Surveying I Notes

Chapter Three
Levelling (Measuring vertical distance)
Leveling is the operation in surveying which is made to determine and establish elevations of
points, to determine differences in elevation between points and to control grades in construction
surveys. This elevation of a point is the vertical distance of that point below or above a given
reference level surface called datum. The most commonly used datum is mean sea level (MSL).
The determination of the elevation of points has a great importance on control grades for road,
railway, drainage, and canal construction works. Leveling is used to determine the quantity of
earthwork in construction works. It is also used to calculate the quantity of water stored in a
reservoir or dam etc.
Principles of ordinary leveling
The process of leveling may be direct or indirect
a) Direct leveling is the method of taking a direct measurement, up or down, from one point to
another. It is the method by which differences of height are measured, vertically, from a truly
horizontal line of sight. The method is used by architects, engineers, surveyors, and builders for
lower-order work.
b) Indirect leveling is the method of taking an indirect measurement by observing the angle of
elevation or depression from one point to another. The tangent of this angle when multiplied by
the horizontal distance apart of the points gives their difference in height (after corrections). This
method is used in advanced leveling and higher-order work and is termed trigonometrically
leveling.
c) Barometric leveling is a third method of finding the difference in height between two points, by
means of simultaneous readings of barometric pressure at the two points.

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Terms used in direct leveling

1. A vertical line: - is a line parallel to the direction of gravity. It is best represented by a

plump bob, which is suspended freely at a point.
2. A Level line: -is a curved line in a level surface where all points in a line have equal
elevation. Every element of a line is perpendicular to gravity.
3. Horizontal line: - a straight-line tangent to a level line at a given point.
4. Level surface: - is a surface of constant elevation that is per perpendicular to a plumb
line at every point. It is best represented by the shape that a large body of still water
would take if it were unaffected by tides.
5. Horizontal surface (plane): - is a plane tangent to a level plane or it is a plane
perpendicular to the direction of gravity.
6. Difference in elevation: -is the vertical distance between level surfaces passing through
a point.
7. Reduced level (RL): - It is a level of a point from a reference datum.
8. Bench mark (BM): - is a permanent or semi permanent point of known elevation that
provides beginning point for determining the elevation of other points.
9. Back sight (BS) is the first sight taken after the setting up of the instrument. Initially it is
usually made to some form of benchmark.
10. Fore sight (FS) is the last sight taken before moving the instrument.
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11. Intermediate sight (IS): It is the reading taken on a staff held at point whose elevations
is required, but which is not a turning point or the last point.
12. Height of the instrument (H.I): It is the elevation of the line of sight with respect to the
datum. It should be noted that the height of instrument is not the height of the line of
sight above the ground where the levelling instrument is set up.
13. Station: The station is the point where staff is held for taking reading (observation) from
a levelling instrument.
14. Turning point (TP): For levelling over a long distance, the instrument has to be set up a
number of times. A turning point is the point selected on the route before shifting the
instrument. The turning point should he selected on a firm ground or rock.
15. Balancing of sight: To reduce the effect of instrumental and other errors, the distance of
the point where a back sight is taken and the distance of the point where a fore sight is
taken, as measured from the instrument station, should be approximately equal. This is
known as balancing of sights.

How to operate levelling instruments

Leveling instruments
1. Levels
Levels are categorized in to three groups:
1) Dumpy levels
2) Tilting levels
3) Automatic levels

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a. Dumpy levels: The dumpy level was commonly used in surveying work until the last few
decades. It consists of a telescope rigidly fixed to its support. A long bubble tube is attached to
the telescope.
Originally, the dumpy level had an inverting eyepiece and as a result was shorter (thus the name
“dumpy”) than its predecessors with the same magnification power. A typical dumpy level with
its various parts is shown in figure below. Its major components are its telescope, level tube, and
leveling head. These and other parts are indicated in the figure.

FIGURE: Dumpy level (an old instrument). (Courtesy of Berger Instruments

b. Tilting levels: It has the telescope that can be tilted about a horizontal axis. This design
enables the operator to quickly and accurately center the bubble and brings the line of sight in to
a horizontal plane.
In tilting levels the line of sight should be parallel to the axis of the telescope. It is only
horizontal when the bubble of the sprit level is central.

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Figure: Tilt level

c. Automatic level: One of the most significant improvements in levelling, instrumentation has
been automatic level or self-levelling levels. It has an internal compensatory that automatically
makes horizontal the line of sight and maintains the position through the application of the force
of gravity. As soon as the instrument is leveled by a means of a circular bubble, the movable
component of the compensatory swings free to a position that makes the line of sight horizontal.
The compensatory can operate within the range of 10 minutes of arc from the horizontal.

