Chemistry 2 PDF

The Papua New Guinea University of Technology
Department of Open and Distance Learning
ADULT MATRICULATION
CHEMISTRY 2
Department of Applied Sciences

The PNG University of Technology
MATRICULATION CHEMISTRY 1
©Copyright
The material of this publication has been written by Papua New Guinea University of
Technology staff or compiled from other sources in compliance with the Copyright and
Neighbouring Right Act 2000. Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or
private study as permitted by international and/or Papua New Guinea copyright law, this
publication may not be reproduced, stored or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without
the prior permission of the Author(s) and the Publisher.
Printed at the Papua New Guinea University of Technology Printery, Taraka Campus, Lae
Printed 2015
ISBN
2
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The writer acknowledges these following people for their constructive comments during the
initial writing of this material. They are Mrs. Raturi, Dr Samson Akoitai, Mr. Peter Tine and Mr.
Michael Kumba.
Many thanks to former students, mainly at PNG University of Technology who have done some
Chemistry courses at first year level from 2007-2013 leading to writing this module.
Colleagues in the Department of Applied Sciences who have contributed one way or another to
deliver lectures with the Department and the University and Dr. Ty Jones of Civil Engineering
for valuable inputs in subject content.
Finally and not the least, to the Acting Director and Program Manager – Curriculum
Implementation Unit of the Department of Open and Distance Learning at The PNG University
of Technology – Mr. Paul Nongur and the Acting Director: Teaching and Learning Methods
Unit – Mr. Eduardo S. Banzon for formatting, proof reading, language editing and finalizing the
course book before printing.
3
COURSE OVERVIEW AND STUDY GUIDE
The course overview gives you a general introduction to the course. Information contained in the
course overview will help determine:
 If the course is suitable

 What you will already need to know
 What you can expect from the course
 How much time you will need to invest to complete the course
The overview also provides guidance on:
 Study skills
 Where to get help
 Course assignments and assessments
 Margin icons
 Units
We strongly recommend that you read the overview carefully before starting your study.
Course Contents
The course is broken down into units. Each unit comprises:
 An introduction to the unit content

 Unit learning outcomes
 Core content of the unit with a variety of learning activities
 A unit summary
 Assignments and/or assessments, as applicable
The course is broken down into five units.
Unit 1 Masses, Moles and Concentrations
Unit 2 Acids, Bases and Salts
Unit 3 Electrochemistry
Unit 4 Carbon Compounds
Unit 5 Natural Resources and Chemical Industries in Papua New Guinea
Resources
For those interested in learning more on this subject, we provide you with a list of additional
resources at the end of this course book. These may be books, articles or web sites.
4
LEARNING OUTCOMES
The main objective of this subject is to introduce you to the concepts and ideas that will guide
you in your study of the natural world. Therefore, you will learn how to describe the state or the
workings of the world around you.
Most of the concepts you will be studying, are already familiar to you in one way or another.
Therefore, the main aim of this course is for you to learn on how to apply those basic concepts or
ideas in a systematic and effective way, such that you will better understand the physical world
around you.
 What is the expected duration of this course?

Matriculation Course is 15 weeks.
 How much formal study time is required?
You are expected to attend a two-hour tutorial once a week.
 How much self-study time is expected or recommended?
It is recommended that you allocate at least eight hours a day for your
self-study.
STUDY SKILLS
As an adult learner your approach to learning will be different to that from your school days: you
will choose what you want to study, you will have professional and/or personal motivation for
doing so and you will most likely be fitting your study activities around other professional or
domestic responsibilities.
Essentially you will be taking control of your learning environment. As a consequence, you will
need to consider performance issues related to time management, goal setting, stress
management, etc. Perhaps you will also need to reacquaint yourself in areas such as essay
planning, coping with exams and using the web as a learning resource.
Your most significant considerations will be time and space, i.e., the time you dedicate to your
learning and the environment in which you engage in that learning.
We recommend that you take time now before starting your self-study, to familiarize yourself
with these issues. There are a number of excellent resources on the web. A few suggested links
are:
http://www.how-to-study.com/
The “How to study” web site is dedicated to study skills resources. You will find links to
study preparation (a list of nine essentials for a good study place), taking notes,
strategies for reading text books, using reference sources, test anxiety.
5
http://www.ucc.vt.edu/stdysk/stdyhlp.html
This is the web site of the Virginia Tech, Division of Student Affairs. You will find links
to time scheduling (including a “where does time go?” link), a study skill checklist, basic
concentration techniques, control of the study environment, note taking, how to read
essays for analysis, memory skills (“remembering”).
http://www.howtostudy.org/resources.php
Another “How to study” web site with useful links to time management, efficient
reading, questioning/listening/observing skills, getting the most out of doing (“hands-on”
learning), memory building, tips for staying motivated, developing a learning plan.
The above links are our suggestions to start you on your way. At the time of writing these web
links were active. If you want to look for more go to www.google.com and type “self-study
basics”, “self-study tips”, “self-study skills” or similar.
NEED HELP?
Is there a course web site address?

What is course instructor‟s name? Where can s/he be located, contacted or communicated (office
location and hours, telephone/fax number, email address)?
Is there a learner‟s resource centre? Where is it located and who is the resource centre manager
(office location and hours, telephone/fax number, email address)?
ASSIGNMENTS
How many assignments are there for this course?

You will have a maximum of six assignments to be assessed.
How are assignments to be submitted?

Submit your assignments to your tutor on the timeline s/he gives.
What is the order of the assignment? Must the assignments be completed in the order in
which they are set?
This is at your tutor‟s discretion.
ASSESSMENTS
How many assessments will there be in this course?

There will be six assignments that may or may not include laboratory practicals/experiments
equivalent to 30% of your internal mark.
You have a Final Examination which is equivalent to 70% of your final mark.
Are these self-assessments or teacher-marked assessments?
These six assignments are teacher-marked assessments.
You self-assess Student Learning Activities are to check your progress.
6
When will the assessments take place?

How long will the assessments be?
How long will learners be allowed to complete the assessment(s)?
How long will it take a teacher to mark the assessment(s)?
Your tutor will give you guidelines on when to complete and submit each assessment.
Turn-around time for assignments to be marked and returned by your tutor must be at least a
week after submission of your assignment.
MARGINAL ICONS/SIGNPOSTS
While working through this course, you will notice the frequent use of margin icons. These icons
serve to “signpost” a particular piece of text, a new task or change in activity. They have been
included to help you to find your way around.
A complete icon set is provided. We suggest that you familiarize yourself with the icons and
their meanings before starting your study.
Student Learning Assessment Assignment Case study

Activity
Discussion Group activity Help Introduction
Outcomes Reading Reflection Study skills
Summary Terminology Time Tip

YOUR COMMENTS
After completing Matriculation Chemistry 2, we would appreciate it if you would take a few
moments to give us your feedback on any aspect of this course. Your feedback might include
comments on:
 Course content and structure
 Course reading materials and resources.
 Course assignments.
 Course assessments.
 Course duration.
 Course support (assigned tutors, technical help, etc.)
Your constructive feedback will help us to improve and enhance this course.
7
QUESTIONNAIRE
Course Code and Title __________________________________________
Dear Student,
We would like to seek your views about this course module, its strengths, and its weaknesses in order for
us to improve it. We therefore request you to fill in this questionnaire and submit it when you finish this
course. If the space provided is insufficient, kindly use a separate sheet. Do not write your name. Thank
you for your cooperation.
Please tick the appropriate box.
Items Excellent Very Good Good Poor Give specific

examples if poor.
(e.g. Units & pages)
1. Logical presentation of content ____________
2. The use of language ____________
3. The style of language? ____________
4. Explanation of concepts ____________
5. Use of tables ____________
6. Use of graphs ____________
7. Use of diagrams/illustrations ____________
8. How are the student activities? ____________
9. How is feedback to questions? ____________
10. Do the units cover the course

syllabus? ____________
11. If not, which of the topics are not covered?

________________________________________________________________________________
12. Comment on the depth of the coverage of the content.
________________________________________________________________________________
13. Is there anything especially good or bad about this course module?
________________________________________________________________________________
14. How do you think the module could be improved?
________________________________________________________________________________
15. Any other comments you wish to make?
________________________________________________________________________________
8
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE
UNIT 1 MASSES, MOLES AND CONCENTRATIONS
LEARNING OUTCOME
INTRODUCTION
1.1 RELATIVE ATOMIC MASS

1.2 FORMULA MASS
1.3 THE MOLE
1.4 EMPIRICAL FORMULA
1.5 REACTION STOICHIOMETRY
1.6 CONCENTRATION OF SOLUTIONS AND MOLARITY
1.7 CALCULATIONS INVOLVING SOLUTIONS
1.8 ACID AND BASE TITRATION
SUMMARY
STUDENT LEARNING ACTIVITIES
UNIT 2 ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS
LEARNING OUTCOMES
INTRODUCTION
2.1 ACIDS
2.2 BASES AND ALKALIS
2.3 pH SCALE
2.4 GENERAL PROPERTIES OF ACIDS AND ALKALIS
2.5 TITRATION
2.6 SALTS
2.7 DANGER AND SAFETY PROCEDURES: CONCENTRATED
ACIDS AND ALKALIS
SUMMARY
UNIT 3 ELECTROCHEMISTRY
LEARNING OUTCOMES
INTRODUCTION
3.1 OXIDATION-REDUCTION REACTION

3.2 STANDARD REDUCTION POTENTIALS
3.3 ELECROLYSIS OF MOLTEN SALTS
3.4 ELECTROLYSIS OF AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS
3.5 ELECTROLYSIS OF IMPURE METALS
3.6 ELECTROPLATING
3.7 ELECTROLYTIC REFINING (COPPER)
9
SUMMARY
UNIT 4 CARBON COMPOUNDS

LEARNING OUTCOMES
INTRODUCTION
4.1 CARBON CYCLE

4.2 INTRODUCTION TO THE DIFFERENT FAMILIES OF CARBON
COMPOUNDS
4.3 ALKANES
4.4 ALKENES
4.5 ALKYNES
4.6 PETROLEUM
4.7 POLYMERS
4.8 ALCOHOL
UNIT 5 NATURAL RESOURCES AND CHEMICAL INDUTRIES

IN PAPUA NEW GUINEA
LEARNING OUTCOMES
INTRODUCTION
5.1 BASIC CHEMICAL PROCESSES INVOLVED IN CHEMICAL

INDUSTRIES
5.2 PRODUCTION OF SOAP AND DETERGENTS
5.3 PRODUCTION OF PAINTS
5.4 PRODUCTION OF CEMENT AND LIME
5.5 ALCOHOL PRODUCTION
5.6 FOOD PROCESSING UNITS
5.7 ANALYTICAL LABORATORIES FOR WATER, METAL OR SOIL
SUMMARY
STUDENT LERNING ACTIVITIES
10
UNIT 1
MASSES, MOLES AND CONCENTRATIONS
Prior Knowledge
Before starting this unit, you can:
1. Recall the Law of Conservation of Mass

2. Give details of an experiment which illustrates the Law of Conservation of Mass.
3. Explain the meaning of the terms: atomic number (Z), mass number (A), and the
use of conservation AZM.
4. Deal with basic mathematical concepts such as ratio and proportion, changing
the subject of a formula, percentages.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
Upon completion of this Unit, you can:
1. state that atoms of an element may have different numbers of neutrons and that
these different forms are called isotopes.
2. understand that the weighted mean of all naturally occurring isotopes of an
element gives the relative atomic mass.
3. define the standard of atomic mass as 1/12 the mass of the 12C isotopes.
4. work out the relative formula mass of an element given its isotopic composition.
5. calculate relative formula masses from relative atomic masses.
6. state that one mole is the unit of „amount of substance‟.
7. state that one mole of a substance contains 6 X 1023 particles of that substance.
8. define the mole in terms of the relative formula mass in grams.
9. calculate the mass of a substance given the numbers of moles and vice versa.
10. carry out calculations based on reacting masses for reactions having equations
with simple stoichiometry
11. calculate empirical formula from reacting masses or given data on composition
by mass, and recognize that the molecular formula may be a multiple of the
empirical formula.
12. define molarity as the number of moles of solute in 1dm3 of solution.
13 express concentrations of solutes in gL-1, gdm-3, moll-1 and moldm-3 and relate
these values to the relative mass of the substance in the solution.
14 calculate the amount of solute (in grams and moles) given the molarity and
volume of a solution.
15 make up standard solutions.
11
INTRODUCTION
The structure of an atom consists of three fundamental particles namely: proton, electron
and neutron. The center of the atom called nucleus occupies a very small space within
an atom and consists of protons and neutrons. The nucleus contributes protons and
neutrons are collectively called nucleons. The electrons are arranged in the orbits
outside the nucleus.
The proton is a positively charged particle and has a mass of 1. The symbol for a proton
is given by „p‟.
The neutron is a neutral and particle and has a mass of 1. The symbol for a neutron is
given by „n‟.
The electron is negatively charged particle and has a mass of approximately 1/1840. The
symbol for an electron is given by „e‟.
The identity of the atom is determined by the number of protons in the nucleus; the
number of protons is referred to as „atomic number‟, symbol „Z‟.
Number of proton = Atomic number
Or # of p = Z
The total number of proton and neutron is referred to as mass number or atomic mass,
symbol „A‟.
Number of proton + Number of neutron = Mass number
Or # of p + # of n = A
In an atom, the number of electrons is equal to the number of protons such that the atom
is “electrically neutral” on the whole despite the charge on proton and electron.
Number of proton = Number of electron
Or # of p = # of e
The symbol of an element is given as
A
Z X
Where:
A is the mass number,
Z is the atomic number,
X is the symbol for the element.
e.g.
23
11 Na
„Na‟ is the symbol for the element sodium. The atomic number of sodium is 11 and the
mass number is 23. The number of protons is 11, number of electron is 11 and the
number of neutron is 12 i.e. 23-11.
Elements such as chlorine are present in the atmosphere in two isotopic forms. About
75.4% of all the chlorine present in the atmosphere has a mass number of 35 while
remaining 24.6% of chlorine has a mass number of 37. So we can say chlorine has two
isotopes.
12
1.1 RELATIVE ATOMIC MASS

A number of elements contain mixtures of isotopes. The table below gives information
of a few common isotopes.
Table 2.1
Element Natural Atomic Mass No. of No. of
& Symbol abundance % Number Number neutron proton
Carbon – 12, C12 98.892 6 12 6 6
Carbon – 13, C13 1.108 6 13 7 6
Nitrogen – 14, N14 99.64 7 14 7 7
Nitrogen – 15, N15 0.36 7 15 8 7
Oxygen – 16, O16 99.76 8 16 8 8
Oxygen – 17, O17 0.04 8 17 9 8
Oxygen – 18, O18 0.20 8 18 10 8
Chlorine – 35, Cl35 75.4 17 35 18 17
Chlorine – 37, Cl37 24.6 17 37 20 17
Uranium–234, U234 0.01 92 234 142 92
Uranium–235, U235 0.71 92 235 143 92
Uranium–238, U238 99.28 92 238 146 92
From the table, uranium has three common isotopes i.e. isotopes i.e., isotopes with
significant natural abundance.
Uranium – 234 0.01%
Uranium – 235 0.71%
Uranium – 238 99.28%
The relative atomic mass (RAM) of an element is the average of the relative
isotopic masses for the different isotopes of the element balanced in the proportions
in which they occur. The RAM of an atom is compared with the carbon-12 isotope.
In order to calculate the relative atomic mass, we need to first calculate the mass
contributed by each isotope in accordance with its abundance and then add up the
masses.
For example, the relative atomic mass of isotope can be calculated as follows:
234  0.01
Mass due to U - 234 = = 0.0234
100
235  0.71
Mass due to U - 234 = = 1.6685
100
238  99.28
Mass due to U - 234 = = 236.2864
100
Relative atomic mass = 0.0234 + 1.6685 + 236.2864 = 237.9783
The value of RAM is very close to 238 because of very low abundance of the two
isotopes other than uranium–238.
13
We can see that:

1. The relative atomic mass is a weighted mean (proportions in which they occur)
of the relative isotopic masses of different isotopes.
2. The RAM can be a whole number or fractions.
3. C12 isotope is the new standard for comparing the atomic masses of atoms.
1.2 FORMULA MASS

Using the relative atomic masses of the elements, it is possible to work out the mass of
compounds or molecules and hence generally referred to as formula mass.
The formula mass of a substance is the sum of the relative masses of each element
on the basis of number of atoms of each element present in a particular chemical
formula.
The mass of a molecule, i.e. atoms covalently bonded together in a compound, is usually
referred to as relative molecular mass (RMM). The mass of ionic compound is
commonly referred to as relative formula mass (RFM). Whatever be the case, the
method of calculating RFM or RMM remains the same.
1.2.1 EXAMPLES FOR CALCULATIONS OF RFM/ RMM

The number of atoms of various elements in the chemical formula is decided upon.
Example 1: Hydrogen, H2
1. The formula for hydrogen is H2, which indicates that there are 2 atoms of the
element H.
2. The RAM of H is 1.01.
RMM = RAM of H  2
= 1.01  2
= 2.02
Example 2: Methane, CH4

1. The formula, CH4 indicates that there are 4 atoms of element H and 1 atom of
element C.
2. The RAM of H is 1.01 and C is 12.01 (refer to the 12.2.1 in supplementary
booklet).
RMM = (RAM of C  1) + (RAM of H  4)
= (12.01  1) + (1.01  4)
= 12.01 + 4.04
= 16.05
14
Example 3: Barium carbonate, BaCO3

1. The formula, BaCO3 indicates that there are 3 atoms of the element O, 1 atom of
the element C and 1 atom of the element Ba.
2. The RAM of O is 16.00, C is 12.01 and Ba is 137.34 (refer to the 12.2.1 in

supplementary booklet).
RFM = (RAM of Ba  1) + (RAM of C  1) + (RAM of O  3)
= (137.34  1) + (12.01  1) + (16.00  3)
= 137.34 + 12.01 + 48.00
= 197.35
Example 4: Ammonium sulfate, (NH4)2SO4

1. The formula, (NH4)2SO4 indicates that there are 4 atoms of the element O, 1
atom of the element S, 8 atoms of the element H and 2 atoms of the element N.
2. Note that when something is in bracket, in this case NH4 is in bracket with 2 as
subscript outside the bracket. 2 refer to all the elements inside the brackets. Thus
while calculating the number of atoms of
(a) N
We multiply by 2 for N and therefore, the number of atoms for N is 2.
(b) H
We multiply by 2 by 4 for H and therefore, the number of atoms for H is
8.
3. The RAM of O is 16.00, S is 32.06, H is 1.01, and N is 14.01 (refer to the 12.2.1
in supplementary booklet).
RFM = (RAM of N  2) + (RAM of H  8) + (RAM of S  1) +
(RAM of O  4)
= (14.01  2) + (1.01  8) + (32.06  1) + (16.00  4)
= 28.02 + 8.08 + 32.06 + 64.00
= 132.16
Example 5: Copper (II) sulfate pentahydrate, CuSO4.5H2O

1. The formula, CuSO4.5H2O indicates that there are 9 atoms of the element O, 10
atom of the element H, 1 atom of the element S and 1 atom of the element Cu.
2. Note that when one element appears twice, we need to sum up the number of
atoms altogether to have the total number of atoms of one element. For example, O
appears in CuSO4, there are 4 atoms of O in CuSO4; O also appears in the later part
of the formula i.e. 5H2O where we have 5 atoms O. So, the total number of O in
this compound is 9.
3. The RAM of O is 16.00, H is 1.01, S is 32.06 and Cu is 63.54 (refer to the 12.2.1
in supplementary booklet).
RFM = (RAM of O  9) + (RAM of H  10) + (RAM of S  1) +
(RAM of Cu  1)
= (16.00  9) + (1.01  10) + (32.06  1) + (63.54  1)
= 144.00 + 10.10 + 32.06 + 63.54 = 249.70
15
1.2.2 PERCENTAGE OF AN ELEMENT IN A COMPOUND

Calculating the percentage of an element is just like calculating the percentage of your
marks achieved in a test.
To calculate the % of any element in a chemical formula, we take the total mass
contributed by the total number of atoms of that element divided by the RMM/ RFM of
the compound and multiply by a 100.
Mass contributed by the total number of the atoms of element
% of element =  100
RFM/ RMM
1.2.3 EXAMPLES FOR CALCULATION OF % OF AN ELEMENT IN A

COMPOUND
Again, please note that all the RAM values of each element needed can be obtained from
section 12.2.1 in the supplementary booklet.
Example 1: % of C in Methane, CH4

1. The RFM/ RMM of CH4 is calculated first.
i. The formula, CH4 indicates that there are 4 atoms of element H and 1
atom of element C.
ii. The RAM of H is 1.01 and C is 12.01 (refer to the 12.2.1 in
supplementary booklet).
RMM = (RAM of C  1) + (RAM of H  4)
= (12.01  1) + (1.01  4)
= 12.01 + 4.04
= 16.05
2. The mass contributed by total number of atoms of carbon is calculated next.

i. The total number of C atom is 1.
ii. The RAM of C is 12.01.
Mass contributed by C = RAM of C  1
= 12.01  1
= 12.01
3. Now, calculate the % by simply substituting in the formula.
12.01
% of O =  100
16.05
% of O = 74.83 %
Example 2: % of O in Copper (II) sulfate pentahydrate, CuSO4.5H2O

1. The RFM/ RMM of CuSO4.5H2O is calculated first.
(i) The formula, CuSO4.5H2O indicates that there are 9 atoms of the
element O, 10 atom of the element H, 1 atom of the element S and 1
atom of the element Cu.
(ii) Note that when one element appears twice, we need to sum up the
number of atoms altogether to have the total number of atoms of one
element. For example, O appears in CuSO4, there are 4 atoms of O in
16
CuSO4; O also appears in the later part of the formula i.e. 5H2O where
we have 5 atoms O. So, the total number of O in this compound is 9.
(iii) The RAM of O is 16.00, H is 1.01, S is 32.06 and Cu is 63.54 (refer to

the 12.2.1 in supplementary booklet).

(RAM of Cu  1)
= (16.00  9) + (1.01  10) + (32.06  1) + (63.54  1)
= 144.00 + 10.10 + 32.06 + 63.54
= 249.70
2. The mass contributed by the total number of atoms of oxygen is calculated next.
(i) The total number of O atoms is 9.
(ii) The RAM of O is 16.00.
Mass contributed by total

number of atoms of O = RAM of O  9
= 16.00  9
= 144.00
3. Now, calculate the % by simply substituting in the formula
144.00
% of O =  100
249.70
% of O = 57.67 %
Example 3: % of water in Copper (II) sulfate pentahydrate, CuSO4.5H2O

1. The RFM/ RMM of CuSO4.5H2O is calculated first.
i. The formula, CuSO4.5H2O indicates that there are 9 atoms of the element
O, 10 atom of the element H, 1 atom of the element S and 1 atom of the
element Cu.
ii. Note that when one element appears twice, we need to sum up the
number of atoms altogether to have the total number of atoms of one
element. For example, O appears in CuSO4, there are 4 atoms of O in
CuSO4; O also appears in the later part of the formula i.e. 5H2O where we
have 5 atoms O. So, the total number of O in this compound is 9.
iii. The RAM of O is 16.00, H is 1.01, S is 32.06 and Cu is 63.54 (refer to

the 12.2.1 in supplementary booklet).
(RAM of Cu  1)
= (16.00  9) + (1.01  10) + (32.06  1) + (63.54  1)
= 144.00 + 10.10 + 32.06 + 63.54
= 249.70
17
2. The mass contributed by total number of atoms of oxygen and hydrogen in

water, 5H2O is calculated next.
(i) The total number of O atoms is 5 and H atoms are 10.
(ii) The RAM of O is 16.00 and H is 1.01.
Mass contributed by 5H2O = (RAM of O  5) + (RAM of H  10)
= (16.00  5) + (1.01  10)
= 80.00 + 10.10
= 90.10
3. Now, calculate the % by simply substituting in the formula

90.10
% of O =  100
249.70
% of O = 36.08 %
Student Learning Activity 1.1 20 Minutes
1. Calculate the relative atomic mass of lithium; the two isotopes of lithium are
lithium-6 and lithium-7 with the natural abundances of 7.40% and 92.60%
respectively.
16 17 18
2. There are three isotopes of oxygen; O,
8 8 O, O with abundances of 99.76%,
8
0.04% and 0.20%. What is the RAM of oxygen?
3. Calculate the relative formula mass/ relative molecular mass of the following
compounds:
(i) NaOH (iv) CH3COOH (viii) C2H4O2.2H2O
(ii) AlCl3 (v) LiAlH4
(iii) Ca(HCO3)2 (vi) K2Cr2O7
1.3 THE MOLE

The relative atomic mass of an element is calculated on the basis that C-12 isotope has a
mass of exactly 12. The unit of atomic mass is a.m.u. (atomic mass unit). For the sake of
simplicity, we will refer to mass in terms of grams instead of a.m.u. So, one could say
the relative atomic mass of C is 12.00g.
To talk about relative atomic masses and relative formula masses, one could end up
dealing with large numeral values. Chemists have thus come up with a simpler solution.
A mole of a substance can be defined in terms of:
1. mass
2. volume
3. number of particles it contains
18
1.3.1 DEFINITION OF MOLE IN TERMS OF MASS

In case of an atom, as long as we consider 12.00g of C or 1.01g of H or 22.99g of Na,
which happen to be their relative atomic mass, they can all be referred to as 1 mole.
In other words, we are talking about 1mole of C when we say 12.00g of C or 1mole of H
when we say 1.01g of H or 1mole of Na when we say 22.99g of Na.
What it means is that one mole of an element is equal to its relative atomic mass.
On the other hand, as long as we consider 2.02g of H2 or 16.05g of CH4 or 197.35g of

BaCO3 which happen to be their relative molecular masses/relative formula masses, they
can all be referred to as 1 mole. In other words, we are talking about 1 mole of H2 when
we say 2.02g of H2 or 1 mole of CH4 when we say 16.05g of CH4 or 1 mole of BaCO3
when we say197.35g of BaCO3.
Now, what this means is that one mole of a molecule/compound is equal to its relative
molecular mass/relative formula mass.
One mole of a substance (element/ molecule/ compound) is equivalent to its relative

atomic mass/ relative molecular mass/ relative formula mass.
1.3.2 DEFINITION OF MOLE IN TERMS OF PARTICLES

Avogadro’s number (6.022  1023) is the number of atoms (or particles) in exactly 12g
of carbon-12. This number is constant and often referred to as Avogadro‟s constant,
denoted by symbol, „L‟. The nature of particles can be anything e.g. atoms, ions,
molecules, charge etc. It is worthwhile noting that 12g of C is the relative atomic mass
of carbon.
Therefore, we could say that 2.02g of H2 or 16.05g of CH4 or 197.35g of BaCO3 which
happen to be their relative molecular masses/ relative formula masses, will contain 6.022
 1023 particles each. In other words, we are talking about 1 mole of H2 when we say
2.02g of H2 or 1 mole of CH4 when we say 16.05g of CH4 or 1 mole of BaCO3 when we
say197.35g of BaCO3.
Now, what this means is that one mole of a molecule/ compound is equal to Avagadro
number.
One mole of a substance (element/ molecule/ compound) is equivalent to 6.023 

1023 (Avogadro number) particles be it atoms, ions, molecules, or charge, etc.
1.3.3 DEFINITION OF MOLE IN TERMS OF VOLUME
Similarly, a mole of an atom/ molecule or a compound in gaseous state will occupy the
same volume provided compared under similar conditions of temperature and pressure.
One mole of CO2(g) or HCl(g) or H2(g) will each occupy same volume under similar
condition of temperature and pressure.
19
One mole of any gas occupies 22.4 dm3 or 22.4 L at STP (Std. Temperature and
Pressure).
One mole of any gas occupies 24 dm3 or 24 L at RTP (Room Temperature and
Pressure)
1.3.4 MOLAR MASS

Based on what we have learnt so far, i.e. definition of mole, we could define molar mass
as follows:
The mass of one mole of compound or molecule or atom is termed as molar

mass.
We could summarize the above definition in a formula as follows:
Mass
Mole 
MolarMass
Where,
„Mass‟ is the one in question/ „Mass‟ is the one for which „Mole‟ is being
calculated in the formula.
Molar Mass is the mass of one of substance in question
Examples for the calculation on conversion of mole to mass and mass to mole
Again, please note that all the RAM values of each element needed can be obtained from
section 12.2.1 in the supplementary booklet.
Example 1: How many mole/s are there in 128.00g of oxygen?
We can solve this problem using TWO methods.

