentropic efficiency of 87 percent for both

the turbine and the pump.
Answers: (a) 33.8 percent, (b) 41.4 kg/s, (c) 10.5°C
66
Reheat rankine cycle

1- Steam is the working fluid in an ideal Rankine cycle with superheat and
reheat. Steam enters the first-stage turbine at 8.0 MPa, 480ºC, and expands
to 0.7 MPa. It is then reheated to 440ºC before entering the second-stage
turbine, where it expands to the condenser pressure of 0.008 MPa. The net
power output is 100 MW. Determine
(a) the thermal efficiency of the cycle, (b) the mass flow rate of steam, in
kg/h, (c) the rate of heat transfer from the condensing steam as it passes
through the condenser, in MW.
Answers: 40.3% , 2.363×105 kg/h , 148 MW
2 calculate the ideal cycle efficiency and specific steam consumption (s.s.c.)
of a reheat rankine cycle operating between pressures 8 MPa and 9.6 kPa
with a superheat temperature and reheat temperature of 773 K and 773 K,
respectively. (Assume steam condition after first expansion as dry saturated).
Answers: 40.86% , 2.24 kg/kWh
3- Steam at a pressure of 10 MPa, 500ºC is supplied to a reheat rankine

cycle. After expansion in the HPT, the steam is reheated at an optimum
pressure to an optimum temperature. The moisture content at LPT exit
should not exceed 15%. Network done is 1600 kJ/kg and condenser pressure
is 7 kPa. Determine (a) heat supply per kg; (b) ηthermal
Answers: 3646.59 kJ/kg, 43.87%
67
Regenerative Rankine cycle

1- A regenerative Rankine cycle has steam entering turbine at 200 bar,
650ºC and leaving at 0.05 bar. Considering feed water heaters to be of open
type determine thermal efficiency for the following conditions;
(a) there is no feed water heater
(b) there are two feed water heaters working at 40 bar and 4 bar respectively.
(c) Give layout and T-s representation for each of the case described above.
Answers: (a) 46.18% , (b) 51.37%
2- Consider a regenerative vapor power cycle with one open feedwater

heater. Steam enters the turbine at 8.0 MPa, 480ºC and expands to 0.7 MPa,
where some of the steam is extracted and diverted to the open feedwater
heater operating at 0.7 MPa. The remaining steam expands through the
second-stage turbine to the condenser pressure of 0.008 MPa. Saturated
liquid exits the open feedwater heater at 0.7 MPa. The isentropic efficiency
of each turbine stage is 85% and each pump operates isentropically. If the
net power output of the cycle is 100 MW, determine:
(a) the thermal efficiency and (b) the mass flow rate of steam entering the
first turbine stage, in kg/h.
Answers: 36.9% ,3.69×105 kg/h
3- A steam power plant operates on an ideal reheat– regenerative Rankine

cycle and has a net power output of 80 MW. Steam enters the high-pressure
turbine at 10 MPa and 550°C and leaves at 0.8 MPa. Some steam is
extracted at this pressure to heat the feedwater in an open feedwater heater.
The rest of the steam is reheated to 500°C and is expanded in the low-
pressure turbine to the condenser pressure of 10 kPa. Show the cycle on a T-
68
s diagram with respect to saturation lines, and determine (a) the mass flow
rate of steam through the boiler and (b) the thermal efficiency of the cycle.
Answers: (a) 54.5 kg/s , (b) 44.4%
4- A steam power plant operates on an ideal regenerative Rankine cycle.

Steam enters the turbine at 6 MPa and 450°C and is condensed in the
condenser at 20 kPa. Steam is extracted from the turbine at 0.4 MPa to heat
the feedwater with closed FWH in forward pumped drain arrangement.
Assume that the feedwater leaves the heater at the condensation temperature
of the extracted steam and that the extracted steam leaves the heater as a
saturated liquid and is pumped to the line carrying the feedwater.. Water
leaves the feedwater heater as a saturated liquid. Show the cycle on a T-s
diagram, and determine (a) the net work output per kilogram of steam
flowing through the boiler and (b) the thermal efficiency of the cycle.
Answers: (a) 1016.8 kJ/ kg, (b) 37.8%
5- Consider a steam power plant that operates on an ideal reheat–

regenerative Rankine cycle with one open feedwater heater, one closed
feedwater heater, and one reheater. Steam enters the turbine at 15 MPa and
600°C and is condensed in the condenser at a pressure of 10 kPa. Some
steam is extracted from the turbine at 4 MPa for the closed feedwater heater,
and the remaining steam is reheated at the same pressure to 600°C. The
extracted steam is completely condensed in the heater and is pumped to 15
MPa before it mixes with the feedwater at the same pressure. Steam for the
open feedwater heater is extracted from the low-pressure turbine at a
pressure of 0.5 MPa. Determine the fractions of steam extracted from the
turbine as well as the thermal efficiency of the cycle. Answers: 49.2 %
69
6- Consider an ideal steam regenerative Rankine cycle with two feedwater