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Figure: Automatic level

2. Tripods
A tripod is a three legged stand used to support a level or other surveying instrument during field
measurements. There are two models tripods: the extension leg tripod and the fixed leg tripod

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3 Level rods (Levelling staff)

They are used to measure the vertical distance between a line of sight and a survey point and a
height different between two points. There are different types of staves. Some of them are
illustrated in the figure below.

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Preparing levels for work

1. Set up the tripod at a convenient height and press the tripod feet firmly into the ground. The
tripod head should be approximately horizontal. Fix the instrument on it.
2. Levelling up: Level the instrument, with the foot screws until the circular bubble is in the
center.
Fig. 1 shows the procedure how to level an automatic level:

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The movement of the circular bubble can be divided into two directions. One direction is parallel
to line joining any two of the foot screws. The second direction is then parallel to a perpendicular
line from the third foot screw to the line joining the two other foot screws.
Turn the instrument until the telescope axis is parallel to any two foot screws.
The screws are held with thumb and forefinger of each hand and turned equally and
simultaneously in the opposite directions until the bubble has moved to the line AB (fig 1a). Line
AB is perpendicular to the line through the two foot screws.
By using the third screw the bubble is moved towards the centre of the circle (fig. lb). The
leveling procedure is completed when the bubble is in the centre of the circle (fig. 1c)
Left thumb rule: the bubble is always moving towards the direction of movement of the left
thumb!

3. Focusing: First focus the eyepiece until the cross hairs appear sharp and clear then point the
telescope towards the abject (staff) and focus until you see clearly the graduation of the staff.
NOTE
The instrument man should learn to keep both eyes open when looking through the telescope.
First, it is quite tiring to keep closing one eye all day to take readings. Second, it is convenient to
keep one eye on the cross hair and the other eye open to locate the target.
If a person wears ordinary glasses for magnification purposes with no other corrections, it will
not be necessary to wear glasses while looking through the telescope. The adjustment of the lens
will compensate for the eye trouble.

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Types of levelling
Differential levelling and its procedures
Differential leveling is required for the determination of the difference of elevation of two points
which are quite apart. A number of setting ups of the instrument are required in differential
levelling
In the Figure below BM1 represents a point of known elevation (benchmark) and BM2 represents
a benchmark to be established some distance away. It is desired to determine the elevation of
BM2, The level is placed in such a location that clear rod reading is obtainable, but no attempt is
made to keep on the direct line joining BM1 and BM2, A back sight is taken on BM1.The rod-
man chooses a turning point T1 at some convenient spot with in the range Of the telescope along
the general route BM1 to BM2. It is desirable, but not necessary, that each foresight distance as I1
—TP1 is approximately equal to its corresponding back sight distance as BM1-I1. The chief
requirement is that the turning point shall be a stable object at an elevation and in a location
favorable to a rod reading of the required precision. The rod is held on a turning point and a fore
sight is taken. The observer then set up the instrument at some favorable point as I2 and takes a
back sight to the rod held on the turning point TP1. Then the rod-man establishes the second
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turning point TP2 and the observer takes a fore sight. The process is repeated until finally a
foresight is taken on the terminal point BM2
To check weather there is an error or not the levelling work should always be started from a
known point and should be finished at a known point.
The levelling field book should be checked immediately in the field.

Note: While taking the readings the staff rod has to be held vertically!

Profile levelling and its procedures

The process of determining the elevation of points at short measured intervals along a fixed line
is called profile levelling. The need of profile levelling arises during the location and
construction of highways, railroads, canals, and sewers. The instrument is set up in some
convenient location not necessarily on the line (as at I1) and the rod is held on benchmark
(BM3). A back sight is taken and the height of instrument is obtained as in differential levelling.