(i) using the concept
(ii) using the formula straight away.
Oxygen is a diatomic molecule i.e. it exists as O2, therefore we need to consider the
RMM of O2.
(i) Using the concept

According to the definition of mole in terms of mass, we use following logic:
32.00g of O2 is equivalent to 1 mole.
128.00g of O2 is equivalent to how many mole/s?
Now using the ratio theorem, we have

32.00 1

128.00 x
x = 4 moles
(ii) Using the formula
20
Mass
Mole 
MolarMass
In this formula, „mass‟ refers to the mass in the question and the „molar mass‟ refers to
the RMM of O2.
128.00
Mole   4.0moles
32.00
In the above example, we have looked at the conversion of mass to mole.
We can now look at the conversion of mole to mass.
Example 2: What is the mass of 0.50 mole of methane?
We can again solve this problem using same TWO methods as in the previous problem
(ii) using the formula straight away.
The formula for methane is CH4; therefore, we need to consider the RMM of CH4.

1 mole of CH4 is equivalent to 16.05g.
0.5 mole of CH4 is equivalent to what mass?
1 16.05

0.5 x
x = 8.025g

Mass
Mole 
MolarMass
In this formula, we need to make „mass‟ the subject of the formula.
 Mass = Mole  Molar Mass
Mass = 0.5  16.05 = 8.025g
Based on this concept, we can calculate mass, mole or molar mass provided any two
quantities in the formula are known to us.
1.3.5 MOLAR VOLUME

Based on what we have learnt so far i.e. definition of mole, we could define molar
volume as follows.
The volume occupied by one mole of compound or molecule or atom is
termed as molar volume.
21
Volume
Mole 
MolarVolum e
Where
Volume is the one in question. Volume is the one for which Mole is calculated in
the formula.
Molar Volume is the volume of one mole of substance at the given temperature
and pressure conditions in question. These conditions can be at STP or RTP.
Examples for the calculation on conversion of mole to volume and volume to mole
It is worthwhile recalling the definition of „mole‟ in terms of volume. We can thus
conclude in these conversions, we do not require the RAM/ RMM/ RFM. However, it is
important that the temperature and pressure condition are mentioned i.e. STP or RTP.
Example 1: How many moles are there in 44.8 L of He gas at STP?

We can solve this problem too using (i) concept or (ii) formula straightaway.

22.4 L volume is occupied by 1 mole of He (or any) gas at STP.
44.8 L of volume is occupied by how many mole/s?

22.40 1

44.80 x
 x = 2 moles

Volume
Mole 
MolarVolum e
In this formula, „volume‟ refers to the volume in the question and the „molar volume‟
refers to the value 22.4L since it is at STP.
44.80
Mole   2moles
22.40
NOTE: If we change the conditions in the question to RTP such that our new Q is:
How many moles are there in 44.8 L of He gas at RTP?
Then the value of Molar Volume will be 24L and thus substituting this value in the
formula will give us
44.80
Mole   1.87 moles
24.00
In the above example, we have looked at the conversion of volume to mole.

We can now look at the conversion of mole to volume.
22
Example 2: What is the volume occupied by mass of 0.50 mole of methane at STP?
We can again solve this problem using same TWO methods as in the previous problem
(ii) using the formula straight away

According to the definition of mole in terms of volume, we use following logic:
1 mole of CH4 occupies 22.4L by volume.
0.5 mole of CH4 will occupy what volume?

1 22.40

0.5 x
 x = 11.20L

Volume
Mole 
MolarVolum e
In this formula, we need to make „Volume‟ the subject of the formula.

Volume = Mole  Molar Volume
Volume = 0.5  22.40 = 11.20L
Based on this concept, we can calculate volume, mole or molar volume provided any
two quantities in the formula are known to us.
NOTE:
1. While calculating mole from masses or vice versa, it is important to calculate

RAM/ RMM/ RFM or it is important to know the identity of the substance.
2. While calculating the mole from volume and vice versa, it is important to know the
temperature pressure conditions. The identity of the gas is immaterial.
1.3.6 AVOGADRO’S NUMBER

Let us recall the definition of mole in terms of particles which is:
Avogadro’s number is equivalent to one mole of any substance.

# of particle
Mole =
6.023  1023
23
Examples for the calculation on conversion of mole to particles and particles to

mole
It is worthwhile recalling the definition of „mole‟ in terms of particles. We can thus
conclude in these conversions, we may or may not require the RAM/ RMM/ RFM, or
volumes depending upon case to case.
Example 1: How many moles are there in 12.026  1023 particles of He gas at STP?
We can solve this problem using the
(i) concept or
(ii) formula straightaway

6.023  1023 particles consist in 1 mole of He (or any substance).
12.046  1023 particles will be present in how many mole/s?

6.023  10 23 1

12.046  10 23
x
 = 2.0 moles

# of particle
Mole =
6.023  1023
In this formula, # of particle refers to number of particle in the question.

6.023  10 23
3.023  10 23
In the above example, we have looked at the conversion of particles to mole.
We can now look at the conversion of mole to particles.
Example 2: What is the number of particles occupied by 0.50 mole of methane?

We can again solve this problem using same TWO method as in the previous problem
(i) sing the concept
(ii) sing the formula straight away.

According to the definition of mole in terms of particles, we use following logic:
1 mole of CH4 consists of 6.023  1023.
0.5 mole of CH4 will consist of how many particles?
24
1 6.023  10 23

0.5 x
 = 3.0115  1023 particles
# of particles
Mole =
6.023  1023
In this formula, we need to make „# of particle‟ the subject of the formula.
# of particles = Mole  6.023  1023

# of particles = 0.5  6.023  1023 = 3.0115  1023 particles
Based on this concept, we can calculate # of particle or mole provided any two
quantities in the formula are known to us.

1. Calculate the number of moles in each of the following:
(a) 20.0 g of Na2CO3
(b) 12.0 g of H2
(c) 122.0 g of KNO3
(d) 72.50 g of NaOH
2. Calculate the mass in grams for each of the following:
(a) 0.5 moles of NaOH
(b) 1.5 moles of Na2CO3
(c) 1.0 mole of KNO3
(d) 5.0 moles of H2
3. Calculate the volume occupied by each of the following:
(a) 2.2 moles of HCl (g) at RTP
(b) 1.5 moles of H2 (g) at RTP
(c) 0.5 moles of HCl (g) at STP
(d) 1.5 moles of H2 (g) at STP
(a) 1.203  1023 particles of K2SO4
(b) 1.203  1023 particles of NaCl
(c) 12.406  1023 particles of H2
(d) 6.023  1023 particles of K2SO4
5. Calculate the number of particles in each of the following:
(a) 2 moles of NaOH
(b) 0.5 moles of HCl
(c) 20.0 g of NaCl
(d) 100.0 g of CaCO3
25
1.4 EMPIRICAL FORMULA

The empirical formula is the simplest possible formula for a compound that gives the
ratio of atoms of various elements present in a compound.
Let us consider a few examples.

CH4, Methane:
It has 4 H atoms and 1 C atom. Simplest ratio of C: H is 4:1. Therefore the
empirical formula methane is CH4.
C2H6, Ethane:
It has 6 H atoms and 2 C atoms. Simplest ratio of C: H is 1:3. Therefore the
empirical formula ethane is CH3.
C6H12O6, Glucose:
It has 6 O, 12 H and 6 C atoms. Simplest ratio of C:H:O is 1:2:1. Therefore, the
empirical formula of glucose is CH2O.
Recall, that knowing the chemical formula of the compound, we can calculate the %
composition of each element present in the compound. Similarly, the reverse of this is
applied here. Knowing the % composition, we can calculate the empirical formula of the
compound and hence the chemical formula.
We can adopt the following method to calculate the empirical formula.

Step 1: Identify the various elements and the % composition of each.
Step 2: Relate % composition to mass of the element.
Step 3: Calculate the number of moles in the given mass for each element. Recall
the formula to calculate the number of moles; n = m/ M (where, „n‟ is
number of moles, „m‟ is mass in question and „M‟ is molar mass)
Step 4: Calculate the mole ratio of various elements.
Step 5: Conclude the empirical formula of the compound.
Example 1: The compound formed between iron and sulphur contains 63.5% iron.
Determine the empirical formula of the compound.
Steps Iron Sulphur
1. % composition 63.5% 100 - 63.5 = 36.5%
2. Mass 63.5 g 36.5 g
m 63.5 36.5
3. Moles (n  )
M 55.85 32.06
n = 1.14 n = 1.14
1.14 1.14
4. Mole ratio
1.14 1.14
=1 =1
5. Therefore the empirical formula of the compound is FeS.
Example 2: A 1.23 g sample of copper metal is reacted completely with chlorine gas
to produce 2.61 g of copper chloride. Determine the empirical formula of
the compound.
26
In this problem, we need to calculate the mass of chlorine in the compound. The mass of
chlorine in the compound = 2.61 – 1.23 = 1.38 g
Also, note that we will begin calculation in the stepwise format from step 2 now.
Steps Copper Chlorine
1. Mass 1.23 g 1.38 g
m 1.23 1.38
2. Moles (n  )
M 63.5 35.45
n = 0.0194 n = 0.0389
0.0194 0.0389
3. Mole ratio
0.0194 0.194
= 1.00 = 2.01
4. Therefore the empirical formula of the compound is CuCl2. (Note that the
numeral value 2.01 is rounded off to 2)
In the next example, we will consider more than 2 elements present in a

compound, exactly similar treatment is given for working out the empirical
formula for the third element too.
Example 3: A certain compound called „freon‟ consists of 9.9% carbon, 58.7%

chlorine and 31.4% fluorine by mass. Determine its empirical formula.
Steps Carbon Chlorine Fluorine
1. % composition 9.9% 58.7% 31.4%
2. Mass 9.9 g 58.7 g 31.4 g
m 9.9 58.7 31.4
3. Moles (n  )
M 12.01 35.45 19.00
n = 0.824 n = 1.656 n = 1.652
0.0824 1.656 1.652
4. Mole ratio
0.0824 0.0824 0.0824
= 1.00 = 2.01 = 2.00
5. Therefore the empirical formula is CCl2F2.
1.4.1 MOLECULAR FORMULA AND EMPIRICAL FORMULA
Recalling the concept of empirical formula in previous section 2.8, we can conclude that
The molecular formula is the multiple of empirical formula.
Similarly, the relative molecular mass is also the multiple of empirical
formula mass.
For example, the empirical formula of a certain compound is CH2. The chemical/
molecular formula can be C2H4, C3H6, C4H8, etc. anything that would fit the general
formula CnH2n.
If we know the relative molecular mass, we can thus calculate its chemical formula.
We can deduce the formula,

RFM = n  EFM
27
Where:
n = multiple i.e. equal to 1,2,3,4,…..so on
RFM = Relative Formula (or Molecular) Mass
EFM = Empirical Formula Mass
Also,
MF=nEF
Where:
n = multiple i.e. equal to 1,2,3,4,…..so on
M F = Molecular Formula
E F = Empirical Formula
Example 1: The relative molecular mass of the compound was found to be 42 for a
compound that has the empirical formula CH2. Deduce the molecular
formula.
RFM of compound = 42
EFM of CH2 = 12.01 + 1.01 = 14.02
Substituting the values in the following formula

RFM = n  EFM
42 = n  14.02
n =3
Substituting value of „n‟ in the following formula
MF = n  EF
MF = 3  (CH2) = C13H23
MF = C3H6
1. A compound formed by calcium and carbon has 62.5% calcium by mass and
37.5% carbon. What is the empirical formula of the compound?
2. A compound contains 42.9% carbon, 2.4% hydrogen, 16.7% nitrogen and 38.1%
oxygen. What is the empirical formula of the compound? If the relative formula
mass of the compound is 170, calculate the molecular formula of this compound.
3. An organic acid was shown on analysis to contain 40% carbon, 6.7% hydrogen and
remaining oxygen. If the relative formula mass of the acid was 60, identify the
acid.
1.5 REACTION STOICHIOMETRY

The reaction stoichiometry deals with the ratio in which the reactants react and products
are formed in a chemical reaction.
For example, let us consider the formation of carbon dioxide when carbon burns in
sufficient oxygen. The equation for this reaction is:
28
C(s) + O2(g)  CO2(g)
The reaction stoichiometry of this reaction tells us that 1 mole of C reacts with 1 mole of
O2 to produce 1 mole of CO2.
In terms of masses, we could say 12.01 g of C reacts with 32.00 g of O2 to produce

44.01 g of CO2.
To alter the masses or moles, the only point to be remember is that masses or moles will
react according to the reaction stoichiometry.
Example 1: Consider, 0.5 mole of C reacts according to the reaction

C(s) + O2(g)  CO2(g)
And now attempt to answer the four questions given below.
Question 1 How many moles of O2 will react?

Question 2 How many moles of CO2 is produced?
Question 3 Calculate the masses of C and O2 that react in this reaction.
Question 4 Calculate the mass of CO2 produced.
NOTE: To answer questions 1 and 2, we will recall the reaction stoichiometry.

“1 mole of C reacts with 1 mole of O2 to produce 1 mole of CO2.”
Answer 1
1 mole of C reacts with 1 mole of O2.
0.1 mole of C will react with how many moles of O2?
Based on ratio theorem, we have
1.0 0.1

1.0 x
x = 0.1 moles of O2
Answer 2
1 mole of C produces 1 mole of CO2.
0.1 mole of C will produce how many moles of CO2?
1.0 1.0

0.1 x
x = 0.1 moles of CO2
NOTE: To answer questions 3 and 4, recall the formula/ concept of Mole.
Mass
Mole 
MolarMass
Or, Mass = Moles  Molar mass
Answer 3
Using the formula given above,
Mass of C in 0.1 mole of C = 0.1  12.01 = 1.201g
Mass of O2 in 0.1 mole of O2 = 0.1  32.00 = 3.200g
29
Answer 4
Similarly,
Mass of CO2 in 0.1 mole of CO2 = 0.1  44.01 = 4.401g
Example 2: Let us now consider the reacting masses. 4 g of C reacts according
to the reaction
C(s) + O2(g)  CO2(g)
And now attempt to answer the two questions given below
Question 1 What mass of O2 will react?
Question 2 What mass of CO2 is produced?
NOTE: To answer to questions 1 and 2 above, we will recall the reaction stoichiometry.
“1 mole of C reacts with 1 mole of O2 to produce 1 mole of CO2.”
OR, in other words
“12.01 g of C reacts with 32.00 g of O2 to produce 44.01 g of CO2.”

Answer 1
12.01 g of C reacts with 32.00 g of O2
4 g of C reacts with how many grammes of O2?
12.01 32.00

4.0 x
32.00  4.0
or x
12.01
x = 10.66 g of O2
Answer 2
12.01 g of C produces 44.01 g of CO2
4 g of C produces how many grammes of O2?
12.01 44.01

4.0 x
44.01  4.0
or x
12.01
x = 14.66g of CO2
The problem is simpler if we have same number of moles.
Let us consider the scenario where different number of moles react and produced.
Consider the combustion reaction of pentane:
C5H12 (l) + 8O2(g)  5CO2(g) + 6H2O(g)
Pentane
In this reaction, 1 mole of pentane reacts with 8 moles of oxygen to produce 5 moles of
carbon dioxide and 6 moles of water.
30
Remember that the mole ratio governs the reacting masses too. This means:
1 times molar mass of pentane (1  72.17 g) will react with 8 times molar mass
of oxygen (8  32.00 g) to produce 5 times molar mass of carbon dioxide (5 
44.01 g) and 6 times molar mass of water (1  18.01 g).
Or we can say:
72.17 g of pentane (1  72.17 g) will react with 256.00 g of oxygen (8  32.00 g)
to produce 220.05 g of carbon dioxide (5  44.01 g) and 18.01 g of water (1 
18.01 g).
These are different ways one could understand the reacting moles/ masses concept.
Example 3: Consider 10 g of pentane reacting according to the reaction
C5H12 (l) + 8O2(g)  5CO2(g) + 6H2O(g)

Pentane
And now attempt to answer the two questions given below

Question 1 What mass of O2 will react?
Question 2 What mass of CO2 is produced?
NOTE: To answer to questions 1 and 2 above, we will recall the reaction stoichiometry.
“1 mole of pentane reacts with 8 moles of oxygen to produce 5 moles of carbon

dioxide and 6 moles of water.”
OR in other words
“72.17 g of pentane will react with 256.00 g of oxygen to produce 220.05 g of

carbon dioxide and 18.01 g of water.”
Answer 1
72.17 g of C5H12 reacts with 256.00 g of O2
10 g of C5H12 reacts with how many grams of O2?
72.17 256.00

10.0 x
256.00  10.0
or x
72.17
x = 35.47 g of O2
Answer 2
72.17 g of C5H12 produces 220.05 g of CO2
10 g of C5H12 produces how many grams of CO2?
31
72.17 220.05

10.0 x
220.05  10.0
or x
72.1
x = 30.49 g of CO2
So far we have looked at reacting mole ratios or reacting masses. Let us now approach at
the reaction from a different angle and try to obtain the mass with information given on
mole. If you think of it carefully, it is similar to what we talked about in the beginning of
this topic that is example 1 and 2. So what we are now attempting to do is the both
example 1 and 2 at one go.
Example 4: Consider 20 g of hydrogen reacting according to the reaction

2H2(g) + O2(g)  H2O(l)
Question: How many moles of oxygen are required to burn the 20 g of oxygen
completely?
NOTE: To answer this question above, we will recall the reaction stoichiometry.
“2 moles of hydrogen react with 1 mole of oxygen to produce 2 moles of water.”
We will now concentrate on masses for all which will be according to reaction
stoichiometry again.
That is, consider:
2 times molar mass of hydrogen (2  2.02 g) will react with 1 times molar mass of
oxygen (1  32.00 g) to produce 2 times molar mass of water (2  18.01 g).
“4.04 g of hydrogen (2  2.02 g) will react with 32.00 g of oxygen (1  32.00 g) to
produce 36.02 g of water (2  18.01 g).”
Answer
METHOD 1
We can first find out the stoichiometric mass of O2 reacting and then converting this
mass of O2 to moles.
4.04 g of H2 reacts with 32.00 g of O2

20 g of H2 reacts with how many grams of O2?
4.04 32.00

20.0 x
32.00  20.0
or x
4.04
x = 158.42 g of O2
32
We need to have the answer in mole, so now all we have to do is convert mass to mole
i.e. find out how many moles are there in 158.42 g of O2.
Mass
Mole 
MolarMass
158.42
32.00
METHOD 2
We can first find out how many moles are there in 20 g of H2 and then find out the
stoichiometrically reacting moles of O2.
Moles of H2 in 20 g can be calculated using the formula
Mass
Mole 
MolarMass
20.00
2.02
The moles of O2 can now be used to calculate the moles of H2 using the reaction
stoichiometry.
2 moles of O2 reacts with 1 mole of H2

9.95 moles of O2 will react with how many moles of H2?
2 1

9.95 x
1 9.95
or x
2
x = 4.95 moles of H2
33
1. Consider the following reaction:

CH4(g) + 2O2(g)  CO2(g) + 2H2O(g)
(a) Calculate the moles of H2O produced when 0.5 moles of CH4 react.
(b) Calculate the moles of O2 that will react completely with 2 moles of CH4.
(c) Calculate the mass of CO2 produced when 0.25 moles of CH4 react.
(d) Calculate the mass of CO2 produced when 24 g of CH4 react.
(e) Calculate the mass of CH4 required to produce 20 g of CO2.
(f) Calculate the mass of O2 required to produce 0.75 moles of CO2.
1.5 CONCENTRATION OF SOLUTIONS AND MOLARITY

A solution is made by dissolving a certain amount of solute in a certain volume of
solvent. The solvent most commonly in making solutions is water.
The amount of solute present in a given volume of a solvent tells us about the
concentration of the solution.
The concentration of a solution can be expressed in two ways:
1. gL-1 OR gdm-3
2. molL-1 OR moldm-3
3. Molar OR M
The amount of solute can be stated in grams and the solvent can be stated in either L or
dm3. Therefore, in this case the solution can be expressed in terms of gL-1 or gdm-3.
Similarly, the amount of solute can be stated in moles and the solvent can be stated in
either L or dm3. Therefore, in this case the solution can be expressed in terms of
molL-1 or moldm-3.
Molarity is the number of moles of solute in one litre of solution. The unit of molarity is
‘Molar‟ (M) or molL-1 or moldm-3.
Conversions of Units
1 L = 1000 ml
1dm3 = 1000 cm3
1ml = 1cm3
Therefore, we can derive
Moles
Molarity 
Volume(L)
Where:
Moles are moles of solute
Volume is the volume of solution given in litres
Or,
34
Moles = Molarity ×Volume; n=MV.
NOTE: Each time molarity concept is involved in a calculation, recall the definition of
molarity.
Example 1: Calculate the molarity of sodium chloride solution made by dissolving

0.100 moles of sodium chloride in 2 litres of solution.
(i) concept or

Recall the definition of Molarity:
“Molarity is the number of moles in 1 litre of solution.”
In the question we are required to find the molarity and given the moles in 2 litres of
solution. So making use of the information given in the question and the definition of
molarity, we can reason as follows:
2 litres contains 0.100 moles.
1 litre will contain how many?
Using ratio theorem, we have

2 0.100

1 x
 x  0.05molL1 or 0.05 M

Moles
Molarity 
Volume(L)
0.100
Molarity   0.05molL1
2
Example 2: A saturated solution of calcium hydroxide contains 0.185 g in 100mL of

solution. Calculate the molarity of this solution.
We can solve this problem using the (i) concept or (ii) formula straightaway

We can first convert the mass of calcium hydroxide to moles and then find out moles in
1litre in order to calculate molarity.
35
RFM of Ca(OH)2 = (40.08×1) + (16.00×2) + (1.01×2) = 74.10
74.10 g makes 1 mole

0.185 g will make how many moles?
74.10 1

0.185 x
x = 0.0025 mole
100mL contains 0.0025 moles
1000mL (=1 litre) contains how many mole?

100 0.0025

1000 x
 x  0.025molL1 or M

First calculate RFM then number of moles with help of formula
RFM of Ca (OH)2 = (40.08×1) + (16.00×2) + (1.01×2) = 74.10
m
n
M
0.185
n  0.0025mole
74.10
Now calculate the molarity with the help of the formula; before using the formula, we
need to convert the volume in litre since the formula uses the volume in litre
Volume = 100ml = 0.100 L

Moles
Molarity 
Volume(L)
0.0025
Molarity   0.025molL1 or M
0.100
Example 3: What mass of sucrose (C12H22O11) is dissolved in 5 litre of 0.250 molL-1

sucrose solution?
We can solve this problem using the (i) concept or (ii) formula straightaway

36
We can first calculate the moles of sucrose in 5.0 L of solution and then convert moles
to mass.
0.250 molL-1 means 0.250 moles in 1 litre of the solution, so use this concept to
calculate moles in 5 litre.
1 litre contains 0.250 moles
5 litre contains how many mole?

1 0.250

5 x
x  1.250moles
RFM of C12H22O11 = (12.01×12) + (1.01×22) + (16.00×11) = 342.34 g
1 mole is equivalent to 342.34 g.
1.250 moles is equivalent to how many moles?
1 342.34

1.250 x
x = 427.925 g
First calculate moles, then RFM then mass with help of formula
Moles
Molarity  or we can say, Moles = Molarity×Volume
Volume(L)
n = 0.250×5 = 1.250
mass
moles  or we can say, mass = moles×MolarMass
MolarMass
Mass = 1.250 × 342.34 = 427.925 g
Example 4: What volume is required for 6.00 moles of sodium nitrate in order to
prepare a solution of 0.25M solution?
(i) concept or

We can first calculate the moles of sucrose in 5.0 L of solution and then convert moles
to mass.
0.250 molL-1 means 0.250 moles in 1 litre of the solution, so use this concept to
calculate volume for 6 moles.
37
0.250 moles is in 1 litre.

6 moles will occupy what volume?
0.250 1

6 x
x = 24.0 L

First calculate moles, then RFM then mass with help of formula
Moles
Molarity  or, we can say, Volume = moles×Molarity
Volume(L)
Volume = 0.250×6 = 24 L
1. Calculate the molarity of the following solutions.

(i) 4.0 moles of KI in litres of solution.
(ii) 0.10 mole of CuSO4.5H2O dissolved in 250 mL solution.
(iii) 25.0 g of KI dissolved in 500 mL solution.
(iv) 1.0 g sodium hydrogen carbonate dissolved in 100 mL solution.
(v) 0.2 g of potassium permanganate, KMnO4, in 500 mL solution.
2. Calculate the moles of solute in the following solutions.
(i) 2 litre of 0.10 molL-1 sodium hydroxide.
(ii) 5 litre of 12 molL-1 hydrochloric acid.
(iii) 250 mL of 0.0166 molL-1 potassium dichromate, K2Cr2O7.
3. Calculate the mass of solute in the following solutions.
(i) 5 litres of 0.2 molL-1 sodium chloride.
(ii) 100 mL of 2.0 molL-1 potassium nitrate.
(iii) 500 mL of 0.02 molL-1 sodium sulfate.
1.7 CALCULATIONS INVOLVING SOLUTIONS

Just like we have studied masses reacting according to the reaction stoichiometry, the
volume too can be considered. We can tie the reaction stoichiometry with the concept of
molarity to calculate the reacting volumes.
Example 1: Zinc reacts with hydrochloric acid according to the equation.

Zn(s) + 2HCl (aq)  ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)
How many mL of 3.00M HCl are required to react with 4.33 g of Zn?
We can solve this problem using (i) concept or (ii) formula straightaway.
38

3.00 M means 3 moles in 1 litre.
If we can calculate moles reacting, we can then equate it to reacting volume.
To calculate the reacting moles of HCl, we should calculate the moles reacting for Zn.
So let us calculate the moles for Zn in 4.33g
65.37 g of Zn is equivalent to 1 mole
4.33 g of Zn is equivalent to how many moles?
65.37 1

4.33 x
 x = 0.0662 moles
So we now know that 0.0662 mole of Zn reacts with HCl. Using reaction stoichiometry,
we can calculate the moles of HCl reacting.
1 mole of Zn reacts with 2 moles of HCl
0.0662 mole of Zn reacts with how many moles of HCl?
1 2

0.0662 x
 x = 0.1324 moles of HCl
3M of HCl means 3 moles of HCl in 1 L or 1000 mL of the solution.
3 moles HCl in 1L of solution
0.1324 mole of HCl will be in what volume?
Again using ratio theorem, we have
3 1

0.1324 x
 x = 0.044 L
Convert L to mL
1 L = 1000 mL
0.044L = ? mL
1000  0.044
Volume in mL =  44mL
1
Thus, Volume of HCl required is 0.044 L or 44 mL
We need to figure out what do we want to calculate first and then next and so on. Once
we have done that, you simply pick the formula and substitute the values and solve. Like
in this question, we need to calculate
(a) moles of Zn in 4.33 g reacting
(b) moles of HCl reacting
(c) volume of HCl reacting
39
To solve (a), we use the formula:

mass
moles 
MolarMass
4.33
mass   0.0662mole
65.37
To solve (b), we take the reaction stoichiometry into consideration and make use of ratio
theorem:
1 2

0.0662 x
 x = 0.1324 mole of HCl
To solve (c), we use the formula
Moles
Molarity  or, we can say, Volume = moles×Molarity
Volume(L)
Volume = 0.1324×3 = 0.044 L
Covert 0.044 L to mL like we did in the first method of using concept in this question,
we have,
Volume of HCl reacting is 44mL.
1. Consider the reaction:

Na2CO3(s) + H2SO4(aq) → Na2SO4(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O (l)
(i) What volume of 0.500molL-1 sulfuric acid is needed to react with 21.2 g of
Na2CO3 (Molar mass = 105.99).
(ii) Calculate the moles of carbon dioxide liberated in the reaction.
2. Calculate the mass of nickel metal which will react with 25 mL of 0.150 moL-1
hydrochloric acid to produce nickel (II) chloride.
40
1.8 ACID AND BASE TITRATION

We have studied how to calculate the concentration of the solution. Based on this we can
now make solutions of specific concentration.
A solution of known concentration is called a standard solution. A standard solution

can be used to find out the concentration of solutions of other reagents.
Titration is the technique of finding out the concentration of one reagent by means of
adding another reagent in a measured way until the reaction is complete. The completion
of reaction is indicated by means of color change.
Let us look at the result of a typical titration technique/experiment.