heaters, one closed and one open. Steam enters the turbine at 12.5 MPa and
550°C and exhausts to the condenser at 10 kPa. Steam is extracted from the
turbine at 0.8 MPa for the closed feedwater heater and at 0.3 MPa for the
open one. The feedwater is heated to the condensation temperature of the
extracted steam in the closed feedwater heater. The extracted steam leaves
the closed feedwater heater as a saturated liquid, which is subsequently
throttled to the open feedwater heater. Show the cycle on a T-s diagram with
respect to saturation lines, and determine (a) the mass flow rate of steam
through the boiler for a net power output of 250 MW and (b) the thermal
efficiency of the cycle.
Answers: (a) 200.2 kg/s , (b) 45.4%
Cogeneration
1- Steam is generated in the boiler of a cogeneration plant at 4 MPa and
427°C at a rate of 8 kg/s. The plant is to produce power while meeting the
process steam requirements for a certain industrial application. One-third of
the steam leaving the boiler is throttled to a pressure of 0.8 MPa and is
routed to the process heater. The rest of the steam is expanded in an
isentropic turbine to a pressure of 0.8 MPa and is also routed to the process
heater. Steam leaves the process heater at 116°C. Neglecting the pump work,
determine
(a) the net power produced
(b) the rate of process heat supply
(c) the utilization factor of this plant.
Answers: (a) 2260 kW , (b) 20528.91 kW
70
2- A cogeneration plant is to generate power and 8600 kJ/s of process heat.

Consider an ideal cogeneration steam plant. Steam enters the turbine from
the boiler at 7 MPa and 500°C. One-fourth of the steam is extracted from the
turbine at 600-kPa pressure for process heating. The remainder of the steam
continues to expand and exhausts to the condenser at 10 kPa. The steam
extracted for the process heater is condensed in the heater and mixed with
the feedwater at 600 kPa. The mixture is pumped to the boiler pressure of 7
MPa. Show the cycle on a T-s diagram with respect to saturation lines, and
determine (a) the mass flow rate of steam that must be supplied by the
boiler, (b) the net power produced by the plant, and (c) the utilization factor.
Answers: (a) 16.35 kg/s, (b) 17919 kW , (b) 52.4%
3- Consider a cogeneration power plant modified with regeneration. Steam

enters the turbine at 6 MPa and 450°C and expands to a pressure of 0.4 MPa.
At this pressure, 60 percent of the steam is extracted from the turbine, and
the remainder expands to 10 kPa. Part of the extracted steam is used to heat
the feedwater in an open feedwater heater. The rest of the extracted steam is
71
used for process heating and leaves the process heater as a saturated liquid at
0.4 MPa. Determine the mass flow rate of steam through the boiler.
Answers: 17.73 kg/s
72

Chapter Two: Vapor Power Cycles

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Chapter Two: Vapor Power Cycles

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Power Plant Vapor Power Cycles

Vapor Power Cycles

The major power plants are:

Figure 2.1: Steam Power Plant

2-2 Power plant cycles

Power plants cycle generally divided in to the following groups,

Gas Power Cycles

2-2-1 Carnot vapor power cycle

Figure 2.2: Arrangement of Carnot cycle

Thermal analysis for Carnot cycle:

The network for unit mass flow:

The thermal efficiency:

2-2-2 Ideal Rankine cycle:

Figure 2.3: Schematic Layout of ideal Rankine cycle.

The T-S diagram of ideal Rankine cycle is shown in figure 2.4.

Figure 2.4: T-S diagram of ideal Rankine cycle

The ideal Rankine cycle consists of the following four processes:

2-2-2-1Energy Analysis of the Ideal Rankine Cycle

1-2 Pump Work process:

2-3 Heat Supplied in Boiler: Qsupply process

Qsup ply  h3  h2  kJ/kg

3-4 Turbine work

h1 and h2 can be taken from steam table for P1 and P2 respectively.

4-1 Constant pressure condensation

Thermal Efficiency: It is ratio of network to the heat supplied.

Specific steam consumption. ‘SSC’ (or) steam flow rate per kW

State 1 pump : P1 = 0.008 MPa, h1 = hf@P1 = 173.88 kJ/kg

State 2 boiler : p2 = 8.0 MPa

State 4: p4 = 0.008 MPa

(a) The thermal efficiency is:

(b) The back work ratio is

2-2-3 Real Vapour Power Cycles:

Fig. 2.5 : Temperature–entropy diagram showing the effects of turbine and

TURBINE: The principal internal irreversibility experienced by the

PUMP: The work input to the pump required to overcome irreversibilities

2-3 How Can Increase the Efficiency of the Rankine Cycle?

1. Lowering the Condenser Pressure (Lowers Tlow,avg)

To take advantage of the increased efficiencies at low pressures, the

2. Superheating the Steam to High Temperatures (Increases Thigh,avg)

Figure 2.7: The effect of superheating the steam to higher temperatures on

3. Increasing the Boiler Pressure (Increases Thigh,avg)

SOLUTION: Solution (a)

In the first stage (the high pressure turbine), steam is expanded

Figure 2.9: The ideal reheat Rankine cycle

Advantages (or) effects of Re-heating:

2- The increase in thermal efficiency is not appreciable in comparison to the

2.5 The Ideal Regenerative Rankine Cycle

A feedwater heater is basically a heat exchanger in which heat is transferred

Open feedwater heaters Closed feedwater heaters

Advantages of Regenerative cycle over Simple Rankine cycle :

Generally the advantages of FWHS can be surmised as below:

Open FWHs Closed FWHs

1- Simple and inexpensive 1- Complex and expensive because

2.5.1Open feedwater heaters:

Thermal analysis of open feedwater heater

Energy entering regenerator = Energy leaving regenerator

2.5.2 Closed feedwater heaters:

There are two types of closed feedwater heaters

Closed FWH with Closed FWH with Drain

Closed FWH with Drain Cascaded Backward

•It is shell and tube heat exchanger.

• There is always a temperature difference between the bled steam entering