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Readings are then taken with the rod held on the ground at successive stations along the line.
These rod readings, being for points of unknown elevation, are foresights regardless of whether
they are in front or ahead of the level. They are frequently designated as intermediate fore sights
to distinguish them from foresights taken on turning points or benchmarks. The intermediate
foresights subtracted from the height of the instrument give ground elevations of stations. When
the rod has been advanced to a point beyond which further readings to ground points can not be
observed, a turning point (TP1) is selected and a foresight (3.440m) is taken to establish its
elevation. The level is set up in an advanced position (12) and a back sight (2.988m) is taken on
the turning point (TP1) just established. Rod readings on ground points are then continued as
before.
Note: While taking the readings the staff rod has held vertically!
Sample Field book for profile levelling

station distance BS IS FS HI RL Remark

BM3 --- 0.556 200.681 200.125
1 10 0.559 '' 200.122
2 20 3.111 '' 197.570
3 30 3.200 '' 197.481
TP1 40 2.988 3.440 200.229 197.241
4 50 4.578 '' 195.651
5 60 1.234 '' 198.995
6 70 1.345 '' 198.884
7 80 1.344 '' 198.885

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Plotting the profile

Draw a straight line AB to represent a total horizontal distance between the end stations to a
convenient scale. The distances between the consecutive points are marked there on. Verticals
are drawn at each point to and their elevations plotted along these verticals. Each ground point is
thus plotted by a Cartesian coordinate's i.e. horizontal distance as X- ordinate and elevations as
Y- ordinates.The end points of all veticals are joined by straight lines to show the profile of the
ground. The elevations of the datum line may be assumed as the elevation of the first point. But
for easy calculation of difference between the elevation of the datum line and the elevation of
different points, it is always preferred to assume an elevation having full meters.
Generally, horizontal scale is adopted as 1cm=10m and the vertical scale is kept 10 times the
horizontal scale i.e. 1cm=1m so that the inequalities of the ground may be shown clearly.
Cross sectional levelling
Cross sections at right angles to the center line are run on either side for the purpose of
determining the lateral lay out line of the ground surface. The cross sections are taken at every
20m or 30m stations depending up on the nature of the ground. They are numbered consecutively
from the point of commencement of the longitudinal profile and are set out at right angles to it
with a chain, a tape and an optical square. The distances are measured right or left from the
center line peg. The lengths the cross section also depends upon the topography of the ground
and the type of the project.

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Sample of cross sectional field book

station distances B.S I.S F.S H.I R.L remark
No L C R
BM1 1.500 201.625 200.125
0 0 1.700 '' 199.925
L1 5 1.750 '' 199.875
L2 10 1.900 '' 199.725 cross
L3 15 1.856 '' 199.769
section
R1 5 1.755 '' 199.870
R2 10 1.645 '' 199.980 at 0m
chainage
R3 15 1.600 '' 200.025
1 20 1.966 '' 199.659
L1 1.899 '' 199.726
L2 1.798 '' 199.827
L3 1.879 '' 199.746
R1 1.865 '' 199.760 cross
R2 1.753 '' 199.872 section
R3 1.564 '' 200.061
at 20m
BM2 1.456 '' 200.169
chainage

total 1.500 1.456

The recordings of the readings of a longitudinal sections and cross sections with its number may
be entered separately. The full descriptions of each cross section whether it is on the left or on
the right of the center line must be written in the field book. Some times surveyors prefer to enter

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the readings of both the longitudinal and cross sectional sections simultaneously as shown in the
table above.
Plotting of cross sections
A horizontal line is drawn and different points of cross section are plotted on convenient scale,
keeping the central peg of the profile in the center. Perpendiculars are drawn at each point. A
convenient datum level is assumed and difference of elevation of each point and the datum are
plotted along the perpendiculars. The points so obtained are joined by straight lines to get the
desired sectional elevation. In a cross sectioning levelling the horizontal and vertical scales is
generally kept the same i.e. 1cm=1m.
It may be noted that the elevations of cross datum lines for different sections may be kept
different to have the ordinates fairly short.

Reciprocal leveling
When a line of levels crosses a broad body of water it is impossible to balance the back sight and
foresight distances, it is necessary to take sights much longer than permissible. Under such a
measurement errors due to curvature and refraction become significant. To obtain the best results
we should have to use the procedure termed as reciprocal levelling.

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The elevation of survey point A is to be determined by leveling from BM1. At a set up near BMl,
a back sight is taken on BM1 and fore sight on A. The difference in elevation is computed as (BS
-FS). Next the level is set up near point A. Assuming that atmospheric refraction remains
constant during the time between the two set ups, the correct differences in elevation is computed
as the mean of the two measured differences.

Level field books and arithmetic check

A level field book or a level book is used for booking and reducing the levels of various points
on the surface of the earth. Booking and reduction of the levels may be done by following two
methods.
1. Rise and fall method.
2. Height of collimation method.
1. Rise and Fall Method. In this method, the difference of level between two consecutive points
for each setting of the instrument is obtained by comparing their staff readings. The difference
between their staff readings indicates a rise if the back staff reading is more than the fore sight
and a fall if it is less than the fore sight. The rise and fall worked out for all the points give the
vertical distance of each point relative to the preceding one. If the R.L of the back staff point is
known, then RL, of the following point may be obtained by adding its rise or subtracting its fall
from the RL of proceeding as the case may be. The specimen page of a level book illustrating the
method of booking staff readings and calculating R.Ls. of stations by the rise and fall method is
shown under.