“25.00 mL of NaOH requires 20.00 mL of 0.100 M HCl to react completely
(with phenolphthalein) as indicator.”
Hydrochloric acid, HCl, is a standard solution since we know the concentration. HCl can
be used to find out the concentration of sodium hydroxide, NaOH. HCl is poured in the
burette. 25 mL of NaOH is pipetted out in conical flask and 2 to 3 drops of
phenolphthalein is added. (Note that the indicator is added to the reagent in the conical
flask and it would have a certain color.) Upon addition of phenolphthalein to NaOH, the
color of the solution is colorless. The HCl is added slowly from the burette to the conical
flask while flask is swirled every few seconds in order to ensure that NaOH reacts with
all the HCl being added to it. When enough HCl is added to NaOH, the color of the
contents in the flask changes to a pink. This is called the “end point” or “equivalence
point” of the reaction. The experiment is repeated until three concordant readings that is
the „end points‟ (the difference between any two readings is not more than 0.05mL) are
obtained. The average of the three readings is recorded as the volume of HCl which is
20.00 mL in this case that reacts with 25.00 mL of NaOH.
25.00 mL of NaOH and 20.00 mL of HCl is referred to as „titre‟ volume or „titrant‟.
These are reacting volumes in order for the reaction to reach completion. The indicator
is added to indicate the point at which the reaction is complete. The indicator is chosen
depending on the nature of the reagents.
The titration described involves a reaction between an acid (HCl) and a base (NaOH)
and thus called Acid-Base Titration.
Following reactions are acid-base reactions and when carried out using titration
techniques, are called acid-base titrations.
HCl(aq) + KOH(aq) → KCl(aq) + H2O(l)

2HCl(aq) + Mg(OH)2 (aq) → MgCl2(aq) + 2H2O(l)
H2SO4(aq) + 2NaOH (aq) → Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)
CH3COOH(aq) + NaOH (aq) → CH3COONa(aq) + 2H2O(l)
2CH3COOH(aq) + Ca(OH)2(aq) → (CH3COO)2Ca(aq) + 2H2O(l)
41
To calculate the molarity of the acid or base, we can formulate a relationship between
the number of moles of acid and the number of base.
We know that:
Moles = Molarity ×Volume
Or abbreviated as
n = MV
NOTE: In the above formula, provided two quantities are known to us, the third quantity
can be calculated.
For any acid-base reaction, we can calculate the moles reacting as follows:
Molesacid = Molarityacid ×Volumeacid; OR nacid =MacidVacid
Molesbase = Molaritybase ×Volumebase; OR nbase = MbaseVbase
Taking the mole ratio of acid to base we have:
nacid M acidVacid

nbase M baseVbase
Or we can say,
M baseVbase M acidVacid

nbase nacid
Example 1: Calculate the molarity of NaOH given that 25.00 mL of NaOH requires
20.00 mL of 0.100 M HCl to react completely (with phenolphthalein) as
indicator.
We can solve this problem using (i) concept or (ii) formula straightaway
(i) Using concept

HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
From the information given in the question, we can see that calculating as follows will
lead us to the molarity of NaOH. So calculate
(a) the moles of HCl reacting in the titre volume.
(b) the moles of NaOH in the titre volume using the reaction stoichiometry.
(c) the moles of NaOH in 1 litre (THIS IS MOLARITY)
So we first calculate
(a) the moles of HCl reacting i.e. the moles of HCl in 20.00 mL of 0.100 M (means
0.1 mole in 1 L or 1000 mL) of solution
1000 mL of HCl contains 0.100 moles
20.00 mL of HCl will contain how many moles?
1000 0.100

20 x
x = 2.0×10-3 moles
42
1 mole of HCl reacts with 1 mole of NaOH (according to reaction stoichiometry)
2.0×10-3 moles of HCl reacts with how many moles of NaOH?
Using the ratio theorem, we have
1 1

2.0  10 -3
x
-3
x = 2.0×10 moles
(c) Molarity i.e. the moles of NaOH in 1 L or 1000 mL

25 mL of NaOH contains 2.0×10-3 moles.
1000 mL of NaOH will contain how many moles?
25 2.0  10 -3

1000 x
x = 0.08 M or 0.08 molL-1
(ii) Using formula


nbase nacid
M base  25 0.100  20

1 1
Mbase = 0.08 M or 0.8 molL-1
Example 2: 25 mL of NaOH solution is titrated with 27.2 mL of 0.200 molL-1 H2SO4.

Calculate the molarity of the NaOH solution.

(i) concept or
(ii)formula straightaway
(i) Using concept

H2SO4(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) → Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)
From the information given in the question, we can see that calculating as follows will
lead us to the molarity of NaOH. So calculate
(a) the moles of H2SO4 reacting in the titre volume.
(c) the moles of NaOH in 1 litre (THIS IS MOLARITY.)
So we first calculate
(a) the moles of H2SO4 reacting i.e. the moles of H2SO4 in 27.2 mL of 0.200 M
(means 0.2 mole in 1 L or 1000 mL) of solution
1000 mL of HCl contains 0.200 moles
20.00 mL of HCl will contain how many moles?
43

1000 0.200

27.2 x
x = 5.44×10-3 moles
mole of H2SO4 reacts with 2 mole of NaOH (according to reaction
stoichiometry)
2.0×10-3 moles of H2SO4 reacts with how many moles of NaOH?
Using the ratio theorem, we have
1 2

5.44  10 -3
x
-2
x = 1.088×10 moles
(c) Molarity i.e. the moles of NaOH in 1 L or 1000 mL

25 mL of NaOH contains 1.088×10-2 moles.
1000 mL of NaOH will contain how many moles?
25 1.088  10 -2

1000 x
x = 0.435 M or 0.435 molL-1
(ii) Using formula

nbase nacid
M base  25 0.200  27.2


2 1
Mbase = 0.435 M or 0.435 molL-1
1. 25.00 mL of nitric acid is titrated with 21.6 mL of 0.102 mol-1 KOH. Calculate the
molarity of the nitric acid solution.
2. 50.00 mL of CH3COOH is titrated with 44.2 mL of 0.250 molL-1 NaOH. Calculate

the molarity of the ethanoic acid.
3. 25.00 mL of Ba(OH)2 solution was titrated with 29.10 mL of 0.040 molL-1 HCl.
Calculate the molarity of barium hydroxide.
4. What volume of 0.124 molL-1 sodium hydroxide is required to titrate 25.00 mL of

0.100 molL-1 HCl?
44
SUMMARY
Isotopes are atoms of the same elements with same number of protons but different
number of neutrons and thus mass number. For an isotope, the atomic mass thus needs
to be calculated and is termed as relative atomic mass.
Using the relative atomic masses of the elements, it is possible to work out the mass of
compounds or molecules generally referred to as formula mass.
One mole of an element, molecule or compound is equivalent to its relative atomic mass/
relative molecular mass/ relative formula mass. Thus we can calculate the conversion of
mole to mass, volume or particles and vice versa.
Empirical formula is the simplest possible formula for a compound that gives the ratio of
atoms of various elements present in a compound. The molecular formula is the multiple
of empirical formula. Similarly, the relative molecular mass is also the multiple of
empirical formula mass.
Reaction stoichiometry deals with the ratio in which the reactants react and products are
formed in a chemical reaction. To alter the masses or moles, the only point to be
remember is that masses or moles will react according to the reaction stoichiometry
Molarity is the number of moles of solute in one litre of solution. To calculate the
molarity of a solution, we use the concept of defining molarity or use the formula
provided.
Titration is the technique of finding out the concentration of one reagent by means of
adding another reagent in a measured way until the reaction is complete. The completion
of reaction is indicated by means of change. Titration which involves a reaction between
an acid (HCl) and a base (NaOH) is called Acid-Base Titration.
45
ASSIGNMENT UNIT 1
1. Calculate the percentage of

(i) O in CH3COOH
(ii) O in NaOH
(iii) O in C2H4O2.2H2O
(iv) Water in C2H4O2.2H2O

(a) 1200.00 mL of HCl (g) at RTP
(b) 36.0 L of H2 (g) at RTP
(c) 4400.80 mL of HCl (g) at STP
(d) 22.4 L of H2 (g) at STP
3. Chemical analysis of a compound shows that it contains 0.99 g lead, 0.154 g sulfur
and 0.306 g oxygen. What is the empirical formula of the compound?
4. Consider the following reaction:

N2(g) + 3H2(g)  2NH3(g)
(a) Calculate the moles of NH3 produced when 0.75 moles of N2 react.
(b) Calculate the moles of H2 required to produce 0.50 moles of NH3.
(c) Calculate the moles of NH3 produced when 10 g of H2 reacts.
(d) Calculate mass of N2 needed to react with 10 g of H2 reacts.
(e) Calculate the mass of N2 needed to produce 15 g of NH3.
(f) Calculate the moles of N2 needed to react with 1.75 moles of H2.
5. What volume of the following solutions contains the following amounts of solute?
(i) 0.10 molL-1 NaCl solution contains 1.0 mole of NaCl.
(ii) 2.0 molL-1 HCl solution contains 0.5 mole of HCl.
(iii) 0.250 molL-1 Na2CO3 solution contains
46
UNIT 2
ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

Prior Knowledge
Before starting this unit, students should be able to:
1. Understand and explain the terms concentrated, dilute, acid, base and salt.
2. Describe or perform experiments that illustrate the use of indicators (e.g. litmus
and universal indicator) in distinguishing between acidic, neutral and alkaline
solutions.
3. Identify a base as a substance which neutralizes an acid and gives a salt and
water.
4. State that neutral solutions have a pH of 7.
5. Recall the use of the pH scale.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Recognize dilute acids in terms of their effect on indicators (litmus,
phenolphthalein and methyl orange) and their reactions with:
 metals to form a salt and hydrogen.
 oxides and hydroxides to form a salt and water.
 carbonates to form a salt, water and carbon dioxide.
2. Understand that in dilute aqueous solution, acid produces H+(aq) ions.
3. Perform or have seen an experiment which demonstrates that substances behave
as acids only in the presence of water and be able to give an explanation.
4. Recognize alkalis by their effect on indicators (litmus, phenolphthalein and
methyl orange) and by their reactions with dilute acids to give salt and water.
5. Isolate the salts formed in the experiments in 1 and 4 above.
6. Understand that the alkalis are soluble bases which give OH-(aq) ions in aqueous
solution.
7. Perform or have seen experiments which indicate the presence of H+ or OH- in
water.
8. State that pure water contains a very small number of free ions i.e. OH-(aq) and
H+ (aq) which are present in equal amounts, and that the concentration of these
ions at 25°C is 10-7 moldm-3.
9. State that pH is directly related to the hydrogen ion concentration of the solution
such that the pH ranges from 0 to 14 with pH=7 neutral, pH<7 acidic, pH<2
strongly acidic, pH>7 alkaline and pH>12 strongly alkaline.
10. State that:
 There are more H+ions than OH- ions in an acidic solution,
47
 There are less H+ ions than OH- ions in an alkaline solution,

 There are an equal number of H+ and OH- ions in a neutral solution
11. Recall that strong acids/ alkalis completely dissociate, and that weak acids/
alkalis partially dissociate.
12. Write the overall dissociation equations for:
 common acids e.g. HCl, HNO3, CH3COOH, H2SO4
(Note: Use H2SO4 (aq) → SO42-(aq) + 2H+(aq))
13 Describe or having performed a simple acid/ alkali titration using an indicator
e.g. phenolphthalein or methyl orange and be aware of the end point as indicated
by the change in color of the indicator.
14 Describe alternative methods of finding the neutralization point in an acid/ base
titration, including graphical means.
15 Write chemical and ionic equations for the reactions in this unit.
16 State the dangers involved in handling concentrated acids and alkalis, and apply
the appropriate first aid measures.
48
INTRODUCTION
We know some of the common acids, bases and salts.
You may remember acetic acid (vinegar), citric acid (in lemons), maleic acid (in milk) in
food and other common acids in the school laboratory such as hydrochloric acid, nitric
acid, sulfuric acid, etc.
The common alkali/bases such as ammonia in aqueous form (used in cosmetics),

potassium hydroxide, magnesium hydroxide, aluminum hydroxide (in antacids, used to
treat heartburns), sodium hydroxide (used in the manufacture of soap), zinc oxide
(cosmetics), etc.
Among salts, sodium chloride (the most common salt, essential for human beings),
potassium nitrate (in fireworks and fertilizers), sodium benzoate (as a preservative) are
some of the examples.
We classify the chemicals into acids, bases and salts based on the peculiar properties
they possess.
49
2.1 ACIDS
Acids are the chemicals that have H+ which can be released in an aqueous solution.
It can be understood by looking at the following dissociation reactions for acids in
aqueous solution.
HCl(aq) → Cl-(aq) + H+(aq)
Hydrochloric acid
Or it can be written as
HCl(l) + H2O(l) → Cl-(aq) + H3O+(aq)
Hydrochloric acid
Similarly:
H2SO4(aq) → SO42-(aq) + 2H+(aq)
Sulfuric acid
H2SO4(l) + 2H2O(l) → SO42-(aq) + 2H3O+(aq)

Sulfuric acid
Also
CH3COOH(aq) → CH3COO-(aq) + H+(aq)

Ethanoic acid
Or
Acetic acid
CH3COOH(l) + H2O(l) → CH3COO-(aq) + H3O+(aq)

Ethanoic acid
Or
Acetic acid
Note whether the reaction is written as

HCl(aq) → Cl-(aq) + H+(aq)--------------------------------------------- equation 1
or as
HCl(l) + H2O(l) → Cl-(aq) + H3O+(aq)-------------------------------equation 2
the H+ is being released in both the equations. In the first equation, we have H+ shown
as H+(aq) which means there is aqueous hydrogen ions released in the medium. In the
second equation, we have H+ shown as H3O+(aq) (hydroxonium ion) which means there
is solvated hydrogen ions that is each hydrogen ion is enveloped with a water molecule.
Literally both H+(aq) and H3O+(aq) mean the same and both the equations 1 and 2
represent the dissociation of sulfuric acid. Equation 2 is technically more appropriate
style of representing the dissociation reaction for sulfuric acid.
50
Acids are covalent compounds which, when dissolved in water, produce a solution
containing H+ ions as the only positive ions.
According to the Bronsted-Lowry definition,
An acid is a proton donor.
H+ which is released in aqueous solution is essentially a proton. The ability of a

compound to donate a proton qualifies it to be an acid.
Basicity of an acid is the capacity of an acid to donate protons.

This capacity is measured in terms of number of protons that can acid can donate. The
acids are thus classified as monobasic (monoprotic), dibasic (diprotic), tribasic (triprotic)
polybasic (polyprotic). To understand the concept of basicity, we will look into
dissociation reactions where, hydrogen ion release is represented as H+ ion.
Monobasic (monoprotic) acids are the acids which release ONE H+/ ONE proton (which
is the same as saying hydrogen ion) per molecule of the acid. For example:

HNO3(aq) → NO3-(aq) + H+(aq)
CH3COOH(aq) → CH3COO-(aq) + H+(aq)
Note that though ethanoic acid has four hydrogen atoms, but the fact it can release only
one H+ makes it a monobasic (monoprotic) acid.
Dibasic (diprotic) acids are the acids which release TWO H+s / TWO protons (which is
the same as saying hydrogen ion) per molecule of the acid. For example:
H2SO4 (aq) → SO42-(aq) + 2H+(aq)

H2C2O4(aq) → C2O42-(aq) + 2H+(aq)
Oxalic acid
Tribasic (triprotic) acids are the acids which release THREE H+s / THREE protons
(which is the same as saying hydrogen ion) per molecule of the acid. For example:
H3PO4 (aq) → PO43-(aq) + 3H+(aq)
Acids can be identified by its effect on indicators.
We can recall from our previous knowledge of indicators that indicators when added to
an acid result in a certain color while added to a base give a different color. There are a
number of indicators which can used in order to identify whether a substance is an acid
or not. Majority of indicators are in the solution form while some also exist in paper
form. The ones that exist in the paper form are essentially paper that has been dipped in
the particular indicator and dried.
Litmus: The most common indicator is litmus paper or litmus solution. The blue litmus
paper when dipped in a solution of an acid turns red. Or a few drops of litmus
solution when added to an acid, the color of the solution turns red.
51
Universal Indicator: The universal indicator too can be used as a solution or paper. It
gives a range of color that corresponds to different pH (We will discuss pH later).
Phenolpthalein: The colorless phenolphthalein when added to an acid remains colorless.

The usefulness of phenolphthalein will be better understood when we will
consider the effect of bases on phenolphthalein.
Methyl orange: The orange solution of methyl orange when added to an acid turns red.
Safety Issues while handling acids

Acids are of varied nature, some are corrosive, e.g. nitric acid and sulfuric acid
while others are not so corrosive, e.g. ethanoic acid.
The corrosive acids must be handled carefully because the liquid eats away metal and
skin. This is shown by the diagram below:
Concentrated acids must be handled with great CARE.
The use of appropriate safety equipment; such as safety glasses, gloves, fume cupboards
must be taken into consideration. The experiments that employ use of large volume of
acids must be carried out in the fume cupboard wearing face shields and appropriate
aprons.
Dilution of the acids particularly must be carried out with great CARE. The concentrated
acids are diluted with water to reduce the concentration of acids for various reasons
depending upon the requirement. When concentrated acids dissolve in water, heat is
given out (evolved, exothermic reactions); in the case of sulfuric acid large amounts of
heat are given out.
Sulfuric acid is denser than water; the density of concentrated sulfuric acid is 1.84 gmL-
1
. When sulfuric acid is added to water, the sulfuric acid sinks towards the bottom and
when stirred mixes with the water. But if water is added to sulfuric acid, the water tends
to form a layer on top of the sulfuric acid and the water at interface i.e. the contact
between the sulfuric acid and water layers, becomes very hot and this could cause the
water to boil explosively spraying concentrated sulfuric acid.
Strength of acids
A strong acid is one that dissociates completely while a weak acid is one that does not
dissociate completely.
2.2 BASES AND ALKALIS

Metal oxides and hydroxides are generally referred to as bases. Soluble bases are called
alkalis.
All alkalis are bases but not all bases are alkalis.
An alkali is a compound soluble in water and which forms a solution
containing hydroxide ions, OH-, as the only negative ions present.
52
It can be understood by looking at the following dissociation reactions for alkalis in

aqueous solution.
NaOH(aq) → Na+(aq) + OH-(aq)
Sodium hydroxide
Similarly:
Ca(OH)2(aq) → Ca2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq)
Calcium hydroxide
Also
NH4OH(aq) → NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq)
Ammonium hydroxide
NH3(aq) + H2O(l) → NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq)
According to the Bronsted-Lowry definition,
A base is a proton acceptor.
H+ which is released in aqueous solution is essentially a proton. The ability of a

compound to accept the proton qualifies it to be a base.
Bases can be identified by its effect on indicators.

We can recall from our previous knowledge of indicators that indicators when added to
an acid result in a certain color while added to a base give a different color.
Litmus: The most common indicator is litmus paper or litmus solution. The red litmus
paper when dipped in a solution of a base turns blue. Or a few drops of
litmus solution when added to a base, the color of the solution turns blue.
Universal Indicator: The universal indicator too can be used as a solution or paper. It
gives a range of color that correspond to different pH (We will discuss pH
later).
Phenolpthalein: The colourless phenolphthalein when added to a base turns pink/ red.
Methyl orange: The orange solution of methyl orange when added to a base turns
yellow.
Safety Issues while handling alkalis
Alkalis are of varied nature, some are corrosive, e.g. concentrated sodium
hydroxide.
Corrosive bases must be handled carefully because it can burn the skin.
Concentrated alkalis must be handled with great CARE.

53
alkalis must be carried out in the fume cupboard wearing face shields and appropriate
aprons.
Strength of alkalis
A strong alkali is one that dissociates completely while a weak alkali is one that does not
dissociate completely.
2.3 pH SCALE
The strength of an acid/ alkali is dependent on the degree of dissociation. Thus, if we
can calculate the degree of dissociation, we can then, estimate the strength of an acid/
alkali.
The acidity of an aqueous solution depends entirely on the concentration of the

hydrogen/ hydroxonium ions present. For simplicity, we will consider H+ (aq) ions in the
aqueous solution.
pH scale is a measure of the concentration of hydrogen ions in a solution.
‘pH’ means power of the H+(aq) concentration.
The common pH scale goes from pH value of 1 to 14.
pH can be calculated as:
pH = -log [H+]
Pure water is almost a non-conductor of electricity. It is mainly a covalent compound but
it has a very slight dissociation into H+/ H3O+ and OH- ions.
H2O(l) → H+(aq) + OH-(aq)
H2O(l) + H2O(l) → H3O+(aq) + OH-(aq)
It has been found that H+ ion concentration in pure water at 25 °C is 1.0×10-7 molL-1.
pH = - log [H+]
pH = - log [1.0×10-7]
pH = 7
The pH value of 7 indicates water is neutral. The solution has equal number of H+ and
OH- ions.
The more acidic the solution, lower is the pH value. A solution with pH = 1 is more
acidic than a solution with pH = 4. The acidic solution has greater number of H+ than
OH- ions.
The more alkaline the solution, higher is the pH value. A solution with pH = 12 is more
alkaline than a solution with pH = 9. The alkaline solution has greater number of OH-
than H+ ions.
pH = 7 ------------------ Indicates neutral solution
pH < 7 ------------------ Indicates acidic solution
pH < 12 ---------------- Indicates strongly acidic solution
pH > 7 ------------------ Indicates alkaline solution
pH > 12 ---------------- Indicates strongly alkaline solution
54
pH Scale
1 2 3 5 6 7 9 10 11 12 13 14
Increasing acidity Neutral Increasing alkalinity
High H+ ion conc. Low H+ ion conc.
Universal Indicator
Universal indicator is a mixture of indicators including phenolphthalein, methyl red,
bromothymol blue and thymol blue. Instead of just observing one particular color, a
range of colors is observed depending on the pH of the solution.
pH of a solution is measured using Universal indicator and its color range is shown
below:
1 2 3 4 56 7 89 10 11 12 13 14
red orange yellow green green blue purple
/ red / green / blue / purple
Acids with low pH value are called strong acids while alkalis with high pH are called
strong alkalis. Strong acids and alkalis are also strong electrolytes and are completely
ionized in aqueous solution e.g. HCl and NaOH. Weak acids and alkalis have pH vales
near 7 and are considered weak electrolytes i.e. incompletely ionize in aqueous solution
e.g. CH3COOH and aq. NH3.
The pH of some common substances is as follows:
pH
0-1 Dilute HCl, toilet cleaner
2 stomach acid
3 coca cola
4 orange juice, vinegar
5 soda water
6 milk, butter
7 water, salt solution
8 toothpaste
9 sea water
10 lime water
10.5 detergents
11 bleach, washing soda
12
13
14 drain and oven cleaner
2.3.1 ACTIVITY INVOLVING EXAMPLES FOR THE CALCULATION OF

pH
Example 1: Calculate the pH of a 0.2M HCl solution.

This means 0.2M HCl gives 0.2M H+ ions and 0.2M Cl- ions
pH = - log [H+]
pH = - log [0.2]
pH = 0.7
55
Note:
1. If the pH is even less than 1, it is a strong acid.
2. The term „strong acid‟ is reserved for the acid that dissociate completely.
3. There is a difference between the terms „strong acid‟ and „concentrated acid‟.
Similarly there is a difference between the terms „weak acid‟ and „dilute acid‟.
4. The pH of ethanoic acid (CH3COOH) cannot be calculated the way we have
calculated the pH for HCl. Since ethanoic acid is a weak acid, we need to bear in
mind that the dissociation is not complete. Therefore, if we are told there is a
solution of 0.1M, we cannot say the concentration of H+ ions would be 0.1M,
since the dissociation is not complete. The H+ ion concentration in case of
ethanoic acid is less than 0.1M. We will need to calculate the degree of
dissociation of ethanoic acid that would help us calculate H+ ion concentration.
The calculations on degree of dissociation incase of weak acids and alkalis are
beyond the scope of this syllabus.
Example 2: If HCl is added to an acidic solution, what would happen to the

(i) H+ ion concentration.
(ii) pH of the solution.
(i) Adding HCl means adding H+ ions and Cl- ion to an acidic solution, this results
in an increase in H+ ion concentration.
(ii) We know that pH increases as H+ ion concentration increases. Therefore, we
should expect pH to increase.
1. Explain the following terms with the help of an example:\

(i) acid
(ii) alkali
2. Nitric acid was added to water and litmus added, what would be the colour of
litmus?
3. Methyl orange was added to a solution of sodium hydroxide.

(i) Is the solution acidic or alkaline?
(ii) What colour would the methyl orange turn to?
4. In what type of solution are there

(i) equal numbers of H+ ions and OH- ions
(ii) more OH- ions than H+ ions
(iii) more H+ ions than OH- ions
(iv) less H+ ions than OH- ions
5. Phenolphthalein was added to a solution and the colour of the resulting solution
was pink.
(i) Is the solution acidic, or alkaline?
(ii) Is the pH of the solution greater than 7 or less than 7 or equals to 7?
56
6. Is a solution acidic, alkaline or neutral if its pH is

(a) (i) 2 (iv) 9
(ii) 7 (v) 12
(iii) 8 (vi) 6
(b) What would be the colour of Universal Indicator in each of these

solutions in (a).
7. Are the following solutions acidic, alkaline or neutral

(i) bleach (iv) sea water
(ii) blood (v) toilet cleaner
(iii) salt solution (vi) soft drink
8. How would you test a solution to see if its strongly alkaline using litmus paper.
9. Write down the formula of

(i) sulfuric acid (vi) nitric acid
(ii) ethanoic acid (vii) hydrochloric acid
(iii) calcium hydroxide (viii) aluminum sulfate
(iv) potassium hydroxide (ix) copper(II) hydroxide
(v) aqueous ammonia (x) barium nitrate
2.4 GENERAL PROPERTIES OF ACID AND ALKALI
Acids have the following properties:

1. A sour taste (NEVER TASTE LABORATORY CHEMICALS)
2. Turn blue litmus red
3. pH is less than 7
4. Usually react with metals (which are more reactive than hydrogen) forming salt
and hydrogen gas
5. React with alkalis, forming a salt and water
6. React with metal oxide, forming a salt and water
7. React with carbonates, forming a salt, water and carbon dioxide gas
8. React with sodium hydrogen carbonate, forming a salt, water and carbon dioxide
gas.
Note:
1. We eat acids in many foods on a regular basis. The sour taste of orange juice
(pH= 4), lemons (pH=2.2-2.4), limes (pH=1.8-2.0), etc.
2. The pH of soda water is about 5. Soda water is carbonated water, i.e. carbon
dioxide dissolved in water. The solubility of carbon dioxide at 0°C is 0.35 g/
100mL of water and at 25°C the solubility is 0.15 g/ 100mL of water.
Carbon dioxide is the oxide of a non-metal and is therefore, an acidic oxide.
When carbon dioxide is dissolved in water, an acidic solution is produced. We
know this because the pH is less than 7.
57
Alkalis have the following properties:
1. Feel soapy to touch

2. Turn red litmus blue
3. pH greater than 7
4. Alkalis (except ammonia) react with ammonium compounds forming a salt,
water and ammonia gas.
5. React with acids, forming a salt and water
2.3.1 REACTIONS OF DILUTE ACIDS/ALKALIS
Note that all the reactions of acids dealt in this section are dilute acids.
Salts of Acids: The salts of sulfuric acid are called sulfates (SO42-), of hydrochloric acid,
chlorides (Cl-) and of nitric acid, nitrates (NO3-).
Writing equations for the reactions of dilute acids/ alkalis and writing ionic
equations for these reactions
1. Reaction of acids with metals

It is important that we understand that metals which are more reactive than hydrogen are
the ones that react with acids and are able to displace hydrogen from the acid.
Reactivity series is as follows:

K> Na> Ca> Mg> Al> Zn> Fe> Pb> H> Cu> Ag> Au
Consider the reaction of magnesium and hydrochloric acid. Magnesium is a metal and
looking at the properties of acids, we would predict the formation of a salt and hydrogen
gas.
Magnesium + Hydrochloric acid → Magnesium chloride + Hydrogen
Mg + HCl → MgCl2 + H2
Balancing the equation, we have
Mg + 2HCl → MgCl2 + H2
We should include the state symbols; magnesium is a solid, hydrochloric acid and
magnesium chloride are aqueous solutions and hydrogen is a gas. We can now write the
complete equation as follows:
Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) → MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)
The net ionic equation shows the ions/ species that actually undergo a chemical change.
Now to write the ionic equation for this reaction, let us look at the rules.
Rules for writing ionic equation
1. Write a complete balanced equation with states.

2. Only the compounds in aqueous states form ions rest remain unchanged.
58
3. The ions that appear on both the sides of the arrow are called „spectator ions‟.
We can omit the spectator ions from either sides and then rewrite the equation in
order to write the „net ionic equation.
So for the reaction between magnesium and hydrochloric acid, rule 1 tells us to write a
complete balanced equation with states.
In the above equation, HCl and MgCl2 are in aqueous states, so rule 2 tells us to write
ions for compounds in aqueous states. The ionic equation is:
Mg(s) + 2H+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq) → Mg2+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq) + H2(g)
To write the net ionic equation, we will omit spectator ions. The spectator ions are Cl-
ions. The net ionic equation is:
Mg(s) + 2H+(aq) → Mg2+(aq) + H2(g)
Let us look at some more reactions in this category.
Magnesium reacts with sulfuric acid to produce magnesium sulfate and hydrogen gas.
Chemical equation:
Mg(s) + H2SO4(aq) → MgSO4(aq) + H2(g)
Ionic equation:
Mg(s) + 2H+(aq) + SO22-(aq) → Mg2+(aq) + SO22-(aq) + H2(g)
Net ionic equation:
Mg(s) + 2H+(aq) → Mg2+(aq) + H2(g)
Zinc reacts with hydrochloric acid to produce zinc chloride and hydrogen gas.
Chemical equation:
Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) → ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)
Ionic equation
Zn(s) + 2H+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq) → Zn2+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq) + H2(g)
Net ionic equation
Zn(s) + 2H+(aq) → Zn2+(aq) + H2(g)
2. Reaction of acids with metal carbonates/metal hydrogen carbonates
(a) Reaction of acids with metal carbonates

Acids react with metal carbonates to give a salt, water and carbon dioxide.
Solid calcium carbonate reacts with hydrochloric acid to give calcium chloride, water
and carbon dioxide.
Chemical equation:
CaCO3 (s) + 2HCl(aq) → CaCl2(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
Ionic equation:
CaCO3(s) + 2H+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq) → Ca2+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
59
Net ionic equation:

CaCO3(s) + 2H+(aq) → Ca2+(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
Sodium carbonate solution reacts with hydrochloric acid to give sodium chloride, water
and carbon dioxide.
Chemical equation:
Na2CO3 (aq) + 2HCl(aq) → 2NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
Ionic equation:
2Na+(aq) + CO32-(aq) + 2H+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq) → 2Na+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
Net ionic equation:
CO32-(aq) + 2H+(aq) → H2O(l) + CO2(g)
This reaction is used as a test for carbonates because the reaction produces „fizz‟ or
effervescence. The „fizzing‟ is due to the rapid production of carbon dioxide gas.
(b) Reaction of acids with metal hydrogen carbonates

Acids react with metal hydrogen carbonates to give a salt, water and carbon dioxide.
Solid calcium hydrogen carbonate reacts with hydrochloric acid to give calcium
chloride, water and carbon dioxide.
Chemical equation:
Ca(HCO3)2 (s) + 2HCl(aq) → CaCl2(aq) + 2H2O(l) + 2CO2(g)
Ionic equation:
Ca(HCO3)2 (s) + 2H+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq) → Ca2+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq) + 2H2O(l) + 2CO2(g)
Net ionic equation:

Ca(HCO3)2 (s) + 2H+(aq) → Ca2+(aq) + 2H2O(l) + 2CO2(g)
Sodium hydrogen carbonate solution reacts with hydrochloric acid to give
sodium chloride, water and carbon dioxide.
Chemical equation:
NaHCO3 (aq) + HCl(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
Ionic equation:
Na+(aq) + HCO3-(aq) + H+(aq) + Cl-(aq) → Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
Net ionic equation:
HCO3-(aq) + H+(aq) → H2O(l) + CO2(g)
3. Reaction of acid with ammonia

Acids react with NH3 forming ammonium salt.
Hydrochloric acid reacts with ammonia forming ammonium chloride.
Chemical equation:
HCl(aq) + NH3(aq) → NH4Cl(aq)
Ionic equation:
H+(aq) + Cl-(aq) + NH3(aq) → NH4+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
Net ionic equation:
H+(aq) + NH3(aq) → NH4+(aq)
60
Sulfuric acid reacts with ammonia forming ammonium sulfate.
Chemical equation:
H2SO4(aq) + NH3(aq) → (NH4)2SO4(aq)
Ionic equation:
2H+(aq) + SO42-(aq) + 2NH3(aq) → 2NH4+(aq) + SO42-(aq)
Net ionic equation:
2H+(aq) + 2NH3(aq) → 2NH4+(aq)
Or
H+(aq) + NH3(aq) → NH4+(aq)
4. Reaction of acids with metal oxide/ metal hydroxide

We know that all the elements are divided into two general classes; metals and non-
metals.
One of the properties of metals is that metals form basic oxides. This means that if a
metal oxide is soluble in water, hydroxide ions will be produced and the pH of the
solution will be greater than 7.
Na2O(s) + H2O(l) → 2NaOH(aq)
Note that some bases are not soluble in water. The bases that are soluble in water are
called alkali.
We can say:
All alkalis are bases but not all bases are alkalis.
(a) Reaction of acids with bases (metal oxides)

An acid reacts with a base to form a salt and water.
Magnesium oxide and hydrochloric acid react forming magnesium chloride and water.
Chemical equation:
MgO (s) + 2HCl(aq) → MgCl2(aq) + H2O(l)
Ionic equation:
MgO(s) + 2H+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq) → Mg2+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq) + H2O(l)
Net ionic equation:
MgO(s) + 2H+(aq) → Mg2+(aq) + H2O(l)
Calcium oxide and sulfuric acid react forming calcium sulfate and water.
Chemical equation:
MgO (s) + H2SO4 → MgSO4(aq) + H2O(l)
Ionic equation:
MgO(s) + 2H+(aq) + SO42-(aq) → Mg2+(aq) + SO42-(aq) + H2O(l)
Net ionic equation:
MgO(s) + 2H+(aq) → Mg2+(aq) + H2O(l)
61
(b) Reaction of acids with alkalis (metal hydroxides)

The reaction of an acid with an alkali is called neutralization reaction. An acid react with
an alkali forming a salt and water.
Sodium hydroxide and hydrochloric acid react forming sodium chloride and water.
Chemical equation:
NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
Ionic equation:
Na+(aq) + OH-(aq) + H+(aq) + Cl-(aq) → Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq) + H2O(l)
Net ionic equation:
OH-(aq) + H+(aq) → H2O(l)
Potassium hydroxide and sulfuric acid react forming potassium sulfate and water.
Chemical equation:
2KOH(aq) + H2SO4(aq) → K2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)
Ionic equation:
2K+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) + 2H+(aq) + SO42-(aq) → 2K+(aq) + SO42-(aq) + 2H2O(l)
Net ionic equation:
2OH-(aq) + 2H+(aq) → 2H2O(l)
Magnesium hydroxide and hydrochloric acid react forming magnesium chloride and
water.
Chemical equation:
Mg(OH)2 (aq) + 2HCl(aq) → MgCl2(aq) + 2H2O(l)
Ionic equation:
Mg2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) + 2H+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq) → Mg2+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq) + 2H2O(l)
Net ionic equation:
2OH-(aq) + 2H+(aq) → 2H2O(l)
Note:
The neutralization reaction is essentially a reaction between hydrogen ion and hydroxyl
ion to form water.
5. Reaction of alkalis with ammonium salt

An alkali reacts with an ammonium salt forming a salt, water and ammonia.
Sodium hydroxide solution and ammonium chloride reacts forming sodium chloride,
water and ammonia.
Chemical equation:
NaOH(aq) + NH4Cl(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) + NH3(g)
Ionic equation:
Na+(aq) + OH-(aq) + NH4+(aq) + Cl-(aq) → Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq) + H2O(l) + NH3(g)
Net ionic equation:
NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq) → H2O(l) + NH3(g)
62
Calcium hydroxide solution and ammonium chloride reacts forming sodium chloride,
water and ammonia.
Chemical equation:
Ca(OH)2(aq) + 2NH4Cl(aq) → CaCl2(aq) + 2H2O(l) + 2NH3(g)
Ionic equation:
Ca2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) + 2NH4+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq) → Ca2+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq) + 2H2O(l) + 2NH3(g)
Net ionic equation:
2NH4+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) → 2H2O(l) + 2NH3(g)
Generalized reaction for acids and alkalis
Acid + Metal → Salt + Water
Acid + Metal carbonate → Salt + Water + Carbon dioxide
Acid + Metal hydrogen carbonate → Salt + Water + Carbon dioxide
Acid + Ammonia → Ammonium salt
Acid + Metal oxide → Salt + Water
Acid + Metal hydroxide → Salt + Water
Alkali + Ammonium salt → Salt + Water + Ammonia
2.3.2 ACTIVITY INVOLVING REACTIONS OF ACIDS AND ALKALIS AND

CHEMICAL/ IONIC EQUATIONS
Activity 1 Write the net ionic equation for the reaction between dilute sulfuric acid
and solid magnesium carbonate.
Solution:
Note that dilute sulfuric acid means an aqueous solution of sulfuric acid, H2SO4(aq).
Solid magnesium carbonate reacts with sulfuric acid to give magnesium sufate, water
and carbon dioxide.
Chemical equation:
MgCO3(s) + H2SO4(aq) → MgSO4(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
Ionic equation:
MgCO3(s) + 2H+(aq) + SO42-(aq) → Mg2+(aq) + SO42-(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
Net ionic equation:
MgCO3(s) + 2H+(aq) → Mg2+(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
Activity 2 Write the net ionic equation between sodium hydroxide and sulfuric acid.
Solution:
Sodium hydroxide and sulfuric acid react forming sodium sulfate and water.
Chemical equation:
2NaOH(aq) + H2SO4(aq) → Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)
Ionic equation:
2Na+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) + 2H+(aq) + SO42-(aq) → 2Na+(aq) + SO42-(aq) + H2O(l)
Net ionic equation:
2OH-(aq) + 2H+(aq) → 2H2O(l)
Or, it can be written as
OH-(aq) + H+(aq) → H2O(l)
63
2.3.3 STRENGTHS OF ACIDS/ ALKALIS

In this section we will discuss two important terms and understand the difference
between the two.
1. Concentration of acids/ alkalis
2. Strength of acids/ alkalis
Concentration of acids/alkalis
The most commonly used term to express the concentration of solution is „molarity‟
Molarity is moles of solute per litre of solution which can be written as
Moles
Molarity 
Volume(L)
If the molarity of the acid/ alkali is high; the acid/ alkali is referred to as concentrated. If
the molarity of the acid/ alkali is low; the acid/ alkali is referred to as dilute.
HCl from a commercial source has a concentration of 12M which is considered

concentrated acid. While this acid can be diluted to a concentration of 2 M by adding
acid to water, this acid is considered dilute.
Similarly, a 2M NaOH is considered far more concentrated than a 0.01M NaOH. In this
case, we could say 2M NaOH is concentrated while 0.01M NaOH is dilute solution.
Basically, we are looking at the one with greater number of moles in a litre of solution is
considered concentrated than the one with lesser number of moles in a litre of solution.
Strength of acids/alkalis
The strength of acid is measured in terms of pH. On the basis of the pH value, an acid is
considered strong or weak.
An acid is considered a strong acid because it dissociates completely, that is, it gives out
all the possible H+ ions in the solution.
Consider 0.1M HCl, it gives 0.1M H+ ions in the solution and is thus considered a strong
acid.
An acid is considered a weak acid because it does not dissociate completely, that is, it
does not give out all the possible H+ ions in the solution.
Consider 0.1M CH3COOH, it gives less than 0.1M H+ ions in the solution and is thus
considered a weak acid. In order to find out the concentration of H+ ions in the solution,
we need to take into account the degree of dissociation which is beyond the scope of
grade 12 Chemistry.
An alkali is a considered a strong alkali because it dissociates completely, that is, it

gives out all the possible OH- ions in the solution.
Consider 0.1M NaOH, it gives 0.1M OH- ions in the solution and is thus considered a
strong alkali.
An alkali is considered a weak alkali because it does not dissociate completely, that is, it
does not give out all the possible OH- ions in the solution.
64
Consider 0.1M NH4OH, it gives less than 0.1M OH- ions in the solution and is thus
considered a weak alkali. In order to find out the concentration of OH- ions in the
solution, we need to take into account the degree of dissociation, which as mentioned
before is beyond the scope of grade 12 Chemistry.
Experiment to show strength of acid/alkali

When 0.1M HCl reacts with 0.1 g of clean magnesium ribbon, the hydrogen gas evolves
rapidly and the reaction reaches completion in a few minutes.
The experiment is repeated under similar conditions but with 0.1M CH3COOH in place
of 0.1M HCl. It is observed that hydrogen gas evolves at a slower rate than it does with
HCl. The reaction takes place in a similar fashion.
Mg(s) + CH3COOH(aq) → Mg(CH3COO)2(aq) + H2(g)
In both the cases the product is salt and hydrogen gas, the only difference is rate of
reaction, the speed with which hydrogen has evolves.
The hydrochloric acid reacts faster than ethanoic acid because hydrochloric acid
contains more hydrogen ions in solution than ethanoic acid.of the same concentration.
In hydrochloric acid, all HCl molecules dissociate to form hydrogen ions and chloride
ions i.e. dissociation is complete. Whereas in ethanoic acid, only a relatively small
amount of ethanoic acid molecules dissociate to form hydrogen ions and ethanoate ions
i.e. dissociation is partial.
The strength of an acid thus depends on the degree of dissociation.
Note:
The amount of hydrogen produced in both the experiments is the same since the amount
of hydrogen produced depends on the amount of magnesium taken. When the hydrogen
ions in the ethanoic acid solution are used up in the reaction with the magnesium ribbon,
more ethanoic acid dissociates to form more hydrogen ions which in turn react with the
magnesium. The only difference is that the rate at which hydrogen is produced incase of
HCl is much faster than CH3COOH.
Recall we summarized:
pH = 7 ------------------ Indicates neutral solution
pH < 7 ------------------ Indicates acidic solution
pH < 12 ---------------- Indicates strongly acidic solution
pH > 7 ------------------ Indicates alkaline solution
pH > 12 ---------------- Indicates strongly alkaline solution
Activity
(a) Consider a 0.1M solution of HCl and a 0.1M solution of CH3COOH, HCl
dissociate completely while CH3COOH dissociates incompletely.
(i) Which of the two would contain higher H+ ion concentration?
(ii) Which solution would have the higher pH value?
65
(b) Considering HCl dissociated completely and CH3COOH dissociates incompletely,

we can answer the questions as follows
(i) Since HCl dissociates to a higher extent, it will have a higher H+ ion
concentration.
(ii) Since HCl has a higher concentration of H+ ions, it will have a higher pH
value.
1. Determine the products and write the word equation for the following reactions.
(a) dil. sulfuric acid with zinc
(b) dil. hydrochloric acid with aluminium
(c) dil. sulfuric acid with solid magnesium carbonate
(d) dil. hydrochloric acid with potassium carbonate solution
(e) dil. sulfuric acid with lithium hydroxide
(f) calcium hydroxide with dil. hydrochloric acid
(g) solid copper(II) oxide with hydrochloric acid
(h) solid iron(III) oxide with sulfuric acid
2. Write a balanced chemical equation for each of the reactions in question 1.

3. Write a net ionic equation for each of the reactions in question 1.
4. Complete the following reaction (word equations) by filling in the blank spaces.
(a) sodium hydroxide + _______ acid → sodium ethanoate + ___________
(b) _________+ ________ → barium nitrate + carbon dioxide + __________
(c) _________ + _________ → tin(II)chloride + hydrogen
(d) _________ + aluminium oxide → aluminium sulfate + ___________
(e) _________ + _________ → calcium nitrate + water
5. Describe an experiment using zinc to show if an acid is a strong acid or a weak

acid.
6. (a) Write the dissociation reaction equation for nitric acid.
(b) A solution of 0.2molL-1 nitric acid is prepared. Is the nitric acid a strong
acid?
(c) What is the concentration of H+ ions and NO3- ions in the solution? Is the
concentration of undissociated HNO3 in the solution?
7. Consider a strong acid and a weak acid of the same concentration (molarity) as
in question 6.
(a) Which solution has the higher hydrogen ion concentration?
(b) Which solution has the higher pH value?
8. A solution of potassium hydroxide has a higher pH than ammonia solution of the

same concentration.
(a) Why is this?
66
(b) Which solution would be better conductor of electricity and give a reason.
9. Explain what is meant by each of the following terms.
(a) dilute acid (c) strong acid
(b) concentrated acid (d) weak acid
10. (a) Write the balanced chemical equation for the reaction of potassium
hydroxide and ammonium bromide.
(b) Why would the water produced in the above reaction be in the gaseous phase.
2.5 TITRATION
Titration is a chemical reaction in which a measured amount of one solution is reacted
with another solution until the neutralization point or end point is shown by the change
in the color of an indicator.
Titration of sodium hydroxide with hydrochloric acid

25.00mL of sodium hydroxide solution is measured into a conical flask using a 25.00mL
pipette with a pipette filler. 2-3 drops of phenolphthalein indicator is added and the
solution turns pink/ red. The hydrochloric acid is added from a 50mL burette. The flask
is swirled at regular intervals to allow the sodium hydroxide to mix with hydrochloric
acid. When all the sodium hydroxide has reacted, the solution suddenly turns colorless.
This is called the end point or neutralization point or equivalence point.
This titration can be performed using methyl orange as the indicator.
The change in the color of the indicator gives the end point.
Conductivity: Ionic substances do not conduct electricity when solid. However, when
the ionic compound is melted or dissolved in water, it then conducts electricity. The
ionic compound contains ions which are charged particles. The ions become free to
move when the substance is melted or dissolved and it is the ions that conduct
electricity.
The conductivity of distilled water demonstrates the presence of small amounts of ions
in water. The hydrogen and oxygen atoms in the water molecules are covalently bonded;
but a small amount of water dissociates.
H2O(l) → H+(aq) + OH-(aq)
The presence of the ions explains the small conductivity of distilled water. At 25°C, the
concentration of H+ is equal to the concentration of OH- ion which is in turn equal to 10-7
molL-1.
If a small amount of impurity is added to distilled water, the concentration of ions
increases and hence conductivity increases. The higher the concentration of ions, higher
is the conductivity of the solution.
Conductometric titration: Let us investigate the conductivity of the solution in the

titration of sodium hydroxide with hydrochloric acid.
The sodium hydroxide dissociates into ions. The initial conductivity is due to the
conductivity of the sodium ions and hydroxide ions. When hydrochloric acid is added,
the hydroxide ion reacts with the added hydrogen ion to form water.
i.e., H+(aq) + OH-(aq) → H2O(l)
67
The added H+ ions are reacting with the OH- ions and Cl- ions are being added to the
solution. The OH- ions are being replaced by Cl- ions in the solution.
Conductivity
0 0 0 0
Volume of HCl added
Figure 1
The graph of the conductivity of the solution versus volume of hydrochloric acid is
shown in figure 1. The graph shows that the conductivity of the solution decreases
because the Cl- ion does not conduct as well as the OH- ion.
After the end point of the titration, all the OH- ions have reacted and now excess
hydrochloric acid is being added i.e. more H+ ions and more Cl- ions are being added.
This explains why the conductivity increases after the end point.
The end-point is obtained as the intersection of the two straight lines before and after the
end-point.
Titration of Barium hydroxide with sulfuric acid

The equation for the reaction is
Ba(OH)2(aq) + H2SO4(aq) → BaSO4(s) + 2H2O(l)
In this case, not only are the hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions reacting to form water
but the added sulfate ion is forming a precipitate with the Ba2+ ion of barium sulfate i.e.
BaSO4(s) – a white precipitate.
At the end-point, the conductivity would be very small because there are no ions in the
solution.
This is because all the Ba2+ ions and SO42- would have precipitated out of solution.
Activity
Activity 1: Suggest an indicator that can be used in titrating sodium hydroxide

against hydrochloric acid.
Solution: Phenolpthalein or methyl orange.

Activity 2: Comment on the conductivity of ionic compounds.
Solution: Ionic compounds do conduct when in solid state but conduct well in
molten or aqueous state.
68
2.6 SALTS
A salt is a compound formed as a result of the reaction between an acid and a base. The
H+ ion in an acid is replaced by the metal ion or ammonium ion to form the salt. The salt
thus formed is ionic compound if the metal is an element of group I or II of the periodic
table. With the metals of higher valencies, the salt formed is a covalent compound.
Salts can be prepared by different methods depending upon whether it is soluble or

insoluble in water. It is therefore, essential to know whether the salt is soluble or not.
Table 1
Soluble Insoluble
1 All common salts of sodium,
potassium and ammonium
2 All common nitrates
3 All common chlorides Those of silver, mercury and lead
4 All common sulphates Those of calcium, barium, lead and
strontium
5 Sodium, potassium and All other carbonates
ammonium carbonates
6 Sodium, potassium, ammonium All other common hydroxides
and calcium hydroxides
Note:
1. Lead (II) chloride is soluble in warm water.
2. Calcium hydroxide is sparingly soluble.
General methods of preparing salts

Is the salt soluble in water?
YES NO
I Use appropriate acid II Use precipitation method
For example:
HCl gives chlorides
H2SO4 gives sulfates
HNO3 gives nitrates
I Methods of preparing soluble salts: Using appropriate acids
1. Reaction of acids with metals

Acids react with metals (metals more reactive than hydrogen) forming salt and
hydrogen.
Hydrochloric acid reacts with magnesium to from magnesium chloride and hydrogen
gas.
Magnesium reacts with sulfuric acid to produce magnesium sulfate and hydrogen gas.
Mg(s) + H2SO4(aq) → MgSO4(aq) + H2(g)
Zinc reacts with hydrochloric acid to produce zinc chloride and hydrogen gas.
Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) → ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)
69
The method cannot be used for preparing salts of very reactive (sodium or potassium)
metals because of explosive reactions. It cannot be used for unreactive metals, too.
2. Neutralization reaction: Reaction of acids with alkalis (metal hydroxides)

The reaction of an acid with an alkali is called neutralization reaction. An acid react with
an alkali forming a salt and water.
Sodium hydroxide and hydrochloric acid react forming sodium chloride and water.
NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
Note: Salts of sodium, potassium and ammonium are prepared by this method.
3. Reaction of acids with bases (metal oxides)

An acid reacts with a base to form a salt and water.
Magnesium oxide and hydrochloric acid react forming magnesium chloride and water.
MgO(s) + 2HCl(aq) → MgCl2(aq) + H2O(l)
Calcium oxide and sulfuric acid react forming calcium sulfate and water.
MgO(s) + H2SO4(aq) → MgSO4(aq) + H2O(l)
Copper (II) oxide reacts with sulfuric acid forming copper (II) sulfate and water.
CuO(s) + H2SO4(aq) → CuSO4(aq) + H2O(l)
4. Reaction of acid with metal carbonates

and carbon dioxide.
Sodium carbonate solution reacts with hydrochloric acid to give sodium chloride, water
and carbon dioxide.
Na2CO3 (aq) + 2HCl(aq) → 2NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
Sodium carbonate solution reacts with sulfuric acid to give sodium sulfate, water and
carbon dioxide.
Na2CO3 (aq) + H2SO4(aq) → Na2SO4(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
Note: Salts are obtained from their solutions by evaporation.
II Methods of preparing insoluble salts: Using precipitation method

This is a chemical reaction in solution in which two different metal ions exchange their
anions producing an insoluble compound of one of these metals.
To prepare calcium nitrate, which is an insoluble salt, we can take any soluble salt of
calcium and any soluble carbonate such that, the swapping of partners takes place
resulting in a precipitate of calcium nitrate and other soluble salt.
a2CO3(aq) + Ca(NO3)2 → CaCO3(s) + 2NaNO3(aq)
Or
O32-(aq) + Ca2+(aq) → CaCO3(s)
70
We can then filter solution consisting of calcium carbonate and sodium nitrate. Calcium
carbonate is collected as the residue, washed with water to free it of any impurities and
dried.
So to prepare an insoluble salt, we begin with mixing the aqueous solutions of two salts
(each salt contains one half of the insoluble salt that is to be formed) which results in the
formation of a precipitate (this is the insoluble salt formed) and an aqueous salt.
Preparation of Lead (II) carbonate

To prepare lead (II) carbonate, we need to take a soluble salt of lead and a soluble
carbonate. All nitrates are soluble; therefore, we can take lead (II) nitrate. All sodium,
potassium and ammonium salts are soluble; therefore we can take sodium carbonate or
potassium carbonate or ammonium carbonate.
Say, we take aqueous lead (II) nitrate and aqueous sodium carbonate and mix, it results
in forming a precipitate of lead(II) carbonate and aqueous sodium nitrate. The precipitate
of lead (II) carbonate is then filtered, washed with water to free it of impurities and
finally dried.
b(NO3)2(aq) + Na2CO3(aq) → PbCO3(s) + 2NaNO3(aq)
Or the net ionic equation:
b2+(aq) + CO32-(aq) → PbCO3(s)
Preparation of barium sulfate

Mix aqueous solutions of barium nitrate and sodium nitrate. A precipitate of barium
sulfate is formed along with the aqueous solution of sodium nitrate.
a(NO3)2(aq) + Na2SO4(aq) → BaSO4(s) + 2NaNO3(aq)
Or the net ionic equation:
a2+(aq) + SO42-(aq) → BaSO4(s)
Activity
Activity 1: Prepare the following salts:

(i) CaCl2
(ii) PbSO4
The first step to perform is to tell whether the salt is soluble or insoluble in water. On the
basis of the solubility the method for the preparation is adopted.
(i) CaCl2
CaCl2 is soluble in water; therefore a number of options are available for its
preparation. CaCl2 can be prepared by using appropriate acid with any one of the
following
● calcium metal
● calcium hydroxide
● calcium oxide
● calcium carbonate
We can thus carry out any one of the following reaction to prepare calcium chloride.
71
Calcium reacts with hydrochloric acid to produce calcium chloride and hydrogen gas.
Ca(s) + 2HCl(aq) → CaCl2(aq) + H2(g)
Calcium hydroxide and hydrochloric acid react forming calcium chloride and water.
Ca(OH)2(aq) + 2HCl(aq) → CaCl2(aq) + 2H2O(l)
Calcium oxide and hydrochloric acid react forming calcium chloride and water.
CaO(s) + 2HCl(aq) → CaCl2(aq) + H2O(l)
and carbon dioxide.
(ii) PbSO4
PbSO4 is an insoluble salt; therefore it is prepared by the precipitation method.
Mix aqueous solutions of barium nitrate and sodium nitrate. A precipitate of
barium sulfate is formed along with the aqueous solution of sodium nitrate.
Ba(NO3)2(aq) + Na2SO4(aq) → BaSO4(s) + 2NaNO3(aq)
2.7 DANGERS AND SAFETY PROCEDURES: CONCENTRATED

ACIDS AND ALKALIS
Concentrated acids and alkalis are corrosive, therefore must be handled with CARE.
Concentrated acids and alkalis can eat away the metal and human skin.
acids must be carried out in the fume cupboard wearing face shields and appropriate
aprons.
Dilution of the acids particularly must be carried out with great CARE. The concentrated
acids are diluted with water to reduce the concentration of acids for various reasons
depending upon the requirement.
When concentrated acids dissolve in water, heat is given out (evolved, exothermic
reactions); in the case of sulfuric acid large amounts of heat are given out.
alkalis must be carried out in the fume cupboard wearing face shields and appropriate
aprons.
72
1. (a) Write the balanced chemical equation for the reaction between a solution of
potassium hydroxide and
(i) nitric acid
(ii) sulfuric acid
(b) If methyl orange was in the solution of sulfuric acid and the potassium
hydroxide was added from a burette, what would be observed at the end
point.
(c) Write the net ionic equation for both reaction in (a).
2. The following are methods of preparing salts:

(i) metal + acid (iv) base + acid
(ii) alkali + acid (v) precipitation
(iii) carbonate + acid
Which of these methods would you use to prepare the following salts? Name
also the two chemicals you would use in each case.
Copper(II) sulfate Magnesium sulfate Potassium chloride
Lead(II) chloride Lead(II)nitrate Zinc nitrate
3. Name four different salts that could be prepared using chemicals only from the
following list.
Sulfuric acid Nitric acid
Sodium hydroxide Potassium hydroxide
Write an ionic equation to all four reactions involved in the preparation of these
salts.
What is the special name given to such a reaction in each case?
73
SUMMARY
Acids are the chemicals that have H+ which can be released in an aqueous solution.
Acids are of varied nature, some are corrosive, e.g. nitric acid and sulfuric acid while
others are not so corrosive, e.g. ethanoic acid. Appropriate safety equipment such as
safety glasses, gloves and fume cupboards must be used. Experiments that employ use
of large volume of acids must be carried out in the fume cupboard by wearing face
shields and appropriate aprons.
Metal oxides and hydroxides are generally referred to as bases. Soluble bases are called
alkalis. Alkalis are of varied nature, some are corrosive, e.g. concentrated sodium
hydroxide. Corrosive bases must be handled carefully because it can burn the skin.
We use indicators (e.g. litmus and universal indicator) in distinguishing between acidic,
neutral and alkaline solutions.
The strength of acid is measured in terms of pH. On the basis of the pH value, an acid is
considered strong or weak. An acid is considered a strong acid because it dissociates
completely, that is, it gives out all the possible H+ ions in the solution. An acid is
considered a weak acid because it does not dissociate completely, that is, it does not give
out all the possible H+ ions in the solution.
An alkali is a considered a strong alkali because it dissociates completely, that is, it

gives out all the possible OH- ions in the solution. An alkali is considered a weak alkali
because it does not dissociate completely, that is, it does not give out all the possible
OH- ions in the solution.
A salt is a compound formed as a result of the reaction between an acid and a base. Salts
can be prepared by different methods depending upon whether it is soluble or insoluble
in water. It is therefore, essential to know whether the salt is soluble or not.
74
ASSIGNMENT UNIT 2
1. Explain with the help of an example, what is „acid‟. Give an example of a

monoprotic and a diprotic acid.
2. What is an indicator? Discuss the effect of an indicator in an acidic and alkaline

solution.
3. Define „pH‟. Which solution is most acidic and which one is least acidic among
the four stated as follows: (i) solution with a pH 4, (ii) solution with a a pH 1,
(iii) solution with a pH 6 and (iv) solution with a pH 12.
4. Calculate the pH of (i) 0.01M HCl and (ii) 0.05M HNO3.
5. List FOUR properties for acids as well as bases.
6. Determine the product for each of the following reactions. You are then required
to write a well balanced chemical equation, ionic equation and net ionic equation
for each of the following reactions.
(i) Reaction between aqueous solution of sulfuric acid and potassium.
(ii) Reaction between aqueous solution of potassium hydroxide and hydrochloric

acid.
(iii) Reaction between solid magnesium carbonate and aqueous solution of

hydrochloric acid.
7. Suggest a method for the preparation of following salts. Give a well balanced
chemical reaction in each case.
(i) Iron (II) sulfate (ii) Ammonium chloride
(ii) Copper (II) chloride (iv) Aluminium nitrate
(v) Magnesium carbonate (vi) Iron (III) hydroxide
(vii) Lead (II) sulfate
75
UNIT 3
ELECTROCHEMISTRY
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. describe the electrolysis process.