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Rise and fall method of reduction of levels

Station. BS IS FS RISE FALL RL Remark
1 0.585 100.000 BM
2 1.855 2.955 2.370 97.630 CP
3 1.265 0.590 98.220
4 2.925 1.660 96.560
5 2.350 0.350 2.575 99.135 CH
6 2.855 0.505 98.630
7 2.685 1.655 1.200 99.830 CP
8 2.435 0.250 100.080 BM
Totals 7.475 7.395 4.615 4.535

Arithmetic checks. The difference between the sum of the back sights and sum of the fore sights
should be equal to the difference of the sum of raises and the sum of falls and should also be
equal to the difference between the reduced levels of the last point and that of the first point i.e.
∑BF–∑F.S. = ∑Rise–∑Fall =Last R.L. –First R.L
7.475–7.395 = 4.6 15– 4.535 = 100.080— 100.000 = 0.080
In this method of reduction a complete check on intermediate sights is provided because these
are included for calculating the rises and falls.
The 'raise' and 'fall' may be place in one column so that named 'elevation difference' (∆h). The
sign for raise will be positive and for fall it will be negative.
The following table shows a portion of the level book in which the raise and fall are replaced by
∆h:

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After the levelling, the field book has to be checked and the error of closure has to be distributed.
The procedure is as follows:
1. Sum up all back sight and the fore sight readings ∑B.S and ∑F.S
2. Calculate the height difference between the end point and the starting point
Nominal ∆h =end point – starting point
3. Calculate the difference between ∑B.S and ∑F.S:
Actual ∆h = ∑B.S –∑F.S
4. Calculate the error of closure:
Error of closure = Nominal Dh – actual Dh
5. Calculate the allowable eall. The allowable error depends upon the accuracy you want to
achieve:

Intermediate accuracy eall=10mm* where L is the leveled distance in km.

Higher accuracy eall=1mm* where L is the leveled distance in km

6. Check whether the closure error is less than the allowable. If the error is bigger you have to re-
measure. If not; you have to distribute the error of closure.
7. Distribute the closure error to the biggest B.S readings

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8. Calculate all ∆h following the way of subtraction

9. Sum up all ∆h. You get SDh.
10. Check whether SDh is equal to nominal ∆h. This is the 1st check.
11. Calculate the elevations of the new points by adding each ∆h to the previous elevation.
12. Cheek whether you get the elevation of the end point. This is the 2nd check.
2. Height of Collimation Method. In this method, height of the instrument (HI) is calculated for
each setting of the instrument by adding back sight (BS.) to the elevation of the B.M. The
reduced level of the first station is obtained by subtracting its fore sight from the instrument
height (HI.). For the second setting of the instrument, the height of the instrument is calculated
by adding the back sight taken on the first station to its reduced level. The reduced level of the
last point is obtained by subtracting the fore sight of the last point from the height of instrument
at the last setting.
If an intermediate sight is observed to an intermediate station, its reduced level is obtained by
subtracting its foresight from the height the instrument for its setting.
The specimen page of a level field book illustrating the method of booking the staff readings and
calculating R.Ls. of the stations by the height of collimation method is shown under.
Height of instrument method of reduction of levels
Station BS IS FS HI RL Remarks
1 0.585 100.585 100.000 BM
2 1.855 2.955 99.485 97.630 CP
3 1.265 '' 98.220
4 2.925 '' 96.560
5 2.350 0.350 101.485 99.135 CP
6 2.855 '' 98.630
7 2.685 1.655 102.515 99.830 CP
8 2.435 100.080 BM
Totals 7.475 7.395

Arithmetic checks. The difference between the sum of the back sights and the sum of the fore
sights should equate to the difference between the R.L of last station and the R.L. of the first
station i.e.
SB.S–SFS=Last R.L– First R.L
7.475–7.395= 100.080–100.000=0.080.
In this method there is no check on intermediate sights.
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Comparison of line of collimation Method with Rise and Fall Method

Height of Collimation
Method
1 It is more rapid and saves
considerable time and labour.
2 It is well adopted for
reduction of levels for
construction work such as
longitudinal or cross
sectioning leveling operation
3 There is no check on
reduction of R.Ls. of
intermediate stations.
4 There are only two
arithmetical checks i.e. the
difference between the sum
of the back sight and fore
sights must be equal to be the
difference in RL. of the last
station and first station
Rise and fall method
It is laborious as the staff reading of each station is
compared to get a rise or fall.
It is well adopted for determining the difference in
levels of two points where precision is required.
There is a complete check on the reduction of R.Ls of
intermediate stations.
There are three arithmetical checks i.e. the difference
between the sum of the back sights and the sum of fore
sights must be equal to the difference between the sum
of the rises and the sum of falls as well as it must also
be equal to the difference in R.Ls of the last station and
first station.