2. define what is oxidation – reduction reaction.
3. explain what are oxidants and what are reductants.
4. use the standard reduction potentials to predict the oxidation- reduction reactions
in an electrolytic cell.
5. predict what will be produced at the anode and the cathode for electrolysis of
molten salt.
6. predict what will be produced at the anode and the cathode for the electrolysis of
aqueous metal salts using graphite or platinum electrodes.
7. write half-reaction equations.
8. write cell reaction equations.
9. predict what will happen if reactive metals are used as electrodes in the
electrolysis process.
10. discuss the electroplating process.
76
INTRODUCTION
Oxidation - reduction reactions involve the gaining and losing of electrons. Since current
is the flow of electrons, we can use chemical energy to produce electrical energy.
Conversely we can use electrical energy to carry out chemical reactions that do not
proceed spontaneously.
The process in which electrical energy is used to produce chemical change is called
electrolysis. In this process electrical energy is used to cause an otherwise non
spontaneous chemical reaction to take place.
Electrolysis process only takes place in environment where there are free charged ions.
The charge ions are carrier of the electrical charge between the two electrodes in a
solution or liquid.
However, in the electrodes the current move in the form of free electrons (delocalized
electrons) that are found in the structure of the conductors. The solution or liquid that
conducts electricity is called an electrolyte.
Most suitable electrolytes are aqueous solutions of ionic compounds or molten salts of
ionic compounds.
However, solid ionic compounds do not conduct electricity because there are no charge
particles (or free electrons) available in their structure.
Electrolysis is usually carried out in an electrolytic cell. A typical electrolytic cell may
consist of two electrodes (can be made of chemically inert or chemically active metal
electrodes or graphite electrodes), a suitable electrolyte and AC/DC power source.
The two electrodes of equal size and length (of the same material or different materials)
are dipped into the electrolyte and are connected to a power source.
The current follows out of the negative terminal and enters the positive terminal of the
AC or DC power source.
The electrode connected to the negative terminal becomes negatively charged and is
called cathode (cation lover -which attracts all the positively charged ions).
The electrode connected to the positive terminal becomes positively charged and is
called anode (anion lover – which attracts all the negatively charged ions).
At the positively charged electrode (where there is deficiency of electrons), the

negatively charged ions deposit electrons and are therefore being oxidised.
At the negatively charged electrode (which has excess electrons) the positive ions pick
up electrons and are being reduced.
77
Thus during electrolysis process oxidation is taking place at the positively charged
electrode (anode) and reduction is taking place at the negative electrode (cathode).
Below is a diagram of a typical electrolytic cell.
Figure 1
78
3.1 OXIDATION – REDUCTION REACTION

Before you study electrolysis you need to understand the concept of redox reaction. This
sub-section provides the basic concepts and the definitions of words used in redox
reaction.
Oxidation - Reduction (Redox) is the reaction process by which electron(s) are

gained or lost by the chemical species (ions) involved in the reaction.
Oxidation is the process by which electron (s) are lost and the chemical specie that loses
electron(s) is said be oxidised and is called a reducing agent or reductant.
In oxidation reaction the oxidation state number increases. For example:
Cu+(s) Cu2+(aq).
Reduction is the process by which electron(s) are gained and the chemical specie that
gains electron(s) is said to be reduced and is called oxidising agent or oxidant.
In reduction reaction, the oxidation state number decreases.
For example: Cu2+ (aq) Cu(s).
In other words, a reducing agent/reductant is a chemical species in a chemical reaction

from which the electron (s) are easily being removed.
An oxidising agent/oxidant is the chemical species in a chemical reaction which has the
tendency to gain electron (s).
The electrolysis process that we will study in this unit is an example of oxidation-
reduction reaction.
Example 1 The reaction between Calcium and fluorine gas in the presence of heat is
an example of redox reaction.
Ca (s) + F2 (g) CaF2 (s)
In order for us to determine which one of the above chemical specie is the oxidising
agent and which one is the reducing agent .It is useful to break the above chemical
reaction equation into two half reactions, one involving oxidation process and the other
involving reduction process.
Half reactions: Ca Ca2+ + 2e- [oxidation]
F2 + 2e- 2F- [reduction]
From these half reactions we can see that calcium atom loses two electrons and is
oxidised therefore it is a reducing agent or reductant while two fluorine atoms are
accepting one electron each. The fluorine atoms are being reduced to F- therefore
fluorine is an oxidising agent or oxidant.
79
When writing the half-reaction equations the number of electron(s) gained is always
written on the left-hand side of the equation for the chemical specie that gains
electron(s) and for the chemical specie that loses electron(s) the number of electron(s)
lost are always written on the right-hand side of the half reaction equation.
Example 2 Electrolysis of aqueous copper chloride occurring in an electrolytic cell
The half reactions for the electrolysis of aqueous copper chloride are as follows:
At the cathode: Cu2+ (aq) + 2e - Cu (s) (reduction)
At the anode: 2Cl- (aq) Cl2 (g) + 2e- (oxidation)

The two half reaction equations can be combined to write the balanced spontaneous
chemical reaction equation/cell reaction equation.
2Cl- aq Cl2 (g) + 2e-
+ Cu2+ (aq) + 2e- Cu (s)

______________________________________________
Cu2+(aq) + 2Cl- (aq) Cl2 (g) + Cu (s) (overall electrolytic cell reaction)
Example 3 Write the balanced equations from the two half-reaction equation given.
Fe Fe2+ + 2e
MnO4- + 8H+ + 5e Mn2+ + 4H2O

Note:
When you have two half-reaction equations with different number of electrons gained
and lost then you need to multiply the respective half-reaction equations with integers to
make the number of electrons to be the same so that they cancel out. The balanced
chemical equation you finally end up with should not contain electrons lost and gained.
5(Fe Fe2+ + 2e)
2(MnO4- + 8H+ + 5e Mn2+ + 4H2O )

______________________________________________
5Fe 5Fe2+ + 10e
+ 2MnO4- + 16H+ + 10e 2Mn2+ + 8H2O

_____________________________________________________
5Fe + 2MnO4- + 16 H+ + 10e 5Fe2+ + 2Mn2+ + 8H2O + 10e
= 5Fe + 2MnO4- + 16H+ 5Fe2+ + 2Mn2+ + 8H2O (cell reaction)
80
Question 1 Electrolysis of aqueous sodium chloride using graphite electrode
Half reactions: 2Cl- (aq) Cl2 (g) + 2e-
2H2O (l) + 2e- H2 (g) + 2OH- (aq)
(A) State which reactant species is being oxidised and which is being reduced.
(B) State which reactant specie is the reducing agent or reductant and which reactant
species is the oxidising agent or oxidant.
(C) State which reactant specie is undergoing the reduction process and which
reactant specie is undergoing oxidation process.
(D) Write the balanced anode - cathode equations from the half reaction equations.
Question 2 Electrolysis of aqueous sodium sulphate solution using platinum

electrode
Half reactions: Cu Cu2+ + 2e
Fe3+ + e Fe2+
(A) State which reactant is the oxidant and which reactant is the reductant.
(B) Which reactant is being oxidised and which reactant is being reduced?
(C) Write the balanced chemical equation from the above half reaction
equations.
Question 3 Half reactions: Zn (s) Zn2+ (aq) + 2e-

Cr3+ (aq) + 3e- Cr (s)
(A) State which reactant species is the oxidising agent and which reactant specie is
the reducing agent.
(B) State which reactant specie undergoes oxidation process and which reactant
species undergoes reduction process.
(C) Write the balanced chemical equation from the half reaction equations.
Question 4 Half reactions: Cr3+ (aq) + 3e- Cr (s)
MnO2 (s) + 4H+ (aq) + 2e- Mn2+ (aq) + 2H2O (l)
Write the overall cell reaction equation from the half reaction equations given above.
81
3.2 STANDARD REDUCTION POTENTIALS

The objective of this sub-section is not for you to use the standard reduction potential of
the half reactions to write the cell reaction equation.
However, the information on standard reduction potential becomes useful when you
have two or more cations or anions in an electrolytic cell. You need the reduction
potentials to predict cation which will be reduced at the cathode and which anion will be
oxidized at the anode.
Table 1 Standard Reduction Potential for some half reactions1
Half reaction Reduction potential (v)

F2 + 2e 2F- 2.87
4+
Ce + e Ce3+ 1.70
Cl2 + 2e 2Cl- 1.36
Br2 + 2e 2Br- 1.09
Fe3+ + 2e Fe2+ 0.80
Ag + e Ag+ 0.77
I2 + 2e 2I- 0.54
Cu2+ + 2e Cu 0.34
2H+ + 2e H2 0.00
Fe3+ + 3e Fe -0.036
Pb2+ + 2e Pb -0.13
Sn2+ + 2e Sn -0.14
Ni2+ + 2e Ni -0.23
Zn2+ + 2e Zn -0.76
2H2O + 2e H2 + OH- -0.83
Mg2+ + 2e Mg -2.37
Al3+ + 3e Al -1.66
Na+ + e Na -2.71
Ca2+ + 2e Ca -2.76
Ba2+ + 2e Ba -2.90
K+ + e K -2.93
Li+ + e Li -3.05
The oxidizing strength of a chemical specie increases when the reduction potential
becomes more positive. Remember that an oxidizing agent is a chemical species (an ion)
that gains electron(s). When we have two cations in a solution in an electrolytic cell,
then the cation with the least reduction potential will have the tendency to remain as ion
in the solution while the one with bigger reduction potential value will gain electron
from the cathode and become atom.
For example, in the electrolysis of aqueous sodium chloride solution, at the cathode you
will expect hydrogen gas to be produced, not sodium. It is because hydrogen has
reduction potential of 0.0v and sodium has the reduction potential of -2.71v. The
reaction will prefer proceeding toward the cation with the highest reduction potential
thus hydrogen ions will gain electrons from the cathode to form hydrogen gas. The
sodium ions will remain as ions in the solution.
82
In terms of reactivity the most reactive cation (like Na+) has the tendency to remain as
ion in the solution while the least reactive cation (like H+) gains electron(s) from the
cathode and is reduced to its atom. Reduction process always takes place at the cathode.
However, the opposite will happen if we have two anions in an electrolytic cell. The
anion with bigger standard reduction potential value will easily lose electron to the
anode and will be oxidized, while the anion with smaller reduction potential value will
remain as ion in the solution. Oxidation process always takes place and the anode.
In terms of reactivity, the most reactive anion will lose electron(s) to the anode and will
be oxidized. The least reactive anion will remain as ion in the solution.
For example, chlorine ion is more reactive than hydroxide ion therefore chlorine ion will
be oxidized at the anode especially when we have more chlorine ions.
NOTE:
Cations:
The following cations will remain as ion if the electrolysis of an aqueous salt of these
cations is carried out. These cations will not be easily reduced, however the hydrogen
ion (H+) will be reduced instead.
Li+, K+, Ca2+, Na+, Mg2+, Al3+, Zn2+ , Cr3+, Fe2+, V3+, Ni2+, Sn2+, and Pb2+
The aqueous salt solution of any of the above metal (cation) is subjected to electrolysis
process then only hydrogen ion will be reduced at the cathode to produced hydrogen gas.
However, cation like Cu2+ and Ag+ are present in an aqueous solution and when
subjected to electrolysis then it will yield Cu and Ag instead of hydrogen gas.
For example, The Cu2+ will gain 2 electrons at the cathode and will be reduced to copper
atom.
Anions:
Br- , Cl- and I- will be easily oxidized than the OH- . During the electrolysis of aqueous
solution that contains either F-, Cl- or I-, then fluorine gas, chlorine gas or iodine will be
produced at the anode.
However, when the concentration of chlorine ions, fluorine ions or iodine ions in the
aqueous solutions are very small (dilute solution), then the hydroxide ion produced
from the water molecules is preferentially oxidized to produce oxygen gas at the anode.
SO42-, NO3-, ClO4-, CO32- and PO43- are not easily oxidized then OH-. This means that in
an aqueous containing these ions, OH- will preferentially be oxidized at the anode to
produce oxygen gas.
3.3 ELECTROLYSIS OF MOLTEN SALTS

The electrolysis of molten sodium salt is carried out in an electrolyte cell. An
electrolytic cell is made of a container to hold the molten sodium chloride and two
electrodes made of solid conducting material usually a chemically inert metal or
graphite.
83
When the two electrodes are connected by conducting wires to the power source (dc), it
pushes electrons out of the negatively charged terminal and enters the solution.
The free ions (Na+ and Cl-) in the liquid become the medium for the transmission of the
electrical charge from the cathode to anode.
The negatively charged electrode is where the reduction of sodium ions takes place
and is called cathode. The sodium ions gain one electron each from the cathode and
become sodium atoms.
The solid sodium particles float to the surface of the molten sodium chloride. The
positively charged electrode is known as the anode and this is where the oxidation of
the chlorine ions takes place.
Chlorine ions lose electrons to the positively charged electrode known as the anode and
form chlorine atoms. Finally two chlorine atoms combine to form chlorine gas which
bubbles out of the solution.
The overall reaction that takes places in the electrolytic cell is called the cell reaction.
Figure 2 Diagram of electrolysis of molten sodium chloride using graphite electrode.
Half reaction at the anode: 2Cl- (aq) Cl2 (g) + 2e- (oxidation)
Half reaction at the cathode: Na+ (aq) + e- Na (s) (reduction)
-
Overall Cell reaction: 2Cl (aq) + 2Na (aq) Cl2 (aq) + 2Na (s)
_____________________________________________________________________
Diagrams for figures 2, 3, 4 and 7 are adapted from Chemistry2
3.4 ELECTROLYSIS OF AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS
In any electrolysis there must be an oxidation reaction at the anode and the reduction
reaction at the cathode. But this reaction must not be necessarily the oxidation of the
negative ions and the reduction of the positive ions in the solution.
In an aqueous solution, water may be oxidised or reduced or the electrodes may be

oxidised or reduced ( if a chemically active electrode is used).
Chemically inert electrodes like platinum or graphite are often used in electrolysis. For
such electrodes, the electrodes remain the same throughout the electrolysis process.
84
Only the ions in an aqueous solution or liquid are either oxidized or reduced.
However, if the electrodes are made of chemically active metals like copper with a salt
of copper as its electrolyte then the anode will “dissolve” or disintegrate to produce
copper ions, Cu2+. The copper anode will be oxidized to Cu2+ions. Therefore the
oxidation process will take place at the anode.
The copper ions produced from the copper electrode (anode) will migrate towards the
negatively charged electrode. The copper II ions, Cu2+, will gain two electrons from the
electron rich electrode (cathode) and will become copper atoms.
The copper II ions will be reduced to copper atom. The reduction process will take place
at the cathode (the copper electrode connected to the negative terminal of the power
source).
As time progresses the copper electrode connected to the positive terminal of the power
source will become thinner while the copper electrode connected to the negative
terminal becomes thicker.
If both of the electrodes are made of other chemically active metals like lead, Zinc, Tin
and Aluminum then they will produce the same result as copper.
In order for you to understand the electrolysis process in aqueous salt solutions you need
to read sub-section 12.4.2 thoroughly. Try as much as you can to extract the useful
concepts presented. This sub-section provides the basic understanding of what will
happen when you do electrolysis of aqueous salts. Your understanding of these concepts
is essential for you to understand the activities and concepts that will be discussed in the
other sub-sections of this chapter or unit.
3.4.1 SODIUM CHLORIDE SOLUTION
Sodium chloride dissolves into sodium ions and chlorine ions to form aqueous sodium
chloride solutions. When concentrated aqueous sodium chloride solution is
electrolysed, using graphite or platinum electrode, hydrogen and chlorine gases are
obtained at the respective electrodes.
The hydrogen ions come from the self ionization of water molecules. This self ionization
process produces very small amount of hydroxide ions and hydrogen ions hydronium
ions (H3O+). Water is able to conduct electricity because of these charged ions produced
by the self ionization water molecules.
Aqueous sodium chloride solution contains four different charged particles; hydroxide
ions (OH-), chlorine ions (Cl-), sodium ions (Na+) and hydrogen ions (H+). The sodium
ions and the hydrogen ions move towards the cathode and the hydroxide ions and the
chlorine ions move towards the anode.
85
Figure 3 Electrolysis of aqueous sodium chloride solution using platinum electrode
At the cathode the electrons are accepted by the hydrogen ion rather than sodium ions,
because sodium is more reactive. Na+ has greater tendency to exist as ion in the solution.
The hydrogen ions gain electrons from the electron rich electrode (cathode) and become
hydrogen atom. Two hydrogen atoms combined to form hydrogen gas, which bubbles
off at the cathode.
Half reaction at the cathode: 2H+ (aq) + 2e- H2 (g)
At the anode the chlorine ions are more electronegative therefore they withdraw
electrons from the anode to form chlorine gas, which bubbles off at the anode.
Half reaction at the anode: 2Cl- (aq) Cl2 (g) + 2e-
However, in dilute sodium, lithium or potassium chloride solutions oxygen gas is given
off at the anode instead of chlorine gas.
The product produced at the cathode is the same as concentrated sodium, lithium and
potassium chloride salt solutions.
The overall anode-cathode reaction is:
2H+(aq) + 2Cl- (aq) H2 (g) + Cl2 (g)
3.4.2 ELECTROLYSIS OF AQUEOUS SODIUM SULPHATE SOLUTION
For the electrolysis of aqueous sodium sulphate solution, the product produced at the
anode is oxygen gas.
The oxygen gas is being produced at the anode because hydroxide ions (OH-) oxidize
more easily than sulphate ions (SO42-) therefore oxygen gas is produced from the
oxidation of the hydroxide ions.
The half reaction at the anode is:
4OH- (aq) 2H2O (l) + O2 (g) + 4e-
86
At the cathode the hydrogen gas is produced. Na+ is more reactive therefore it has the
tendency to remain as ion in the solution.
The half reaction at the cathode is:
2H+ (aq) + 2e- H2 (g)
The overall anode-cathode reaction is:
4H+ (aq) + 4OH- (aq) 2H2 (g) + 2H2O (l) + O2 (g)
Figure 4 Electrolysis of aqueous sodium sulphate
3.4.3 ELECTROLYSIS OF COPPER SULPHATE SOLUTION
When copper (II) sulphate solution is electrolysed using platinum electrodes, copper
metals and oxygen gas are obtained at the respective electrodes.
The solution of copper sulphate contains four charged ions: Cu2+, SO42-, H+ and OH-. All
the positive ions move to the negatively charged electrode (cathode) and all the
negatively charged particles move towards the positively charged electrode (anode).
Figure 5 Electrolysis of aqueous copper sulphate solution using platinum electrode
87
At the cathode copper is formed rather than hydrogen, because copper is less reactive
than hydrogen. Copper ions accept electrons more readily than the hydrogen ions do.
Half reaction at the cathode: Cu2+ (aq) + 2e- Cu(s)
At the anode the hydroxide ions which give up electrons more readily compared with
sulphate ions, therefore oxygen and water molecules are produced:
Half reaction at the anode: 4OH- (aq) 2H2O (l) + O2 (g) + 4e-
The balanced cathode – anode reaction is:
Cu2+ (aq) + 4OH- (aq) Cu (s) + 2H2O (l) + O2 (g)
Question 1
In an electrolytic cell 4.0 M aqueous lithium bromide solution is being electrolysed
using platinum electrodes.
(a) Write the half reaction of the anode.

(b) Write the half reaction of the cathode.
(c) Write the anode-cathode reaction equation.
(d) State which chemical specie (ion) is being oxidized and which chemical species
(ion) is being reduced.
Question 2
An aqueous of 6.0 mol/dm3 of lead nitrate was electrolysed using graphite electrodes. A
gas is given off at each electrode.
(a) Name the two gases produced at each electrode.

(b) Write the half-equations for production of each gas.
(c) State which reaction is taking place at the anode and which reaction is taking
place at the cathode.
(d) Write the balanced anode - cathode reaction equation.
Question 3
Molten copper (II) bromide is subjected to electrolysis using graphite electrodes.
(a) Name the products produced.

(b) Write the half - reaction equations for reaction taking place at each electrode.
(c) Write the overall anode-cathode reaction equation.
Question 4
An aqueous solution of 0.05M tin chloride is electrolysed using graphite electrodes.
(a) Name the products produced.
88
(b) State what is being produced at the anode and what is being produced at the
cathode.
(c) Write the half-reaction equations.
(d) List all the ions present in this electrolytic cell.
3.4.3 ELECTROLYSIS OF DILUTE ACIDS (H2SO4)
When dilute sulphuric acid is electrolysed using platinum electrodes, hydrogen and
oxygen are obtained at the electrodes.
Figure 6 This experiment is often carried out in the Hofmann Voltmeter as shown above.
The sulphuric acid dissociates in water to produce hydrogen ions and sulphate ions. The
self ionization of water molecules produces hydronium ion (H3O+)/hydrogen ions and
the hydroxide ions.
At the cathode, the hydrogen gas is produced and it bubbles off .The hydrogen ions
withdraw electrons from the cathode and become hydrogen atom. Two hydrogen atoms
combine to form hydrogen gas which bubbles off at the cathode.
Half reaction at the cathode: 2H+ (aq) + 2e- H2 (g)
At the anode the hydroxide ions give up their electrons more readily than the sulphate
ions. The hydroxide ions are oxidized to form oxygen gas and water molecules. The
oxygen gas is bubbled off at the anode.
Half reaction at the anode: 4OH- (aq) 2H2O (l) + O2 (g) + 4e-
The cell reaction equation for the above anode-cathode reaction can be obtained by
multiplying both half reaction equations with the smallest integer to obtain the same
number of electrons lost and gained in both half-reaction equations.
For the above example we multiply 2 to the half reaction equation obtained from the
cathode reaction. And 1 to the half reaction equation obtained from the anode reaction,
thus the balanced anode-cathode chemical equation for the reaction is:
4H+ (aq) + 4OH- (aq) + 4e- 2H2 (g) + 2H2O (l) + O2 (g) + 4e-
This type of electrolysis is often known as the electrolysis of acidified water.

89
3.4.4 ELECTROLYSIS OF BRINE TO PRODUCE SODIUM HYDROXIDE
From the previous example of electrolysis of sodium chloride we have seen that the
hydrogen gas and chlorine gas are given off at the respective electrodes. The sodium
ions and the hydroxide ions are left in the solution.
This method is used in the industry to make sodium hydroxide. The starting material is
called Brine, concentrated sodium chloride in water pumped from salt mines.
Figure 7 The diagram above shows how sodium hydroxide is produced.
Concentrated sodium chloride solution when subjected to the electrolysis process like
the one shown, the following reaction occurs at the respective electrodes.
Half reaction at the cathode: 2H+ + 2e H2 (g)
Half reaction at the anode: 2Cl- Cl2 (g) + 2e
As the electrolysis process progresses the concentration of chlorine ions and hydrogen
ions decreases. The solution will have more sodium and hydroxide ions.
Sodium hydroxide produced from such process can be used for making soap, detergents,
paper, rayons, and purifying bauxite to extract aluminum.
The chlorine gas produced is used as bleach and disinfectants for water supplies and
swimming pools.
Hydrogen is used for fuel for pumping the brine and for heating the sodium hydroxide
solution to concentrate it.
90
3.5 ELECTROLYSIS OF IMPURE METALS (PURIFYING

METALS)
From the previous examples of electrolysis that we have looked at so far are all to do
with inert electrodes.
However, in the electrolysis process where you use chemically active electrodes like
copper then the reaction will be different. The anode will disintegrate to produce ions.
For example, when copper electrodes are used in the electrolysis of copper sulphate
solution then the cooper electrode connected to the positive terminal of the power source
will disintegrates.
At the cathode the Cu2+ ions will gain 2 electrons and become copper atoms. These
copper atoms will be deposited at the cathode. The cathode will become thicker and the
anode will become thinner during the electrolysis process.
This technique is used to purify blistered (98 % copper) or impure copper.
At the cathode copper ions gain two electrons and become copper atoms.
Half reaction at the cathode: Cu2+ (aq) + 2e- Cu (s)
The copper atoms cling to the cathode and the cathode becomes thicker and thicker as
the anode becomes thinner and thinner during the electrolysis process.
At the anode the blistered copper (about 98 % copper) dissolves, forming copper ions in
the solution. The impurities in the blistered copper drop to the bottom of the electrolytic
cells or tanks are known as slime, which contains mainly silver, gold, arsenic and iron.
Half reaction at the anode: Cu (s) Cu2+ (aq) + 2e-
This idea is used to purify copper so that copper wire (99.99 % pure) can be produced
which is commonly used for electrical wiring.
The same idea can be used to obtain pure aluminum from bauxite.
slime Purified copper
Figure 8 Electrolysis of blistered copper (impure copper)
91
3.6 ELECTROPLATING
Electrolysis can also be used to coat one metal with another usually to make the first
metal look more attractive or to prevent it from rusting. The process is called
electroplating. For example Zinc is coated onto corrugated iron roof to prevent it from
rust because Zinc which is more reactive than iron will preferable rust thus preventing
iron from rusting.
The diagram below shows how steel can be electroplated with tin. The steel can is made
cathode of the electrolytic cell and tin rod is made the anode of the electrolysis cell.
The electrolyte is usually a solution of metal tin salt such as tin chloride, tin bromide, tin
nitrate, tin sulphate etc. It must not be the salt of another metal.
Figure 9 An example of electroplating
At the anode the tin dissolves to form tin ions in the solution.
Half reaction at the cathode: Sn (s) Sn2+ (aq) + 2e-
At the cathode tin ions receive electrons and form a layer of tin on the can forming tin
coating around the can.
Half reaction at the cathode: Sn2+ (aq) + 2e- Sn (s)
In general to electroplate an object with metal X:
 the object to be electroplated is usually the cathode of the cell.
 the metal (metal X) to be deposited on the object to be electroplated is

usually the anode of the cell.
 a solution of a compound of the metal to be deposited is always used as the

electrolyte.
Metals such as nickel and lead can be purified in the same way.
92
3.7 ELECTROLYTIC REFINING (COPPER)

We have discussed how purification of impure copper is done. This process is known as
electrolytic refining of copper where the electrolyte is copper sulphate solution and the
two electrodes are copper electrodes. The electrode (anode) is impure/blistered copper
(98 % copper) and the cathode is pure copper (99.9 % copper).
The electrolyte used in the solution is copper sulphate salt.
At the start of the electrolysis After the completion of the

of impure copper (blistered) electrolysis of impure copper
slime Purified copper
The anode is oxidised to copper (Cu2+) and at the cathode Cu2+ is reduced to Cu.
Half reaction at the cathode: Cu2+ (aq) + 2e- Cu (s)
Half reaction at the anode: Cu (s) Cu2+ (aq) + 2e-
Question 1
Copper is purified by electrolysis as shown below.
(a) Name the materials used for electrodes A and B.
93
A:______________________________ B:______________________________
(b) Give the name of a suitable electrolyte represented by C.
________________________________________________________________
(c) Draw the diagram to show the cell after two days of electrolysis.
(a) Why has electrolyte C has to be acidified?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
(b) Why does copper has to be 99.99 % pure for use in electrical cables?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
Question 2
Below is the diagram of electrolysis of 2M sodium chloride solution.
(a) Name the gases labelled as Y and Z.

Gas Y_________________________ and gas Z __________________________
(b) Write the half reaction equations:

Cathode:_______________________________________________________________
Anode:_________________________________________________________________
(c) Write the overall cell reaction equations.

____________________________________________________________________
(d) Electrolysis of concentrated hydrochloric acid produces the same result a
concentrated sodium chloride solution. A few drops of universal indicator were
added to the solution before the electrolysis starts. The indicator gradually turns
blue as the electrolysis proceeds.
Explain why the electrolysis causes the colour of the indicator to turn blue?
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
94
(e) Name two substances produced on an industrial scale by electrolysis of sodium

chloride solution.
___________________________________________________________________
Question 3
The diagram shows the electrolysis of dilute sulphuric acid solution.
(a) Draw arrows on the diagram to show the direction of the current flow.
(b) List all the ions present in this electrolysis process.
_________________________________________________________________
(c) Write the chemical symbols of the ions that will be attracted to the anode.
_________________________________________________________________
(d) Write the half reaction equations:
(i) Cathode:______________________________________________________
(ii) Anode:_______________________________________________________
(e) Write the overall reaction occurring in the electrolytic cell.

_________________________________________________________________
(f) What simple chemical test will you design to test the gas produced at the anode?
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
(g) What simple test will you design to test the gas produced at the cathode?
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
95
Question 4
The diagram below shows the process used to prepare pure lead.
(a) Name the electrolyte used in this electrolysis process.

_________________________________________________________________
(b) Name the ions that are present in the solution.
_________________________________________________________________
(c) Label on the diagram which electrode is the anode and which electrode is the
cathode.
(d) Write the half reaction equations
Anode: __________________________________________________________
Cathode: _________________________________________________________
Question 5
Silver can be electroplated on to other metals as shown below.
(a) Name one of the suitable solutions (electrolyte) for this electroplating process.
______________________________________________________
(b) Label the electrode where oxidation process is taking place.

(c) Label the electrode where the reduction process is taking place.
(d) Write the half reaction equations;
(i) Cathode:____________________________________________
(ii) Anode:_____________________________________________
96
Question 6
0.2 mol/dm3 of potassium chloride is electrolysed using platinum electrodes.
(a) What gas is given off at the anode?

_________________________________________________________________
(b) What gas is given off at the cathode?
_________________________________________________________________
(c) Write the half reaction equation for the anode.
_________________________________________________________________
(d) Write the half reaction equation for the cathode.
_________________________________________________________________
(e) Write the overall anode-cathode reaction equation.
_________________________________________________________________
SUMMARY
 Electrolysis is the process in which electrical energy is used to produce a

chemical change.
 Oxidation - Reduction is the reaction process by which electron(s) are

gained or lost by the chemical species (ions) involved in the reaction.
 Oxidation is the process by which electron(s) are lost and the chemical
species that loses electron(s) is said to be oxidised and is called a reducing
agent/reductant while an oxidising agent/oxidant is the chemical species in
a chemical reaction which has the tendency to gain electron (s).
 Standard reduction potential becomes useful when you have two or more
cations or anions in an electrolytic cell. You need the reduction potentials to
predict cation which will be reduced at the cathode and which anion will be
oxidized at the anode.
 Electrolysis can also be used to coat one metal with another usually to make
the first metal look more attractive or to prevent it from rusting. The process
is called electroplating.
97
ASSIGNMENT UNIT 3
Question 1
The diagram below shows the electrolytic purification of impure copper.
(a) Which electrode is the cathode? [1mk]

_________________________________________________
(b) Which electrode is the anode? [1mk]
_________________________________________________
(c) What is electrode C made of? [1mk]
_________________________________________________
(d) What is electrode D made of? [1mk]
_________________________________________________
(e) Name a suitable electrolyte for this electrolysis? [1mk]
_________________________________________________
(f) What is labelled as X? [1mk]
__________________________________________________
(g) At which labelled electrode does oxidation process take place? [1mk]
___________________________________________________
(h) Name two metals that will be found in substance labelled X. [1mk]
(i) Write the half reaction equations for the reaction taking place at; [2mks]
(i) anode: _____________________________________________
(ii) cathode: ____________________________________________
Question 2
Assume that you wish to electroplate a key with silver using the electrolytic process.
98
(a) Draw on the diagram to show where the key must be connected? [1mk]
(b) Draw on the diagram to show where the silver electrode be connected?
[1mk]
(c) Name a suitable electrolyte for the electrolysis process.[1mk]
_________________________________________________________
(d) Write the half reaction equation at each electrode; [2mks]
(i) Cathode: _________________________________________________
(ii) Anode: __________________________________________________
Question 3
Molten aluminium iodide is electrolysed in a electrolytic cell using platinum electrodes.
(a) Write the half reaction equation for reaction taking place at the
anode.[1mk]
______________________________________________________
(b) Write the half reaction equation for the reaction taking place at the
cathode.[1mk]
______________________________________________________
(c) Write the overall electrolytic cell reaction. [2mks]
______________________________________________________
Question 4
An aqueous solution of 4 mol/L nitric acid is electrolysed in an electrolytic cell using
graphite electrodes.
(a) Write the chemical symbol for all the ions present in the electrolytic
cell.[1mk]
______________________________________________________
(b) Name the gas given off at the cathode.[1mk]
______________________________________________________
(c) Name the gas given off at the anode.[1mk]
______________________________________________________
(d) Write the half reaction equations at the; [2mks]
(i) Cathode: _____________________________________________
(ii) Anode: ______________________________________________
(e) The overall anode –cathode reaction equation taking place in the
electrolytic cell.[1mk]
_______________________________________________________
99
ANSWERS TO
STUDENT LEARNING
ACTIVITIES
UNIT 3
100
Student Learning Activity 3.1
Question 1
(a) Cl- lost electron to become Cl. Two Cl atoms have combined to from chlorine
gas. Cl- therefore has been oxidized to Cl.
(b) Water molecule (H2O) has been reduced to OH-.
(c) Cl- is the reducing agent or reductant and H2O is the oxidizing agent or oxidant.
(d) Cl- is undergoing the oxidation process and H2O is undergoing the reduction
process.
(a) 2Cl- + 2H2O Cl2 + H2 + 2OH-
Question 2
(a) Cu is the reductant and Fe3+ is the oxidant.
(b) Cu has been oxidized to Cu2+ and Fe3+ has been reduced to Fe2+.
(c) Cu + 2Fe3+ Cu2+ + 2Fe2+
Question 3
(a) Zn is the reducing agent and Cr3+ is the oxidizing agent.
(b) Zn undergoes oxidation process and Cr3+ undergoes reduction process.
(c) 3Zn + 2Cr3+ 3Zn2+ + 2Cr
Question 4
2Cr + 3MnO2 + 12H+ 2Cr3+ + 3Mn2+ + 6H2O
Question 1
(a) 2Br - (aq) Br2 (g) + 2e .
(b) 2H+ + 2e H2 (g).
(c) 2Br- + 2H+ Br2 + H2.
(d) Br – has been oxidized to Br2 gas and H+ has been reduced to hydrogen
gas.
Question 2
(a) hydrogen gas (at the cathode) and oxygen gas ( at the anode).
(b) Cathode: 2H+ + 2e H2(g)
Anode: 4OH- (aq) 2H2O (l) + O2 (g) + 4e-

(c) Reduction of hydrogen ions to hydrogen atoms at the cathode and the
oxidation of hydroxide ions to oxygen gas at the anode.
(d) 4H+ (aq) + 4OH- (aq) 2H2 (g) + 2H2O (l) + O2 (g)
101
Question 3
(a) Copper atoms and bromine gas.
( b) Anode: 2Br -(l) Br2 (g) + 2e
Cathode: Cu2+(l) + 2e Cu (s)
( c) 2Br – (l) + Cu2+ (l) Br2 (g) + Cu (s)
Question 4
(a) Oxygen gas and hydrogen gas.
(b) Oxygen gas is being produced at the anode and hydrogen gas being
produced at the cathode.
(c) Cathode: 2H+ + 2e H2(g)
-
Anode: 4OH (aq) 2H2O (l) + O2 (g) + 4e
(d) hydrogen ions (H+), hydroxide ions (OH-), tin ions (Sn2+) and
chlorine ions( Cl-).
Question 1
(a) A: impure copper and B: pure copper
(b) aqueous copper sulphate solution
(c) Draw the diagram to show the cell after two days of electrolysis.
After two days the impure

copper electrode (anode) will
become thinner and the pure
copper electrode (cathode)
will become thicker as shown
in the diagram.
(c) The main reason for adding dilute sulphuric acid into this electrolysis
process is to produce an electrolyte with more free charged ions which
will transmit maximum electrical charges between the anode and cathode
to speed up the electrolysis process.
(d) Copper wire has to be 99.99 % because impurities in the structure of
copper will increase electrical resistance thus significant amount of
valuable electrical energy can be lost in the form of heat energy along the
transmission or distribution lines.
102
Question 2
Below is the diagram of electrolysis of 2M sodium chloride solution.
(a) Gas Y: chlorine gas and gas Z: hydrogen gas.

(b) Write the half reaction equations:
Cathode: 2H+ (aq) + 2e H2 (g)
Anode: 2Cl- (aq) Cl2 (g) + 2e-
(c) 2H+ + 2Cl- H2 + Cl2
(d) As the electrolysis reaction progresses, more sodium ions and hydroxide ions are left
behind in the solution. The solution becomes alkaline in nature because of the presence
of sodium hydroxide in the solution thus the universal indicator changes its colour to
blue indicating that solution is alkaline in nature.
(e) Chlorine gas can be used as disinfectant while sodium hydroxide can be used to
produce soap.
Question 3
The diagram shows the electrolysis of dilute sulphuric acid solution.
103
(a) See the diagram.

(b) Sulphate ion (SO42-), hydrogen ion (H+) or (H3O+), hydroxide ion (OH-)
(c) SO42- and OH-
(d) Write the half reaction equations:
Cathode: 2H+ (aq) + 2e- H2 (g)
Anode: 4OH- (aq) 2H2O (l) + O2 (g) + 4e-

(e) Write the overall reaction occurring in the electrolytic cell.
4H+ (aq) + 4OH- (aq) 2H2 (g) + 2H2O (l) + O2 (g)
(f) Collect the gas produced in a test tube. Insert a glowing splint into the test
tube and if it burns with a bright flame then the gas produced is oxygen gas.
(g) Collect the gas produced in an enclosed test tube. Insert a burning splint and if
it produces “pop” sound then the gas produced is hydrogen gas.
Question 4
The diagram below shows the process used to prepare pure lead.
(a) Aqueous lead sulphate solution.

(b) Lead ions (Pb2+), Sulphate ions (SO42-), hydrogen (H+) and hydroxide
(OH-).
(c) See the diagram.
(d) Write the half reaction equations;
Anode: Pb(s) Pb2+ (aq) + 2e
2+
Cathode: Pb (aq) + 2e Pb(s)
Note: Lead sulphate is sparingly soluble in warm water.
104
Question 5
Silver can be electroplated on to other metals as shown below.
(a) Silver nitrate

(b) See the diagram.
(c) See the diagram.
(c) Write the half reaction equations:
(i) Cathode: Ag+ ( aq) + e Ag(s)
(ii) Anode: Ag(s) Ag+ (aq) + e
Question 6
0.2 mol/dm3 of potassium chloride solution is electrolysed using platinum electrodes.
(a) Oxygen gas

(b) Hydrogen gas
(c) cathode: 2H+ (aq) + 2e H2 (g)
(d) Anode: 4OH- (aq) 2H2O (l) + O2 (g) + 4e-
(e) 4H+ (aq) + 4OH- (aq) 2H2 (g) + 2H2O (l) + O2 (g)
105
UNIT 4
CARBON COMPOUNDS
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Demonstrate an understanding of fundamental scientific principles and models

2. Apply scientific thinking, motor and process skills to investigate and find
solutions to problems
3. Understand the general pattern of the structure of carbon compounds
4. Write formulae, draw structure and name, according to IUPAC system:
 hydrocarbons (alipathic and aromatic)
 alcohols
 alkanes
 alkenes
 alkynes
 petroleum
 polymers
106
INTRODUCTION
Carbon occurs in most naturally occurring compounds. The study of carbon compounds
other than carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide and carbonates is a separate branch of
Chemistry and called Organic Chemistry.
Carbon is unique as its atoms can link together to form chains or rings. Drugs
(paracetamol, chloroquin, amoxicillin), fuels (natural gas, petrol, kerosene, ethanol),
plastics (polythene, nylon, PVC), foods (proteins, carbohydrate, fats) and many more are
carbon-containing compounds.
The carbon atom has the special ability to bond to itself (catenation). Thus, carbon
forms a number of compounds; there are more than 2 million carbon compounds.
All organic compounds contain carbon and hydrogen in general; and they may contain
oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur or chlorine.
107
4.1 CARBON CYCLE

Carbon is present everywhere; it connects one sphere of life to another. It is easily
interchanged between any form life, water, atmosphere and earth. It is interesting to see
how carbon content interchanges between the different spheres.
Carbon cycle
The carbon cycle is the biogeochemical cycle by which carbon is exchanged between the
biosphere, geosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere of the Earth (other astronomical objects
may have similar carbon cycles, but nothing is yet known about them).
The cycle is usually thought of as four major reservoirs of carbon interconnected by pathways
of exchange. The reservoirs are the atmosphere, the terrestrial biosphere (which usually
includes freshwater systems and non-living organic material, such as soil carbon), the oceans
(which includes dissolved inorganic carbon and living and non-living marine biota), and the
sediments (which includes fossil fuels). The annual movements of carbon, the carbon
exchanges between reservoirs, occur because of various chemical, physical, geological, and
biological processes. The ocean contains the largest active pool of carbon near the surface of
the Earth, but the deep ocean part of this pool does not rapidly exchange with the atmosphere.
The global carbon budget is the balance of the exchanges (incomes and losses) of carbon
between the carbon reservoirs or between one specific loop (e.g., atmosphere - biosphere) of
the carbon cycle. An examination of the carbon budget of a pool or reservoir can provide
information about whether the pool or reservoir is functioning as a source or sink for carbon
dioxide.
Figure 6.5: Diagram of the carbon cycle. The black numbers indicate how much carbon is
stored in various reservoirs, in billions of tons ("GtC" stands for GigaTons of Carbon). The
blue numbers indicate how much carbon moves between reservoirs each year. The sediments,
as defined in this diagram, do not include the ~70 million GtC of carbonate rock and kerogen
Carbon exists in the Earth's atmosphere primarily as the gas carbon dioxide (CO2). Although
108
it is a very small part of the atmosphere overall (approximately 0.04% on a molar basis,
though rising), it plays an important role in supporting life. Other gases containing carbon in
the atmosphere are methane and chlorofluorocarbons (the latter are entirely artificial). These
are all greenhouse gases whose concentration in the atmosphere has been increasing in recent
decades, contributing to global warming.
The quantity of carbon in the atmosphere, in the form of CO2, is around 810 gigatonnes.
Carbon is taken from the atmosphere in several ways:

When the sun is shining, plants perform photosynthesis to convert carbon dioxide into
carbohydrates, releasing oxygen in the process. This process is most prolific in relatively new
forests where tree growth is still rapid.
At the surface of the oceans towards the poles, seawater becomes cooler and CO2 is more
soluble. This is coupled to the ocean's thermohaline circulation which transports dense surface
water into the ocean's interior (see the entry on the solubility).
In upper ocean areas of high productivity, organisms form tissue containing reduced carbon,
and some also form carbonate shells, tests, or other hard body parts. These are, respectively,
oxidized (soft-tissue pump) and redissolved (carbonate pump) at lower average levels of the
ocean than those at which they formed, resulting in a downward flow of carbon (see entry on
biological pump).
The weathering of silicate rock. Unlike the previous two processes, this does not move the
carbon into a reservoir from which it can readily return to the atmosphere. The weathering of
carbonate rocks has no net effect on atmospheric CO2, because the bicarbonate ions produced
are carried to the ocean, where they are used to make marine carbonates with the reverse
reaction.
Carbon can be released back into the atmosphere in many different ways.
● Through the respiration performed by plants and animals. This is an exothermic reaction
and it involves the breaking down of glucose (or other organic molecules) into carbon dioxide
and water.
● Through the decay of animal and plant matter. Fungi and bacteria break down the carbon
compounds in dead animals and plants and convert the carbon to carbon dioxide if oxygen is
present, or methane if not.
● Through combustion of organic material which oxidizes the carbon it contains, producing
carbon dioxide (as well as other things, like smoke). Burning fossil fuels such as coal,
petroleum products, and natural gas releases carbon that has been stored in the geosphere for
millions of years. This is a major reason for rising atmospheric carbon dioxide levels.
● Production of cement. A component, lime, is produced by heating limestone, which
produces a substantial amount of carbon dioxide.
● At the surface of the oceans where the water becomes warmer, dissolved carbon dioxide is
released back into the atmosphere
● Volcanic eruptions and metamorphism release gases into the atmosphere. These gases
include water vapor, carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide. The carbon dioxide released is
roughly equal to the amount removed by silicate weathering; so the two processes, which are
the chemical reverse of each other, sum to roughly zero, and do not affect the level of
atmospheric carbon dioxide on time scales of less than about 100,000 yr.
Carbon in the biosphere
Around 1900 gigatonnes of carbon are present in the biosphere. Carbon is an essential part of
life on the Earth. It plays an important role in the structure, biochemistry, and nutrition of all
living cells. And life plays an important role in the carbon cycle:
Autotrophs are organisms that produce their own organic compounds using carbon dioxide
109
from the air or water in which they live. To do this they require an external source of energy.
Almost all autotrophs use solar radiation to provide this, and their production process is called
photosynthesis. A small number of autotrophs exploit chemical energy sources,
chemosynthesis. The most important autotrophs for the carbon cycle are trees in forests on
land and phytoplankton in the Earth's oceans. Photosynthesis follows the reaction 6CO2 +
6H2O → C6H12O6 + 6O2
Carbon is transferred within the biosphere as heterotrophs feed on other organisms or their
parts (e.g., fruits). This includes the uptake of dead organic material (detritus) by fungi and
bacteria for fermentation or decay.
Most carbon leaves the biosphere through respiration. When oxygen is present, aerobic
respiration occurs, which releases carbon dioxide into the surrounding air or water, folowing
the reaction C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O. Otherwise, anaerobic respiration occurs and
releases methane into the surrounding environment, which eventually makes its way into the
atmosphere or hydrosphere (e.g., as marsh gas or flatulence).
Burning of biomass (e.g. forest fires, wood used for heating) can also transfer substantial
amounts of carbon to the atmosphere
Carbon may also leave the biosphere when dead organic matter (such as peat) becomes
incorporated in the geosphere. Animal shells of calcium carbonate, in particular, may
eventually become limestone through the process of sedimentation.
Much remains to be learned about the cycling of carbon in the deep ocean. For example, a
recent discovery is that larvacean mucus houses (commonly known as "sinkers") are created
in such large numbers that they can deliver as much carbon to the deep ocean as has been
previously detected by sediment traps. Because of their size and composition, these houses
are rarely collected in such traps, so most biogeochemical analyses have erroneously ignored
them.
Carbon storage in the biosphere is influenced by a number of processes on different time-

scales: while Net primary productivity follows a diurnal and seasonal cycle, carbon can be
stored up to several hundreds of years in trees and up to thousands of years in soils. Changes
in those long term carbon pools (e.g. through de- or afforestation or through temperature-
related changes in soil respiration) will thus directly affect global warming.
Retrieved from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_cycle
4.2 INTRODUCTION TO THE DIFFERENT FAMILIES OF

CARBON COMPOUNDS
The organic compounds are divided into different groups or more commonly referred to
as „families‟ based on the „functional group‟ present.
Functional group is an atom or group of atoms or multiple bonds whose presence in a

compound gives it certain unique characteristics.
The compounds that belong to one family and have a difference of a –CH2 unit between
two successive members can be grouped in a series called homologous series and the
members of the homologous series are called homologues.
There are four general properties of a homologous series:
1. The members must all fit into a general formula.
2. The members can be prepared by a general method of preparation.
3. The members possess similar chemical properties.
110
4. The members show a trend in their physical properties.
The various organic compounds can be classified as follows:
Hydrocarbons
Acyclic Cyclic
(Open chain compounds) (Closed chain compounds)
Aliphatic compounds Aliphatic cyclic Aromatic cyclic

e.g e.g.
Cyclopropane Benzene
Cyclohexane
Saturated compound Unsaturated compounds

(Compounds containing single bonds) (Compounds containing multiple
bonds e.g. double, triple bond) e.g.
alkane e.g. alkene, alkyne
Figure 5.6
Organic compounds can be classified as shown in Figure 5.6. The compounds may or
may not have a functional group. Depending on the nature of the functional group, the
name of the family is given. The full naming/ nomenclature of the compounds is carried
out in accordance with the IUPAC (International Union for Pure and Applied Chemists)
system.
In this section, we will look at some of the common families briefly.
4.3 ALKANES
Alkane is the simplest of all the hydrocarbons (organic compounds consisting of carbon
and hydrogen) formed by linking of the a carbon and a hydrogen or two carbons by
single covalent bonds which in turn has the capacity to bond with another carbon
(Catenation); all the valencies are satisfied by forming single covalent bonds with other
111
atoms. Since all the four valencies of carbon atom are fully satisfied in these
compounds, they have little tendencies to undergo any chemical combination. For this
reason, they are also called paraffins (parum means little; affinis means affinity, i.e. they
have little affinity for other atoms or molecules).
General formula: CnH2n+2

Molecular formula IUPAC name Structural name
H
CH4 Methane
H C H
H H
C2H6 Ethane
H C C H
H H
H H H
C3H8 Propane H C C C H
H H H
H H H H
C4H10 Butane
H C C C C H
H H H H
And so on……
Note:
(i) There are only single covalent bonds between various atoms.
(ii) There is difference of a CH2 unit between two members, thus the four
members listed are a part of homologous series.
(iii) The names end with „ane‟; this is characteristic of alkanes
(iv) The prefix: Meth means „one‟ carbon atom;
Eth means „two‟ carbon atoms;
Prop means „three‟ carbon atoms;
But means „four‟ carbon atoms;
Pent means „five‟ carbon atoms;
Hex means „six‟ carbon atoms;
Hept means „seven‟ carbon atoms;
Oct means „eight‟ carbon atoms;
Non means „nine‟ carbon atoms;
Dec means „ten‟ carbon atoms; and so on….
112
Alkyl radical
The general formula for alkyl radical is -CnH2n+1; the name ends with „yl‟. It is derived
from alkane; it is one hydrogen short of the corresponding alkane.
Methyl -CH3
Ethyl -C2H5
Propyl -C3H7
Butyl -C4H9
Alkyl radicals are univalent.
Rules for IUPAC nomenclature:
1. Select the longest possible and continuous chain of carbon atoms; the compound
is named as a derivative of the hydrocarbon which corresponds to the number of
carbon atoms in the longest continuous chain. This is the parent chain.
For example, let us consider the example given below. To select the longest
chain, we will indicate it with a double headed arrow.
Possibility 1
CH3
H H H H
H C C C C C H
H H H CH2 H
CH3
Pentane
So now, if we count the chain as shown by the arrow, we have a FIVE carbon chain.
But if we look at other possibility which is:

Possibility 2
CH3
H H H H
H C C C C C H
H H H CH2 H
CH3 Hexane
We now have a SIX carbon chain as the parent chain, so we prefer this over the previous
one. Note that the possibility 2 is preferred over possibility 1.
2. The selected chain is numbered from one terminal carbon to the other terminal
carbon by numerals 1, 2, 3 and so on. The numbering is done from the end
nearest to the alkyl substituent so as to give the lowest number to the side chain.
The substituent which has to be given the preference is circled. The substituent is
CH3, therefore the name is methyl.
113
Possibility 1 CH3
H H H H
H C C C C C H
H H H CH2 H
CH3 First 'C' atom

of the chain
The tail of the arrow indicates that we are counting from the tail end as the 1 st carbon
atom and the head then becomes the 6th carbon atom; this indicates the methyl group is
at FIFTH carbon in the chain, the position given to the substituent is 5.
We need to explore other possibilities to see if we can give the substituent a lower
position.
Possibility 2
CH3
H H H H
First 'C' atom
of the chain
H C C C C C H
H H H CH2 H
CH3
Now looking at this numbering system, we can see that it is the other end of chain where
we are starting our count, therefore the methyl group (the substituent) is at SECOND
carbon in the chain, the position given to the substituent is 2. Note that the possibility 2
is preferred over possibility 1.
The full name would first indicate the position of the substituent followed by the
substituent‟s name and then finally the parent name.
Note: We put a „-‟ between a numeral and a word; we put a „comma‟ between two
numerals.
The name of the compound given above is

2-Methyl hexane
Laboratory preparation of methane

Methane is prepared in the laboratory by heating fused sodium ethanoate with soda-lime
and collected over water.
The ethanoate is fused to ensure that it is free from water. Soda-lime is obtained by
adding concentrated sodium hydroxide to quick lime. Quick lime is a mixture of sodium
hydroxide and calcium hydroxides; it is in solid state and thus easier to handle as
compared to sodium hydroxide alone. Sodium hydroxide is deliquescent, melts readily
and attacks glass but soda-lime is not deliquescent.
114
CH3COONa(s) + NaOH(s) → Na2CO3(s) + CH4(g)

Sodium ethanoate from Sodium carbonate Methane
Soda-lime
Physical properties of alkane

1. The first four members (C1 to C4) are gases, next twelve members (C5 to C17) are
liquid and the rest are solids.
2. All members are insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvent.
3. The boiling point depends on the attractive forces between the molecules of the
substance; the stronger these are, the more energy is needed to separate the
molecules in order to convert the liquid into vapour and so higher is the boiling
point. The forces increase with the formula mass of the compound so that when a
methylene (-CH2) group is introduced into the alkane chain, the boiling point rises.
4. The melting point also increases along with the increase in molecular mass.
5. The specific gravity and viscosity increase in a regular order.
Chemical properties of alkanes

1. Combustion
Alkanes burn completely in excess of air to produce carbon dioxide and water.
CH4(g) + 2O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2H2O(g) + Heat
The reaction is exothermic, therefore alkanes are excellent as fuels. Incomplete

combustion process produces carbon monoxide, which is a harmful and poisonous
gas.
Generalized equation can be written as follows:
CxHy + (x + y/4) O2 → xCO2 + (y/2)H2O
2. Thermal decomposition (Cracking)
Higher alkanes can be broken down to give a mixture of lower alkanes and alkenes
which can be further used to synthesize useful products. In this types of cracking
high temperatures are used.
630deg.C
C6H14 C3H8 + C3H6
3. Halogenation (Substitution reaction in diffused day-light)

Such reactions are called photochemical reaction, since they need light for the
reaction to take place.
115
energy
CH4 + Cl2 CH3Cl + HCl
Chloromethane
energy
CH3Cl + Cl2 CH2Cl2 + HCl
Dichloromethane
energy
CH2Cl2 + Cl2 CHCl 3 + HCl
Trichloromethane
energy
CHCl 3 + Cl2 CCl4 + HCl
Tetrachloromethane
Note: In dark, the reaction does not take place. However, in presence of (CH3)4Pb, the
reaction takes place in dark.
In bright daylight:
bright
CH 4 + 2Cl 2 C + 4 HCl
sunlight
Uses
1. Alkanes are important fuels. Methane is the main constituent of natural gas (about
94%). Butane is the main constituent of the camping gas and lighter fuel.
2. Alkanes are important since the higher alkanes can be cracked to give a lower
alkanes and alkenes which can be in turn used to manufacture important compounds.
4.4 ALKENES
Nowadays, so many things in everyday use like PVC raincoats, antifreeze, polythene
bottles, adhesive are all made up from ethane, the simplest alkene and the most versatile
organic compound in use today. Ethene, CH2==CH2, with its reactive double bond, can
be used as a building block to prepare complex organic molecules. Propene,
CH3CH==CH2, is used in a similar way though on a smaller scale.
Alkenes are also called olefin, since it forms oily liquid when treated with chlorine or
bromine.
General formula: CnH2n:
The name of alkene ends with „ene‟
116

H H
C2H2 Ethene
C C
H H
H H H
C3H6 Propene
C C C H
H H
H H H H
C4H8 Butene C C C C H
H H H
H H H H H
C5H10 Pentene
C C C C C H
H H H H
Some more rules for IUPAC nomenclature
1. Select the longest possible and continuous chain of carbon atoms so as to include the
C==C bond as the part of the chain; the compound is named as a derivative of the
hydrocarbon which corresponds to the number of carbon atoms in the longest
continuous chain. This is the parent chain.
Let us consider the example given below. To select the longest chain, we will
indicate it with a double headed arrow.
Should we prefer possibility 1 or possibility 2?
Possibility 1 H
CH3
H H H
H C C C C C
H H H CH2 H
CH3
Hexane
Possibility 2
CH3
H H H H
H C C C C C
H H H CH2 H
CH3
Pentene
117
Possibility 2 is preferred over possibility 1 since it includes the double bond in the
selected chain even though the number of carbon atoms in this selected chain is lesser.
2. The selected chain is numbered from one terminal carbon to the other
terminalcarbon by numerals 1, 2, 3 and so on. The numbering is done from the end
nearest to the double bond so as to give the lowest number to the double bond
carbon. The substituent which has to be given the preference is circled. The
substituents are double bond and CH3, methyl.
Possibility 1 CH3
H H H H
First 'C' atom
of the chain
H C C C C C
H H H CH2 H
CH3
Possibility 2 CH3
H H H H
First 'C' atom

H C C C C C of the chain
H H H CH2 H
CH3
Possibility 2 is preferred over possibility 1.
Therefore the name of the compound is
2-Ethyl-4-methyl pentene
Another example discusses how we consider the position of the double bond and name
it:
H H
Possibility 1 H H H
H C C C C C H
H H H
Possibility 1 suggests that the „double bond‟ is present just after second carbon and
hence given the position „2‟.
H H H H H
Possibility 2
H C C C C C H
H H H
118
Possibility 2 suggests that the „double bond‟ is present after third carbon and hence
given the position „3‟.
Possibility 1 is preferred over possibility 2.
The name of the compound is
2-Butene OR But-2-ene
The name indicates „ene‟ that is the double bond is present at second carbon in a five
carbon chain.
Industrial preparation of ethane

Ethene is obtained by dehydration of ethanol. Ethene is warmed with concentrated
sulfuric acid or more safely by passing vapor over heated catalyst such as broken
porcelain. It is collected over water.
H+
C2H5OH(l) → C2H4(g)
Ethene is largely prepared by catalytic cracking of saturated hydrocarbons, i.e. alkanes.