Curvature and Refraction

The nature of the earth's curvature and atmospheric refraction affect levelling operations. The
magnitude of the curvature C in relation to the radius R of the earth and the tangent distance d
can be derived as follows:

a) Curvature

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(R+C) 2 =R2+d2  R2+2RC+C2 = R2+d2  C (2R+C) =d2

C is very small when compared with Radius so that negligible

Where R=6370km

b) Refraction
Retraction will cause the line of sight deflected downward by a small angle θ. Pressure,
temperature, latitude, humidity affect refraction and its value is not constant. Its value is taken as
1/7 of curvature or I 4% of the curvature of the earth, and is opposite in effect to that of
curvature.
C) Combined correction

C and R corrections= 0.0673*d2 meters

d is distance in km, and the result must be in m.

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If the distance d is smaller than 120m curvature and refraction errors are negligible. The error
introduced by this source can he completely eliminated by balancing the back sight (BS) and fore
sight (FS) distances.
Difficulties in leveling
The following are some of the common difficulties faced in levelling:
1. Levelling in undulating terrain. While carrying out levelling in undulating terrain, the level
should never be set up on the top of the summits or bottoms so shallows. If the level is setup on
the summits a large number of stations will be required as illustrated in Fig. below and the
progress of the work will be considerably slow.

Figure. Incorrect positioning of the instrument stations

In order to avoid short sights and to equalize fore and back sight readings, the instrument may
first be set up on the slope as illustrated in Figure below. In the first case the numbers of stations
are 5 whereas in the second case the number of stations has been reduced to 3, for the same
length.

Figure. Correct positioning of the instrument.

2. Levelling across a lake. When a staff cannot be read clearly due to great distance, the
difficulty may be overcome as explained under:

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Procedure: Proceed as under.

Drive in two pegs A and B flushed with the water surface on the opposite banks of the lake as
shown in Fig. above.
As per definition of level surface, the surface of water of a still lake or a pond represents a level
surface. Hence, the level of the tops of pegs A and B is the same. Reduced level of the top of peg
A is determined by taking a foresight from the instrument station X. The level is then shifted to
the other bank and back sight is taken on the top of peg B. In this case the two pegs A and B
together have been considered as a single change point for the purpose of running down the
levels.
3. Staff to near the instrument
If the staff is too near to the instrument the graduations are not visible. If not visible, move a
sheet of whitepaper up or down on the staff until its one edge is bisected by the line of sight.
Read the staff corresponding to the edge of paper with naked eyes and note (record) the staff
reading.
1. Levelling across an intervening high wall, (Fig. below)
When a high wall is intervened, levelling may be carried out as explained under.
Mark a point C on the wall in the line of sight. Measure the distance of E vertically above the
point C. Let it be x. Establish another point F on the other face of the wall such that EF is
perpendicular to the first face containing the point E. Suspend a plumb bob from F.

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Fig. Levelling across a wall

Transfer the level on the other side of the wall and adjust its height conveniently and make
observation. When the line of sight intersects the suspended chord, mark a point D. Measure the
distance FD accurately. Let it y. The reduced level of D may be calculated as under
R.L. of D=R.L. of C+C+E–FD
=Ht of collimation at A + x–y
Therefore The height of collimation at B= Ht of collimation at A + x –y
Suggestion on Leveling
When leveling, the following practice should be adhered to if many of the sources of error are to
be avoided.
1) Leveling should always start and finish at points of known reduced level so that
misclosure can be detected. When only one bench mark is available, leveling lines must
be run in loops starting and finishing at the bench mark.
2) Where possible, all sights lengths should be below 50 m.
3) The staff must be held vertically by suitable use of a circular bubble
4) BS and FS lengths should be kept equal for each instrument position. For engineering
applications, many IS readings may be taken from each set-up. Under these
circumstances it is important that the level has no more than a small collimation error.
5) Readings should be booked immediately after they are observed and important readings,
particularly at change points should be checked.

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