Catlaytic cracking is breaking of higher alkanes in presence of a catalyst heated to about
500 °C to give a mixture lower alkanes and alkenes.
C3H8(g) → CH4(g) + C2H4(g)
Reactions of alkenes
1. Combustion of alkenes
Like alkanes, alkenes burn in excess of air to produce carbon dioxide and water
along with the evolution of heat. This makes alkene good fuel, again just like alkane.
C2H4(g) + 3O2(g) → 2CO2(g) + 2H2O(g) + Heat
Whereas in limited supply of air, the alkene undergoes incomplete combustion

producing poisonous carbon monoxide, carbon and water.
2. Addition reactions of alkenes.

The reactive double bond helps alkene undergo addition reaction. One of the bonds
in the double bond breaks setting one valency free on each carbon atom between
which the double bond was present originally.
(a) Reaction of alkene with hydrogen

Ethene reacts with hydrogen in presence of nickel as a catalyst.
CH2 CH2 + H2 CH2 CH2
H H
The addition of hydrogen across double bond is termed as hydrogenation. Industrially

the reaction is used in conversion of various oils to fats that is hardening of oil e.g.
preparation of margarine.
(b) Reaction of alkene with bromine

Ethene reacts with bromine in presence of carbon tetrachloride to give dibromo product.
119
CCl4
CH2 CH2 + Br 2 CH2 CH2
Br Br
1,2-Dibromo ethane
(Colorless)
This reaction is used as a test for unsaturation. The orange-red colored bromine, when
added to compounds containing multiple bonds, the resulting product goes colorless.
(c) Reaction of alkene with acidified potassium dichromate.
Similar observations can be recorded when alkene reacts with acidified potassium
permanganate. Acidified potassium permanganate acts as an oxidizing agent. It oxidizes
alkene to form a „diol‟ (2 „-OH‟ group present in a compound)
MnO4-/H+
CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2
OH OH
(colorless)
Purple color acidified permanganate when added to alkene results in the formation of
colorless „diol‟. The color transition from purple to colorless is an indication of presence
of multiple bonds just like the previous reaction (reaction of alkene with Br2/CCl4).
These reactions are used in qualitative analysis for the detection of multiple bonds in a
compound.
4.5 ALKYNES
Alkynes are unsaturated compounds and consist of at least one triple bond between two
carbon atoms. The properties and reaction of alkynes are similar to alkenes.
General formula: CnH2n: The name of alkyne ends with „yne‟
C2H2 Ethyne H C C H
C3H4 Propyne
H C C C H
H H
C4H6 Butyne H C C C C H
H H
H H H
C5H8 Pentyne H C C C C C H
H H H
120
Rules for IUPAC nomenclature

Rules for nomenclature are similar to the ones we have discussed in alkenes. The
important points to note are that when there is a triple bond the parent becomes alkyne.
Industrial preparation of ethyne

Ethyne is prepared by the reaction of water with calcium carbide and the gas prepared is
collected over water.
CaC2(s) + 2H2O(l) → Ca(OH)2(s) + C2H2(g)
Ethyne contains high energy in itself, therefore under certain conditions, it can be very
dangerous. Ethyne is used in oxy-acetylene welding and steel cutting. Oxy-acetylene
blow pipe can produce a temperature as high as 3000°C.
Reactions of alkyne
Reactions of alkynes are similar to alkenes. Alkynes are extremely reactive and readily
react with a number of compounds.
1. Combustion of alkenes
Like alkenes, alkynes burn in excess of air to produce carbon dioxide and water along
with the evolution of heat.
2C2H2(g) + 5O2(g) → 4CO2(g) + 2H2O(g) + Heat
Ethyne burns with a luminous and very sooty flame because of the high percentage of
carbon content.
2. Addition reactions of alkynes

Triple bond breaks in stages as shown below:
C C C C C C
„triple bond‟ breaks to form „double bond‟ breaks
„double bond‟ and sets one to form „triple bond‟
valency free on each carbon and sets one more
atom valency free on each
carbon atom
Note: The breaking of a bond and setting valencies free is what helps addition of atoms
to that carbon atom. Since the number of bond breaking is twice of what breaks
in a double bond, it allows addition to double as compared to alkenes.
(a) Reaction of alkyne with hydrogen

H H
CH CH + H2 CH CH H2 CH C
+
H
H H H H
Ethyne Ethene Ethane
121
(b) Reaction of alkyne with

Br Br
CH CH + Br 2 CH CH Br 2 CH C
+
H
Br Br Br Br
Ethyne 1,2-Dibromoethene 1,1,2,2-Tetrabromoethane

(Colorless) (Colorless)
Like alkenes, alkynes can be tested for the presence of triple bond by performing the
tests with (i) Br2/CCl4 and (ii) MnO4-/H+.
Decolorization of acidified as well as bromine water are considered as tests for
unsaturation.
Also, because of the reactivity of multiple bonds, they make excellent starting material
for the manufacture of a variety of petrochemicals.
4.6 PETROLEUM
Crude oil and natural gas are a mixture of organic compounds and are the most
important sources present. Natural gas from under the sea and over crude oil deposits is
mostly methane (94%), a hydrocarbon with formula CH4.
Crude oil was formed from the remains of small marine animals and plants that were
buried in the beds of the seas millions of years ago. The decay of these remains under
the layers of overlaying rock formed the liquid known as crude oil or petroleum (from
Greek words meaning „rock oil‟). Similar conditions led to the formation of the natural
gas that is often associated with crude oil as well as in deposits on its own, such as those
in the North Sea. The deposits of crude oil formed as a result of fossils are also called
fossil fuel.
Crude oil is a complex mixture of hydrocarbons. Many different organic compounds are,
however, obtained from crude oil first by fractional distillation, followed by various
chemical processes some of which are very complicated.
Fractional distillation of crude oil

The crude oil is completely vaporized by a furnace and the vapor fractionalized in a
fractionating tower made up of a number of compartments. The lower the boiling point
of a substance, the further it will rise up the tower before condensing.
The fractional distillation of crude oil does not produce pure substances. It provides a
number of fractions, each containing a large number of organic compounds.
The function of the bubble cap is to allow the vapors to pass freely to a higher
compartment and prevent the liquid formed from running back down the fractionating
tower. The vapor from the lower compartment passes into the compartment above it by
the upward movement of the bubble caps. Some of the vapors condense forming the
liquid, after a while, when enough liquid is accumulated and overflows, it trickles down
to the lower compartment. This process is repeated. Finally the more volatile component
can further pass on to the compartment above it through the similar process.
122
The different fractions are used as follows:

1. Refinery gas (1-2% of crude oil) is similar in composition to natural gas. It contains
C1 to C4 hydrocarbons and is gas at normal temperatures. Methane (CH4) is the major
component in this category. The main use is as a fuel and starting point for the
production of other petrochemicals.
2. Gasoline (15-30% of crude oil) is a complex liquid mixture of C5 to C10 hydrocarbons

with the boiling point in the range 40-110 ºC. The main use of gasoline is as a fuel in
internal combustion engine. Gasoline is also used in the manufacture of chemicals; this
part of gasoline is called „naphtha‟.
3. Kerosene (10-15% of crude oil) consists of C11 and C12 hydrocarbons with boiling
points in the range 160-250 ºC. The main use is as a fuel in jet engines and for domestic
heating purposes. It can also be cracked to produce extra gasoline.
4. Diesel oil or gas oil (15-20% of crude oil) consists of C13-C25 compounds with
boiling points in the range 220-350 ºC. The main use is as a fuel in diesel engines and in
furnaces for industrial heating purposes. It can be cracked to produce extra gasoline.
5. Residue (40-50% of crude oil) is a highly complex mixture of involatile C26-C28

hydrocarbons that boil above 350 ºC. It is used as fuel oil in large furnaces such as those
in power stations or big ships. A major portion of it is used in the production of
lubricating oils and waxes. Bitumen or asphalt is also obtained as a leftover which is
used to surface roads and to water-proof materials.
Cracking
Cracking is breaking of higher hydrocarbon to lower hydrocarbons. The alkanes are
heated to high temperatures; as a result the molecules vibrate strongly enough to break
bonds and form smaller molecules, one of which is alkenes. For example:
C11H24 → C9H20 + H2C==CH2

Undecane Nonane Ethene
There are three methods of cracking depending on what is being used to facilitate the
process of cracking:
Steam cracking makes use of steam to break the higher hydrocarbon to lower
hydrocarbon.
Thermal cracking makes use of high temperatures to break the higher hydrocarbon to
lower hydrocarbon.
Catalytic cracking makes use of a catalyst to break the higher hydrocarbon to lower
hydrocarbon. The use of catalyst allows cracking to take place at fairly low
temperatures.
4.7 POLYMER
About 80% of organic chemicals are used to manufacture polymers. Wood, cotton,
wool, rubber are some of the examples of naturally occurring polymers while a number
of polymers are synthesized since the World War II.
123
Synthetic polymers are cheaper and better suited to their particular function than the
naturally occurring polymers. However, the issue of disposing the polymers after use
remains a huge issue since majority of the synthetic polymers is non-biodegradable.
Chemists are, thus researching on synthesizing biodegradable polymers, like we
commonly say „environmentally friendly polymers‟!
Polymers are long-chain molecules where a single unit repeats itself. This single unit is
called monomer.
a b a b a b a b
n C C
C C C C C C
c d n
c d c d c d
Monomer Polymer
Where n ≥ 2, 3, …….100………200……& so on
Polymers are macromolecules, normally several hundred repeating units giving high
relative molecular mass, even greater than 5000 in some cases.
The polymer has properties different from those of the original simple compound or
compounds. Polymers vary widely in physical properties such as strength, flexibility and
softening temperature. Based on the physical properties, we divide them into two main
classes
1. Fibres
Fibres are very strong and not readily stretched. Some common fibres are polyester
etc.
2. Plastics
Plastic are materials that can be easily moulded. There are some natural plastics
such as shellac (from an insect), rubber and gutta percha (both from trees). But
normally the term „plastics‟ refers to man-made materials.
The first man-made plastic was celluloid (1860‟s), which was made from the
cellulose in cotton. It was made by the action of nitric acid on cellulose
(carbohydrate made from cotton). Celluloid or cellulose nitrate is dangerously
flammable. Non-flammable cellulose acetate was made in 1890‟s. This is now
used for wrapping material; „non-flame‟ film, recording tapes etc.
The first synthetic plastic was „bakelite‟ made in early twentieth century from
methanol and phenol. It is good insulator and is widely used for electric light
fittings. In the 1930‟s and 1940‟s came the discoveries of our best-known plastics-
polythene, PVC, Perspex, polystyrene and nylon.
There are two types of plastics:
(i) Thermoplastic are the plastic that softens on warming and becomes rigid on
cooling. Such plastics cannot be decomposed e.g. polythene, polystyrene,
Perspex etc. These are non-biodegradable materials.
(ii) Thermosetting plastic is the one that decomposes when heated e.g. bakelite,
rubber etc. These are biodegradable materials.
124
Molecules containing double bonds are particularly useful monomer as they can usually
be made to undergo addition reactions among themselves. The double bond in each
molecule can be thought of as breaking open, enabling the free bonds to link with one
another forming a chain.
a b a b a b a b
n C C
C C C C C C
c d n
c d c d c d
In this reaction, it is interesting to note that changing „a‟, „b‟, „c‟ and „d‟, we can have
a range of polymers.
Let us look at the possible isomers that can be obtained by changing the nature of „a‟,
„b‟, „c‟ and „d‟.
Nature of a, b, c and d Monomer Polymer

a=b=c=d=H Ethene Polythene
a = CH3; b = c = d = H Propene Polypropene
a = Cl; b = c = d = H Chloroethene OR Vinyl Polychloroethene OR
Chloride PolyVinylChloride (PVC)
a = b = c = H; d = C6H5 Phenlyethene OR Styrene Polyphenylethene ORPolystyrene
a=b=c=d=F Tetrafluoroethene Polytetrafluoroethene (PTFE) OR Teflon
a = b = H; c = CH3; Methyl methacrylate Polymethylmethacrylate OR perspex
d = COOCH3
Table 6.2
In addition to plastics and fibres, there are polymers that have unique characteristics and
are placed in separate class of polymers. These are:
1. Resins: Resins cannot be moulded.
2. Elastomers: Elastomers have elastic or rubber like properties.
Preparation of Polymers
1. Addition Polymerization:
Some polymers have single monomeric unit repeating themselves; the polymer has a
higher molecular mass but same composition as the monomer. For example:
n(A) → (~A~)n
where A is the only monomer that repeats itself.
For the preparation of polyethene, the starting small molecule or monomer is ethene and
the resulting large molecule or polymer is polythene. The monomer and polymer have
the same empirical formula.
For industrial preparation of polythene, ethene is heated at 200 °C and 1000 atm
pressure with a trace of oxygen as a catalyst, the molecules of ethane get „squeezed‟
together to form a white waxy solid, the polythene.
125
200 ºC/1000atm
n(CH2==CH2) → (~CH2-CH2~)n
O2 as catalyst
Nowadays polythene is obtained much more cheaply as certain complex organo-metallic

compounds catalyse the change at relatively low pressure. Polythene is now used for the
manufacture of many domestic articles (bowls, buckets, wearing cans, cold water pipes
etc.). It is unaffected by acid and alkalis so reagent bottles and topper are often made of
it. Being thermoplastic, it will soften in very hot water. Polythene pipes have a great
advantage over metal pipes as they can be welded quickly and do not burst in frosty
weather.
Polythene is normally made into small chips which are then used to mould it into the
desired shape depending on what we want to make out of it.
Such monomers are prepared by undergoing “addition polymerization” and the
polymers are referred to as “addition polymers”. Polythene is an addition polymer,
prepared by undergoing polymerization. So we can say that:
Addition polymerization is the process in which a small molecule adds onto itself many
times to form a large molecule, with nothing being lost.
2. Condensation Polymerization:
Some polymers have two monomeric units linked and repeating itself; for example:
n(A) + n(B) → (~A-B~)n
where A and B are two monomers that repeat itself.
The two monomers involved, A and B, must contain two reactive groups at each end.
Nylon 6.6, terylene, bakelite etc. are some examples of condensation polymer. For the
preparation of nylon 6.6, the two monomers used as the starting material are 1,6-
hexadiamine and 1,4-butandioicacid. One mole of each monomer reacts and combines
losing a molecule of water in the process. Such reaction in which addition takes place
accompanied by elimination of a molecule of water or ammonia etc. resulting in the
formation of a long-chain molecule is called condensation polymerization.
nH2N-(CH2)6-NH2 + nHOOC-(CH2)4-COOH →
1,6-Hexadiamine 1,4-Butandioic acid
H[-HN-(CH2)6-NH-CO-(CH2)4-CO]nOH + (2n-1)H2O
Nylon 6.6
The name nylon 6.6 is given due to the fact that each monomeric unit contains 6 carbon
atoms each. The product still has two reactive groups. Chemical bond which holds nylon
together is called amide linkage represented as shown below:
O N
C N
The linkage in amino acid is the same as the one which holds amino acids in proteins.
126
Plastic and associated problems

Plastics pollute our environment and can be extremely dangerous, as they produce
poisonous fumes when they burn. Disfiguring of our towns, beaches and other popular
areas with plastic food/ drink containers, plastic bags and wrappings is very familiar to
us.
Plastic waste gets washed and thrown into the water and is one of the major pollutants of
rivers and seas. Some of them could not be broken down by bacteria and other
organisms and thus effect the marine life too.
Much stress is now laid on the production of plastics which are „biodegradable‟, i.e. they
can be broken down by bacteria and other organisms into simpler and harmless
chemicals and not just rot away.
We cannot prevent the use of synthetic plastics but it is worthwhile realizing their
harmful side-effects to minimize them.
Would YOU carry a bilum when you go shopping next time to carry your shopping
goods so that YOU too can help cut down the number of plastic bags used while
shopping!
4.8 ALCOHOL
Alcohol is a group of carbon compounds that contain the reactive –OH group. The
members of this family fit into the general formula CnH2n+2, where n = 1, 2, 3, 4…
Let us look at the first two members of the series.
If n=1, the alcohol is CH3OH and it is called methanol.
If n=2, the alcohol is C2H5OH and it is called ethanol.
Ethanol is commonly referred to as just „alcohol‟, the well-known intoxicant.

Fermentation
The fermentation of sugar containing materials leads to the formation of alcohol. People
have been fermenting grape juice for at least ten thousand years, and probably
fermenting honey even longer. The fermentation of any kind of sugar by yeast thus
produces alcohol
C6H12O6 → 2CH3CH2OH + 2CO2
Glucose Ethanol
The fermentation of alcohol is an exothermic reaction and provides the yeast with
energy. The source of sugar may vary from grapes (for wine), honey (for mead), malted
grain (for beer), apples (for cider) to cane sugar (as done in Ramu sugar for the
production of ethanol).
It is worth noting that from the point of view of yeast, the ethanol produced in
fermentation is a toxic waste product, which kills yeast at concentrations greater than
about 15% by volume. It is therefore, impossible to produce alcoholic drinks containing
more than 15% alcohol by fermentation alone.
From storage point of view, it is advantageous to have concentrated alcohol as the high
alcoholic concentration is toxic to bacteria. There are a number of different types of
alcoholic drinks which are preferred by different people. To cater for all these
127
requirements, fermented liquids are distilled to increase their alcoholic content and
produce various types of spirits.
Distillation of wine produces brandy. A typical spirit contains about 40% ethanol.
In Britain, alcoholic strength is measured in degrees proof: „proof spirit‟ is an ancient
standard, defined as the weakest mixture of pure alcohol and water when poured over
gunpowder and ignited will allow the powder to burn. 100% proof spirit corresponds to
about 57% ethanol; thus typical spirits are about 70% proof.
Dangers associated with methanol and ethanol
Methanol is much more toxic than ethanol. It is added to industrial alcohol which is then
referred to as „methylated spirit‟. In spite of several warning that methylated spirit is
unsuitable for human consumption, we still hear people consuming it which results in
blindness and in severe cases cause „death‟.
Ethanol is intoxicating in small amounts but toxic in large amounts. In small doses, it
makes people relaxed and for this reason it has become popular as a „social drink‟.
However, its negatives must not be overlooked. In large doses, it can cause a serious
effect on mental and physical performance and its use can be very dangerous. Drunk
driving leads to accidents, drunkenness at homes is the biggest cause of domestic
violence. It is addictive if taken in large quantities which leads to all kinds of problems
be it mental or social.
Uses of ethanol
Ethanol has two most important uses.
1. It is used as a solvent.
2. It is used as a fuel.
Nowadays, in many countries, ethanol is being used a fuel in transport which helps cut
down dependency on petroleum.
1. What is fractional distillation of crude oil?

2. What are polymers and what are their practical uses in our daily lives?
3. What dangers are associated with ethanol and methyl alcohol?
128
SUMMARY
The study of carbon and carbon compounds other than carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide
and carbonates is a branch of chemistry called Organic Chemistry. Organic compounds
consist of carbon and hydrogen.
Carbon cycle is the biogeochemical cycle by which carbon is exchanged between the
biosphere, geosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere of the Earth.
Among the most common carbon compounds are the following:
 Alkane is the simplest of all the hydrocarbons.

 Ethane, the simplest alkene, is the most versatile organic compound in use today.
 Alkynes are unsaturated compounds and consist of at least one triple bond
between two carbon atoms.
 Crude oil and natural gas, from which petroleum and LNG are derived, are a
mixture of organic compounds and are the most important sources present in our
environment.
 Polymers naturally occur in wood, cotton, wool, and rubber while a number of
polymers are synthesized since the World War II.
 Alcohol is a group of carbon compounds that contain the reactive –OH group.
Without you realizing it, carbon compounds have made modern life much more liveable
and pleasurable.
ASSIGNMENT UNIT 4
1. Identify and explain the different uses brought about by fractional distillation of
crude.
2. What is alcohol? When does it become intoxicating and when does it become
toxic?
3. Explain the process in the production of plastic. What is biodegradable plastic?
4. Explain fermentation resulting in the production of alcohol or spirits like wine,
beer, brandy and gin.
129
UNIT 5
NATURAL RESOURCES AND CHEMICAL INDUSTRIES IN

PAPUA NEW GUINEA
Prior Knowledge
Before starting this unit, you can:
1. Describe how petroleum is formed, extracted and separated into fractions.
2. State some uses of various fractions.
3. State that plastics and many other useful products are made from crude oil.
4. State that polymers result from small molecules linking together to form very
large long-chained molecules.
5. Recall experiments which make soap by the action of alkali on fat or oil;
detergents by the action of concentrated acids on fat or oil.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Name various chemical industries in Papua New Guinea, e.g. extraction of gold
and copper, oil (mineral and vegetable), soap production, paint production,
cleaning products, cement, food processing, alcohol production, lime production,
analytical laboratories for water, metal or soil analysis;
2. describe the basic processes involved in each of the chemical industries listed
above;
3. List the areas in Papua New Guinea where crude oil and natural gas are found;
4. State that carbon occurs in most naturally occurring compounds;
5. Discuss the carbon cycle and recognize that photosynthesis and respiration are
chemical processes;
6. Describe how crude oil and natural gas are found;
7. Trace and explain the laboratory separation of crude oil into fractions;
8. Relate the small scale fractionation to the industrial fractions;
9. Recognize at least one use of each fraction;
10. Relate the uses above to the physical properties of each fraction;
11. Understand why the lower boiling point fractions have more industrial uses than
those with higher boiling points;
12. Describe how higher boiling point fractions are „cracked‟ to make more useful
products;
13 Explain the meaning of the term fossil fuel;
14 State that all fossil fuels burn in air giving heat energy, carbon dioxide and water
vapor;
130
15 State the dangers of carbon monoxide and describe the conditions of burning that
lead to its production;
16 Compare the cost, efficiency and cleanliness of burning different fuels;
17. Explain that petroleum is the principle raw material for plastics, man-made fibres
and many other useful products;
18. Examine the relationship between polymers and their monomers;
19. Describe the preparation of a polymer;
20. State that plastic and man-made fibres are polymeric materials;
21. Understand the problem of plastic as pollutants and the need for the development
of recyclable and biodegradable plastics;
22. Identify the dangers associated with burning plastics;
23. Describe the preparation of ethanol by fermentation of sugars and relate this to
the production of ethanol from cane sugar at Ramu;
24. Understand that fermented liquor is an aqueous solution and that almost pure
ethanol can be obtained by fractional distillation;
25. Describe the importance of the reaction above in the brewing industry;
26. Appreciate that different types of alcoholic drinks contain different proportions
of alcohol;
27. Appreciate the different physiological effects caused by drinking methanol and
ethanol;
28. Demonstrate the use of ethanol as a solvent and a fuel;
29. Discuss that ethanol can easily be converted to ethanoic acid;
30. Analyze the economic and environmental impact of the chemical industries
given appropriate data.
131
INTRODUCTION
Chemistry plays an important role in our everyday life. Everything, we see around us is
some chemical and it may be a useful or harmful. We make our choice of how to use the
particular chemical depending on its advantages and disadvantages.
In Papua New Guinea we have a number of chemical industries that are involved in the
production/ isolation/analysis of various chemical/s. „Ok Tedi‟, „Lihir‟ and „Pogera‟ are
involved in the extraction of gold and copper while „Oil Search‟ is responsible for the
exploration of oil in the country. There are huge deposits of crude oil and natural gas
which substantially boosts the country‟s economy. Chemical industries such as „K.K.
Kingston‟, „Panamex Pacific‟, etc. make soap and cleaning products. Paints are
manufactured by „Orica‟ and „Taubmanns‟ while cement is manufactured by „PNG
Cement Taiheyo Ltd.‟ Industries like „Ramu Sugar‟, „S.P.Brewery‟, „Levi Lave‟, etc. are
involved with alcohol production. Lime production carried out by „National Analysis
Laboratory‟ caters for various analytical tests.
There are a number of food processing industries in PNG. Some of the examples are
Nestle PNG Ltd., Goodmann Fielder, International Food Corps, Diana Tuna, Prima
sausages etc.
132
5.1 BASIC CHEMICAL PROCESSES INVOLVED IN CHEMICAL

INDUSTRIES
Depending on the product, the industry chooses the chemical process and the
equipments to be utilized in its production.
5.1.1 EXTRACTION OF METAL

Metals are found in rocks. Rocks that contain metal compounds from which a metal can
be extracted are known as ores. The ores are found in the crust of the earth. The
chemical processes involve drilling the crust and pulling the ore out. The metal is then
extracted from the ore. In this topic, we will basically concentrate on extraction of metal
from its ore.
Table 6.1
Metal Main Ores
Potassium Canallite; KCl, MgCl2.6H2O
Sodium Rock salt; NaCl
Calcium Limestone, marble, chalk; CaCO3
Aluminium Bauxite; Al2O3.2H2O
(Carbon)
Zinc Zinc blende; ZnS
Lead Galena; PbS
(Hydrogen)
Copper Pyrites; CuFeS2
Malachite; Cu(OH)2, CuCO3
Mercury Chinnabar; HgS
Silver Found „native‟
Gold Found „native‟
Note: The metals are listed as is their order in the reactivity series.
Preliminary treatment or concentration of ores

The ore is subjected to preliminary treatment to remove the irrelevant material from the
ore. The rock is crushed and the crude ore is separated by
(i) Dissolving the required material in a suitable solvent, e.g. bauxite is treated
with sodium hydroxide solution; aluminium oxide dissolves and forms
soluble sodium aluminate.
(ii) Removing any magnetic material making use of a magnet, e.g. copper ores
are dropped through a magnetic separator where metallic ores are deflected
into one pile while the lower grade ores and earthy impurities are not
deflected and pass straight on.
(iii) Washing away earthy matter by means of a stream of water leaving the
heavier ore behind.
(iv) Froth flotation, e.g. zinc blende and galena can be concentrated this way.
The ore is added to a detergent bath that is agitated. It is possible to cause the
metallic sulphides to float and the impurities to sink.
Methods used in the extraction of metals

The method used in the extraction of a metal from the ore also depends on the position
of the metal in the reactivity series.
133
Extraction of a metal from its ore is a reduction process.

Recall the concept of ‘reduction’
‘Reduction’ can be defined in different ways and we can opt for the definition that is
most suited to our reaction under study. We can thus define ‘reduction’ as
1. addition of ‘hydrogen’
2. removal of ‘hydrogen’
3. loss of electrons
4. decrease in oxidation number
Any one of the following processes is the commonly used depending on the metal.
1. Heating the ore
This is suitable only for the metals low in the activity series, e.g. mercury, silver and
gold. Their compounds are unstable and the metal, if present in ores, can be extracted by
heating the ore.
Mercury is obtained by heating the sulfide ore, chinnabar.
HgS(s) + O2(g) → Hg(l) + SO2(g)
2. Electrolysis of fused ores

Ores of the metals higher than silver in the series do not decompose directly to the free
metal simply on heating. Metals high in the reactivity series (potassium down to
aluminum) form very stable ores and the metal can be directly obtained by electrolysis.
Sodium is obtained by electrolysis of fused sodium chloride in the Downs Process
NaCl → Na+ + Cl-
At the cathode (reduction) At the anode (oxidation)

Na+ + e- → Na Cl- → ½ Cl2 + e-
The electrolysis of fused ore will work for the extraction of any metal but it is an
expensive method. Therefore, it is only used when the metals cannot be obtained by any
other suitable method.
3. Reduction of the oxide

Metals in the middle of the reactivity series do not form very stable ores and they can be
extracted by reduction, often with carbon (coke) or carbon monoxide.
If the ore is an oxide, it is reduced by heating with coke or carbon monoxide (made from
the coke by passing a limited amount of air over the hot coke); e.g.
Fe2O3(s) + 3CO(g) → 2Fe(l) + 3CO2(g)
If it is a sulfide (or carbonate) ore, it is first roasted in air and converted to the oxide
which can then be reduced. The oxides are easier to deal with than the sulfides or the
carbonates.
2ZnS(s) + 3CO2(g) → 2ZnO(s) + 2SO2(g)
ZnCO3(s) → ZnO(s) + CO2(g)
ZnO(s) + C(s) → Zn(s) + CO(g)
134
Hydrogen is rarely used as a reducing agent because of the cost involved. Tungsten
oxide is reduced using hydrogen when very pure metal is required e.g. for tungsten
filament in electric bulbs.
4. Reducing of oxides using thermite reaction

In a few cases, an electropositive metal can be used as a reducing agent to reduce the
oxide of a less electropositive metal.
When iron (III) oxide and aluminum powder are heated together, a reaction takes place.
Iron (III) oxide is reduced to iron as aluminum is more reactive than aluminum.
Fe2O3(s) + 2Al(s) → 2Fe(s) + Al2O3(s)
The reaction is exothermic and is called a thermite reaction.
No reaction would take place if iron (III) oxide and copper were heated together because
copper is less reactive than iron. For the same reason, aluminum oxide cannot be
reduced by carbon. Carbon is less reactive than aluminum.
This method is expensive and is only used where small quantities of carbon-free metals
such as chromium and titanium are required for special purposes.
Cr2O3(s) + 2Al(s) → 2Cr(s) + Al2O3(s)
The best method for extracting any metal is dictated by economic considerations. Matter
such as the cost of raw materials, relative cost of various fuels and electricity, saleability
of the by-products, cost of transport, etc. have to be considered. Therefore, what looks
the best from a study of chemical behavior may not prove to be the best economically.
5.2 PRODUCTION OF SOAP AND DETERGENTS

Soaps and detergents form an important group of chemicals that are used in our
households. Liquid and solid synthetic detergents or the so-called „soapless soaps‟ are
manufactured from petrochemicals. Synthetic detergents have an advantage over soaps
in that they lather even with hard water.
Generally speaking,
Soap in solution has an anionic carboxylate group attached to a hydrocarbon chain R
(the alkyl group):
O O
R C R C
O- ONa
Sodium soap e.g. sodium stearate, where R = C17H35
One type of soapless detergent has a long chain hydrocarbon, e.g. a detergent molecule
CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2 O S O-Na +
135
5.2.1 SOAP
The salts of long chain fatty acids are soap. Soap is produced by a method called
saponification. Saponification involves reaction of fat or oil with sodium hydroxide.
Fats and oils are familiar parts of daily life. Common fats include butter, lard, and the
fatty portions of meat. The main source of oil is plant e.g. olive, corn, peanut, soya bean,
cottonseed, mustard, etc. Although fats are solids and oils are liquids, they have the
same basic organic structure. Soap making is a very common and easy process, which
can now be made in our homes and villages.
Saponification, we could say, is reverse of esterification.
Recall: Esterification is the process of formation of esters when a carboxylic acid

reacts with alcohol.
Carboxylic acid + Alcohol → Ester + Water
The ester so formed can be hydrolyzed to give back carboxylic acid and alcohol.
Ester + Water → Carboxylic acid + Alcohol
Fats and oils are triesters of glycerol and are called triglycerides.
O
CH2 O C R
O
CH O C R'
O
CH2 O C R"
a triglyceride (fat or oil)
When a fat or oil is heated with alkali, the ester is converted to glycerol and salts of fatty
acids. For example, a reaction between glyceryl tripalmitate (oil from palm oil) and
sodium hydroxide results in the production of sodium palmitate (soap) and glycerol.
CH2 O C (CH2)14CH3 CH2 OH

O
heat
CH O C (CH2)14CH3 + 3 Na+OH- CH OH + 3 CH3(CH2)14COO-Na +
O
CH 2 O C (CH2)14CH3 CH 2 OH
Glyceryl tripalmitate Glycerol Sodium palmitate

(from palm oil) (Soap)
136
A brief encounter in history of soap-making
The conversion of animal fats (for example, goat tallow) into soap by heating
with wood ashes (which are alkaline) is one of the oldest of chemical processes.
Soap has been produced for at least 2300 years, having been known to the ancient
Celts and Romans. Yet, as recently as the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries,
soap was still a rather rare substance, used mainly in medicine. But by the
nineteenth century, soap had come into such widespread use that German Organic
Chemist Justus von Liebig was led to remark that the quantity of soap consumed
by a nation was an accurate measure of its wealth and civilization. At present,
annual world production of ordinary soaps (not including synthetic detergents) is
well over 6 million tons.
Soaps are made by either a batch process or a continuous process. In the batch
process, the fat or oil is heated with a slight excess of alkali (NaOH) in an open
kettle. When saponification is complete, salt is added to precipitate the soap as
thick curds. The water layer, which contains salt, glycerol, and excess alkali, is
drawn off, and the glycerol is recovered by distillation. The crude soap curds,
which contain some salt, alkali, and glycerol as impurities, are purified with
boiling water and reprecipitating with salt several times. Finally, the curds are
boiled with enough water to form a smooth mixture that, on standing, gives a
homogenous upper layer of soap. This soap may be sold without further
processing, as cheap industrial soap. Various fillers, such as sand or pumice, may
be added, to make scouring soaps. Other treatments transform the crude soap to
toilet soaps, powdered or flaked soaps, medicated or perfumed soaps, laundry
soaps, liquid soaps, or (by blowing air in) floating soaps.
In the continuous process, which is more common today, the fat or oil is
hydrolyzed by water at high temperatures and pressures in the presence of a
catalyst, usually zinc soap. The fat or oil and the water are introduced
continuously into opposite ends of a large reactor, and the fatty acids and glycerol
are removed as formed by distillation. The acids are then carefully neutralized
with an appropriate amount of alkali to make soap.
Adapted from „Organic Chemistry – A short course, Hart H.‟
5.2.2 DETERGENTS
Detergents are improved soaps, a better cleaning product; detergents eliminate the
problems associated with soaps. Today, the use of detergents exceeds the use of soaps
all over the world. Thus, a number of detergents are synthesized in the laboratories all
over the world with an aim to improve upon the previous one. We now have a number of
synthetic detergents available. Synthetic detergents are sometimes called syndet.
The first syndets were sodium salts of alkyl hydrogen sulfates.
Detergents are prepared by the hydrogenolysis of a fat or oil and then treating the
product so formed (a long chain alcohol) with sulfuric acid. We could consider this
process in two steps. Let us take the example of one of the most common and popular
detergent, sodium lauryl sulfate and look at its synthesis.
137
Step I: Hydrogenolysis of a fat or oil

In this step we are aiming at preparing a long chain alcohol. To synthesis sodium lauryl
sulfate, we need to prepare lauryl alcohol (IUPAC name is Dodecanol). Glyceryl
trilaurate is reduced to a mixture of dodecanol and glycerol.
CH3(CH2)10 C OCH2 CH2 OH

O
copper chromite
CH3(CH2)10 C OCH + 6 H2 CH OH + 3 CH3(CH2)10CH2OH
O
heat, pressure
CH3(CH2)10 C OCH2 CH 2 OH
Glyceryl trilaurate Glycerol Dodecanol
(Lauryl alcohol)
The two products dodecanol and glycerol can be separated on the basis of solubility.
Glycerol is soluble in water whereas dodecanol (it is a long-chain alcohol) is not soluble
in water, the two can us be separated easily.
CH3(CH2)10CH2OH + HOSO2OH CH3(CH2)10CH2OSO2OH + H2O
Lauryl alcohol Sulfuric acid Lauryl hydrogen sulfate
NaOH
O
- +
CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2 O S O Na + H2O
O
Sodium lauryl sulfate
Sodium lauryl sulfate is a salt of a strong acid, its solutions are nearly neutral and
therefore, do not affect the fabric. Its calcium and magnesium salts do not precipitate
from solution, so it is effective in hard as well as soft water. It is an excellent detergent
but due to its limited supply, attempts are constantly made to synthesize more syndets of
equal or better efficiency.
At present, the most widely used syndets are straight-chain alkylbenzenesulfonates.
Note: It is recommended that the alkyl chain in the detergents do not have branches.
The branched alkyl detergents are non-biodegradable and thus cause severe
pollution problems. In 1950s the branched alkyl products caused foaming in
sewage treatment plants, lakes and rivers. Since 1965, with the manufacture of
alkylbenzenesulfonates with unbranched side chains, this problem has been
solved. Alkybenzenesulfonates are fully biodegradable and do not accumulate in
the environment.
138
RCHCH 2R'
SO3-Na+
Sodium alkylbenzenesulfonate
More stress is now laid on the production of detergents which are biodegradable, i.e.
they can be broken down by bacteria and other organisms into simpler and harmless
chemicals. As a result of this, foam rots away. It is worthwhile realizing the harmful
side-effects of chemicals such that it can be minimized.
5.3 PRODUCTION OF PAINTS

Paints have been known throughout the ages. Paint refers to coatings which are applied
to any surface to protect it from the action of light, water and air. There are numerous
types of paint available on the market many of which incorporate special additives to
provide decoration or protection for specific applications.
The two basic paints available are either water thinned or turpentine thinned.
Water based paints are usually used on the interior walls and ceilings for following
reasons:
(i) They dry quickly.
(ii) Brushes or rollers clean up easily in water.
(iii) Paint is less smelly.
(iv) Paint doesn‟t yellow with age.
(v) Such paints are available in a range of gloss levels to suit specific
requirements.
(vi) Resistant to the alkali present in the masonry.
Turpentine thinned paints
(i) Provide a hard durable surface.

(ii) Easily cleaned.
(iii) Seal in tanning stains from timber.
(iv) Give a very high gloss which provides durability in heavy wear situations or
protection against the weather, sunlight etc.
(v) Provide moisture resistance.
The formulation of paints consists of four basic components:
1. Pigments: Pigments are naturally occurring or synthetically produced fine powders

which are dispersed or ground into a binding medium and provide color and covering
power as their major function in paints. The pigments may be organic or inorganic in
chemical structure.
139
2. Binder: As the name suggests, binder binds the other three components to form a
cohesive, continuous film and provides the adhesive power for a paint to stick to a
substrate. Binders are usually organic compounds of high molecular mass and each large
molecule can contain many repeating parts in its chemical structure.
3. Solvent: The solvent is added to thin and achieve paint of suitable handling
consistency or “viscosity” for ease of manufacture and application. Solvents may be
aliphatic or aromatic in nature.
4. Additives: The additives are the group of chemicals that are added to the paints to
perform specific functions. For instance, in Papua New Guinea, anti fungal additives
handle the mould problems on the surfaces; zinc oxide is used for this purpose while
addition of lime imparts hardness to films.
Paint manufacture (Adapted from Chemical Fact Sheet, Produced by Orica, 2006)
The key to making a good paint is adding the correct amounts of the four major
ingredients types and compounding it together to produce a permanently homogenous
mixture. Production is conducted on a discrete batch basis in volumes anywhere between
200 and 20,000 litres in a factory like Orica. Repeated batches of the one product must
therefore show excellent consistency of those important properties such as color, gloss,
viscosity, ease of application, film properties and durability. The manufacture of
pigmented paint involves the dispersion of the pigments into part of the binder and
solvent components by way of a dispenser or grinding mill. This is the key component
of the manufacturing process. Refer to „Figure 1‟ for the „process flow diagram‟ on paint
production.
A waste treatment plant is used to recover solvent from either used cleaning solvent, or
paint or resin that is not fit for use. The used cleaning solvent is distilled in the Brighton
still until the non-volatile or solid material is reduced to about 50% concentration. The
solvent that is recovered is transferred to holding tanks where it is re-used as a cleaning
solvent. Alternatively, the solvent is further treated to reduce the water content before it
is transferred to bulk tanks and sold to customers. The remaining solvent sludge (50%)
is further processes in the same way that the waste paint is treated. This treatment is
done by the “DUSOL” process.
The “DUSOL” process involves forming a relatively large particle size emulsion of the
viscous liquid paint and Brighton still residues, in water, then stripping all the residual
solvent from the dispersed paint particles. The success of the process is dependent on the
choice of surfactants and stabilizers to keep the emulsion stable; to prevent the paint
“beads” from coalescing into a single mass, especially at the final stages when the
disperse paint phase is highly viscous and tacky.
After all the solvent has been stripped, the residue consists of batch water and resin
“beads” or “crumbs”. After draining, the crumbs are dispatched to landfill sites. The
process water is stored in tanks where, after treatment and approval by the relevant water
authority, it is discharged to sewer as trade waste. Refer to „Figure 2‟ for the „waste
treatment process flow diagram‟.
140
5.4 PRODUCTION OF CEMENT AND LIME

5.4.1 CEMENT
http://www.cement.org/basics/
Figure 5.1
A brief encounter in history of cement
The cement is a mixture of various minerals which when mixed with water, hydrate
and rapidly become hard binding the sand and gravel into a solid mass. The oldest
known surviving concrete is to be found in the former Yugoslavia and was thought to
have been laid in 5,600 BC using red lime as the cement.
The first major concrete users were the Egyptians in around 2,500 BC and the
Romans from 300 BC The Romans found that by mixing a pink sand-like material
which they obtained from Pozzuoli with their normal lime-based concretes they
obtained a far stronger material. The pink sand turned out to be fine volcanic ash and
they had inadvertently produced the first 'pozzolanic' cement.
Portland Cement: Lime and Pozzolana concretes continued to be used intermittently

for nearly two millennia before the next major development occurred in 1824 when
Joseph Aspdin of Leeds took out a patent for the manufacture of Portland cement, so
named because of its close resemblance to Portland stone.
Portland cement is a complex mix of many compounds, some of which play a major
part in the hydration or chemical characteristics of the cement. It is manufactured
commercially by heating together a mixture of limestone and clay up to a temperature
of 1300 to 1500°C.
Primary author: Paul Lambert

Source: Abstracted from Corrosion Protection Association monograph 1
Adapted from: http://www.azom.com/details.asp?articleID=1317
141
Some more information about cement
Bricklayer Joseph Aspdin of Leeds, England first made portland cement early in the 19th
century by burning powdered limestone and clay in his kitchen stove. By this crude method
he laid the foundation for an industry which annually processes literally mountains of
limestone, clay, cement rock, and other materials into a powder so fine it will pass through a
sieve capable of holding water. Cement is so fine that one pound of cement contains 150
billion grains.
Portland cement, the basic ingredient of concrete, is a closely controlled chemical

combination of calcium, silicon, aluminum, iron and small amounts of other ingredients to
which gypsum is added in the final grinding process to regulate the setting time of the
concrete. Lime and silica make up about 85% of the mass. Common among the materials
used in its manufacture are limestone, shells, and chalk or marl combined with shale, clay,
slate or blast furnace slag, silica sand, and iron ore.
Each step in manufacture of portland cement is checked by frequent chemical and physical
tests in plant laboratories. The finished product is also analysed and tested to ensure that it
complies with all specifications.
Two Manufacturing Processes
Two different processes, "dry" and "wet," are used in the manufacture of portland cement.
When rock is the principal raw material, the first step after quarrying in both processes is the
primary crushing. Mountains of rock are fed through crushers capable of handling pieces as
large as an oil drum. The first crushing reduces the rock to a maximum size of about 6
inches. The rock then goes to secondary crushers or hammer mills for reduction to about 3
inches or smaller.
In the wet process, the raw materials, properly proportioned, are then ground with water,
thoroughly mixed and fed into the kiln in the form of a "slurry" (containing enough water to
make it fluid). In the dry process, raw materials are ground, mixed, and fed to the kiln in a dry
state. In other respects, the two processes are essentially alike.
The raw material is heated to about 2,700 degrees F in huge cylindrical steel rotary kilns
lined with special firebrick. Kilns are frequently as much as 12 feet in diameter large
enough to accommodate an automobile and longer in many instances than the height of a 40-
story building. Kilns are mounted with the axis inclined slightly from the horizontal. The
finely ground raw material or the slurry is fed into the higher end. At the lower end is a
roaring blast of flame, produced by precisely controlled burning of powdered coal, oil or gas
under forced draft.
As the material moves through the kiln, certain elements are driven off in the form of gases.
The remaining elements unite to form a new substance with new physical and chemical
characteristics. The new substance, called clinker, is formed in pieces about the size of
marbles.
Clinker is discharged red-hot from the lower end of the kiln and generally is brought down to
handling temperature in various types of coolers. The heated air from the coolers is returned
to the kilns, a process that saves fuel and increases burning efficiency.
Adapted from: http://www.cement.org/basics/howmade.asp
Portland cement is the next most important engineering material for building and
construction after „steel‟.
142
Cement is produced by mixing calcium carbonate, silica, alumina, iron oxide and
gypsum which is fired and ground to form cement. (Cement is mixed with aggregate and
water to produce concrete).
Cement is commonly used in the following three forms:
1. Concrete: Concrete is a mixture of cement, gravel, sand and water. It is a heavy duty
material, commonly used in the construction of roads.
2. Cement mortar: Cement mortar is a mixture cement and sand in mixed in a ratio of
1:3. It is commonly used in the construction of buildings.
3. Reinforced concrete: Reinforced concrete is a mixture of concrete with iron or steel

mixed with it. It is used in the construction giant structures such as dams, bridges, very
tall buildings (sky-scrapper) etc.
5.4.2 LIME
Lime (CaO, Calcium oxide) and limestone (CaCO3, Calcium carbonate) are the most
commercially important compounds of calcium. Limestone is the source of lime. Many
thousands of tones of lime are used annually in counteracting soil acidity and in the
production of Ca (OH)2, calcium hydroxide, the cheapest alkali. Enormous quantities of
lime are also used in the manufacture of plaster, mortar and cement.
Lime kiln
Calcium oxide is usually made by the thermal decomposition of materials, such as

limestone, that contain Calcium carbonate (CaCO3; mineral name:calcite). This is
accomplished by heating the material to above 825°C, a process called calcination or
lime-burning, so as to remove the carbon dioxide. This process is reversible, since
once the quicklime product has cooled, it immediately begins to absorb carbon
dioxide from the air, until, after enough time, it is completely converted back to
calcium carbonate. Calcination of limestone is one of the first chemical reactions
discovered by man and was known in prehistory.
A lime kiln is a kiln used to produce quicklime by the calcination of limestone

(calcium carbonate). The chemical equation for this reaction is:
CaCO3 + heat → CaO + CO2
Although lime kilns were used in the production of lime mortar in Ancient Egypt and
later by the Greeks and Babylonians, the Roman favored instead to produce their
mortars from pozzolanic ash.
Lime kilns seem to have come into regular use about the 18th century. The larger
stones were used for building but the smaller were burnt to produce lime which was a
useful commodity in various ways: it could be spread on the fields, for building
purposes or for lime-washing buildings. It was regarded as cleansing and was used not
only on farm buildings but often on factories after 1800.
The stone had varying degrees of hardness and therefore took varying times to burn;
143
chalk took about 24 hours and limestone about 60 hours, but the harder stone
produced the better product. Lime kilns used many kinds of fuel, including wood,
coal, turf or other organic products. The lime production was sometimes at an
industrial scale. One example in North Devon, near Torrington, was made up of four
kilns grouped together in a square and it was situated beside the Torrington canal to
bring in the limestone and transport away the lime in the days before properly
metalled roads existed. Many examples of smelly kilns are found at small fishing
ports, also for transportation reasons. The development of the rail network made the
local kilns unprofitable and they gradually died out through the19th century.
A 19th century lime kiln A preserved lime kiln in London

Retrieved from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limekiln
Figure 5.2
Lime is manufactured by roasting naturally occurring calcium carbonate (limestone) in a kiln

producing carbon dioxide as waste gas.
Cockburn's new lime kiln at Coogee WA

Adapted from http://www.chemlink.com.au/lime.htm;
Figure 6.3
144
5.5 ALCOHOL PRODUCTION

Alcohol production is a big business in the world these days. Alcohol can be produced
by the fermentation of fruits or grains with yeast; the alcohol produced is ethanol.
Generally, when say alcohol, we are referring to „ethanol‟ which is used as a fuel as well
as a drink.
But we must remember from our previous concepts of organic chemistry that:
Alcohol is a group of organic compounds that contain OH group which is responsible to

give alcohol its characteristic properties.”
Alcohols have the general formula CnH2n+1OH.
Industrially, alcohol is produced in several ways:

1. By fermentation using glucose produced from sugar from the hydrolysis of starch,
in the presence of yeast and temperature of less than 37ºC to produce ethanol, for
instance, the conversion of invertase to glucose and fructose or the conversion of
glucose to zymase and ethanol.
2. By direct hydration using ethene or other alkenes from cracking of fractions of
distilled crude oil. It uses a catalyst of phosphoric acid under high temperature and
pressure.
3. Methanol is produced from water gas. It is manufactured from synthesis gas,
where carbon monoxide and 2 equivalent of hydrogen gas are combined to
produce methanol using a copper, zinc oxide and aluminum oxide catalyst at
250ºC and a pressure of 50-100 atm.
5.6 FOOD PROCESSING UNIT

Food processing unit involves the processing and manufacturing of all kinds of food. It
is a diverse industry and some of the sectors are listed below:
● biscuits ● pet food
● confectionary items ● pharmaceutical manufacturing
● dairy processing ● poultry
● flour milling ● rice
● fruit and vegetable ● tea and coffee
● general foods ● wine and other alcoholic drinks
And many more……………….
Food processing is the set of methods and techniques used to transform raw ingredients
into food for consumption by humans. The food processing industry utilizes these
processes. Food processing often takes clean, harvested or slaughtered and butchered
components and uses these to produce attractive and marketable food products. Similar
processes are used to produce animal feed.
145
Some common food processing techniques
● Removal of unwanted outer layers, such as potato peeling or the skinning of

peaches, chopping or slicing, of which examples include potato chips, diced carrot, or
candied peel.
● Mincing and macerating
● Liquefaction, such as to produce fruit juice
● Emulsification
● Cooking, such as boiling, broiling, frying, steaming or grilling
● Mixing
● Addition of gas such as air entrainment for bread or gasification of soft drinks
● Proofing
● Spray drying
Extreme examples of food processing include the delicate preparation of deadly fugu
fish, preparing space food for consumption under zero gravity, winemaking, hot dogs,
and chicken nuggets.
Food processing industries and practices include the following:
 Meat packing plant
 Industrial rendering
 Slaughterhouse
 Vegetable packing plant
 Cannery
Food processing dates back to the prehistoric ages when crude processing
incorporated slaughtering, various types of cooking, such as over fires, smoking,
steaming, oven baking), fermenting, sun drying and preserving with salt. Foods
preserved this way were a common part of warriors and sailor's diets up until the
introduction of canned food. These crude processing techniques remained essentially
the same until the advent of the industrial revolution.
Modern food processing technology in the 19th and 20th century was largely
developed to serve military needs. Nicolas Appert developed a vacuum bottling
process to supply troops in the French army with food, which would eventually lead
to tinning and then canning by Peter Durand in 1810. Although initially expensive and
somewhat hazardous due to lead used in the cans, canned goods would later become a
staple around the world. Pasteurization, discovered by Louis Pasteur in 1862 was a
significant advance in ensuring micro-biological safety of food.
In the 20th century, World War II, the space race and the developing consumer
society in the developed world furthered the development of food processing with
advances such as spray drying, juice concentrates, freeze drying and the introduction
of artificial sweeteners, colorants, and preservatives such as sodium benzoate and
saccharine. In the late 20th century products such as dried instant soups, reconstituted
fruits and juices, and self cooking meals such as MRE food ration were developed.
Retrieved from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_processing
146
5.7 ANALYTICAL LABORATORIES FOR WATER, METAL OR

SOIL
http://www.dlwc.nsw.gov.au/care/soil/soil_pubs/soil_tests/soil_test_methods.html
Figure 5.4
The analysis of heavy metal in the environment, particularly in water is of great

importance. This gives us an idea of the extent of pollution in the environment and
forces us to think about what should be done to improve the situation.
National Analysis Laboratory, Unitech Lae, carries out the tests in water that helps
analyse if there are any heavy metals present. A detailed analysis of water helps analyse
constitution of water and helps us understand whether the water is fit for drinking
purposes. Or if there are any problems in the water how can we solve it?
Similarly soil analysis tells us about the fertility of the soil and whether it is free of any
risks such as heavy metal contamination etc.
5.8 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRIES

IN PAPUA NEW GUINEA
Chemical industries have used the abundant natural resource of Papua New Guinea
contributing to the level of economic development never experienced before. However
they have also played a key role in damaging the environment like the mines tailings
dumped into our river systems destroying both the flora and fauna and the rich
biodiversity of many places in the country. The cooling material in the fridge, Freon and
CFCs in the aero spray have contributed towards damaging the ozone layer and thus
caused great environmental setback. The use of plastics, soaps and detergents, as we
have discussed before has also contributed towards the pollution of our earth. The waste
from chemical industry has been a controversy in all the countries and we must not
overlook the long term effects it has over the livelihood of the populations be it human
or any other. We cannot avoid use of these chemicals that w have become so used to
now, however, we could minimize the harms by cutting down on the usage as well as
looking at the ways to produce environmentally.
147
1. What are the various ways by which ores are extracted using the reduction
process?
2. Enumerate the steps in producing paints.
3. Will continuous production of alcohol benefit the people of Papua New Guinea?
Explain your answer.
SUMMARY
With the advent of latest technologies, we have successfully produced millions of

chemicals and chemical industries have improved drastically. Some of these chemicals
have helped elevate our socio-economic status. Articles/ materials/drugs are available
easily and cheaply to many whereas earlier only riches could afford to buy such items.
Plastic articles such buckets, rain coats, tiles are now affordable by middle income and
even lower income groups. The synthetic fabric such as polyester is made easily and and
readily and cheaply available. The deposits of petroleum and its usefulness have given
countries such as Papua New Guinea, middle eastern countries like Oman, UAE, etc. an
economic boost. The chemical industries have further enhanced the usefulness of
petroleum by successfully manufacturing a huge range of petrochemicals. The soaps and
detergents have undergone a revolutionary makeover, making it accessible to poor
people which were a luxury only afforded by the rich in early days. We have more paved
roads, dams and bridges now, thanks to the cement industries! It would be not possible
to count all the benefits of various chemical industries but we could confidently say that
on the whole, chemical industries have tried to bridge the gaps between the rich and
poor and thus raise the socio-economic status of the population.
148
ASSIGNMENT UNIT 5
1. The latest mineral output of Papua New Guinea is LNG (or liquefied natural
gas). Search the internet on how LNG is discovered and produced.
2. Most of the export products of Papua New Guinea are from the extractive
industries which are non-renewable. What steps has the government initiated so
that revenues will not be diminished after all the natural resources have been
exploited?
3. What industrial processes are involved in the production of alcohol? When does
alcohol become toxic or poisonous?
149

Chemistry 2 PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Chemistry 2 PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

The Papua New Guinea University of Technology

Department of Open and Distance Learning

Department of Applied Sciences

COURSE OVERVIEW AND STUDY GUIDE

 If the course is suitable

The overview also provides guidance on:

The course is broken down into units. Each unit comprises:

 An introduction to the unit content

The course is broken down into five units.

Unit 1 Masses, Moles and Concentrations

Unit 2 Acids, Bases and Salts

Unit 4 Carbon Compounds

Unit 5 Natural Resources and Chemical Industries in Papua New Guinea

 What is the expected duration of this course?

Is there a course web site address?

How many assignments are there for this course?

How are assignments to be submitted?

How many assessments will there be in this course?

When will the assessments take place?

Student Learning Assessment Assignment Case study

Discussion Group activity Help Introduction

Outcomes Reading Reflection Study skills

Summary Terminology Time Tip

Course Code and Title __________________________________________

Please tick the appropriate box.

Items Excellent Very Good Good Poor Give specific

1. Logical presentation of content ____________

2. The use of language ____________

3. The style of language? ____________

4. Explanation of concepts ____________

5. Use of tables ____________

6. Use of graphs ____________

7. Use of diagrams/illustrations ____________

8. How are the student activities? ____________

9. How is feedback to questions? ____________

10. Do the units cover the course

11. If not, which of the topics are not covered?

UNIT 1 MASSES, MOLES AND CONCENTRATIONS

1.1 RELATIVE ATOMIC MASS

UNIT 2 ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

3.1 OXIDATION-REDUCTION REACTION

UNIT 4 CARBON COMPOUNDS

4.1 CARBON CYCLE

UNIT 5 NATURAL RESOURCES AND CHEMICAL INDUTRIES

5.1 BASIC CHEMICAL PROCESSES INVOLVED IN CHEMICAL

MASSES, MOLES AND CONCENTRATIONS

1. Recall the Law of Conservation of Mass

Upon completion of this Unit, you can:

1.1 RELATIVE ATOMIC MASS

We can see that:

2. The RAM can be a whole number or fractions.

1.2 FORMULA MASS

1.2.1 EXAMPLES FOR CALCULATIONS OF RFM/ RMM

Example 2: Methane, CH4

Example 3: Barium carbonate, BaCO3

2. The RAM of O is 16.00, C is 12.01 and Ba is 137.34 (refer to the 12.2.1 in

Example 4: Ammonium sulfate, (NH4)2SO4

Example 5: Copper (II) sulfate pentahydrate, CuSO4.5H2O

1.2.2 PERCENTAGE OF AN ELEMENT IN A COMPOUND

1.2.3 EXAMPLES FOR CALCULATION OF % OF AN ELEMENT IN A

Example 1: % of C in Methane, CH4

2. The mass contributed by total number of atoms of carbon is calculated next.

Example 2: % of O in Copper (II) sulfate pentahydrate, CuSO4.5H2O