RT PDF

CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION
2. PHYSICS OF RADIATION
3. BASICS PRINCIPLES
4. SOURCES
5. NUCLEAR PHYSICS
6. INTERACTION OF X-RAYS AND GAMMA RAYS WITH MATTER
7. RADIOACTIVITY
8. X-RAY EQUIPMENT
9. GAMMA CAMERAS
10. TERMINOLOGY
11. INVERSE SQUARE LAW
12. FILM FACTOR AND FILM DENSITY
13. HALF LIFE
14. SHIELDING
15. IMAGE QUALITY INDICATORS
16. EXPOSURE TIME
17. TECHNIQUES IN RT
18. FILM PROCESSING
19. FILM INTERPRETATION AND REFERENCE RADIOGRAPHS
20. FILM EXPOSURE AND HANDLING ERRORS
21. SAFETY AND HEALTH
22. RADIATION DETECTORS
23. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
24. ACCEPTANCE STANDARD
RADIOGRAPHIC TESTING
INTRODUCTION
Radiography is used in a very wide range of aplications including medicine,

engineering, forensics, security, etc. In NDT, radiography is one of the most
important and widely used methods. Radiographic testing (RT) offers a number of
advantages over other NDT methods, however, one of its major disadvantages is the
health risk associated with the radiation.
In general, RT is method of inspecting materials for hidden flaws by using the
ability of short wavelength electromagnetic radiation (high energy photons) to
penetrate various materials. The intensity of the radiation that penetrates and passes
through the material is either captured by a radiation sensitive film (Film
Radiography) or by a planer array of radiation sensitive sensors (Real-time
Radiography). Film radiography is the oldest approach, yet it is still the most
widely used in NDT
PHYSICS OF RADIATION
Nature of Penetrating Radiation
Both X-rays and gamma rays are electromagnetic waves and on the electromagnetic
spectrum they ocupy frequency ranges that are higher than ultraviolate radiation. In
terms of frequency, gamma rays generaly have higher frequencies than X-rays as seen
in the figure . The major distenction between X-rays and gamma rays is the origion
where X-rays are usually artificially produced using an X-ray generator and gamma
radiation is the product of radioactive materials. Both X-rays and gamma rays are
waveforms, as are light rays, microwaves, and radio waves. X-rays and gamma rays
cannot been seen, felt, or heard. They possess no charge and no mass and, therefore are
not influenced by electrical and magnetic fields and will generally travel in straight
lines. However, they can be diffracted (bent) in a manner similar to light.
Electromagnetic radiation act somewhat like a particle at times in that they occur as
small “packets” of energy and are referred to as “photons”. Each photon contains a
certain amount (or bundle) of energy, and all electromagnetic radiation consists of
these photons. The only difference between the various types of electromagnetic
radiation is the amount of energy found in the photons. Due to the short wavelength of
X-rays and gamma rays, they have more energy to pass through matter than do the
other forms of energy in the electromagnetic spectrum. As they pass through matter,
they are scattered and absorbed and the degree of penetration depends on the kind of
matter and the energy of the rays.
Properties of X-Rays and Gamma Rays
 They are not detected by human senses (cannot be seen, heard, felt, etc.).
 They travel in straight lines at the speed of light.
 Their paths cannot be changed by electrical or magnetic fields.
 They can be diffracted, refracted to a small degree at interfaces between two
different materials, and in some cases be reflected.
 They pass through matter until they have a chance to encounter with an atomic
particle.
 Their degree of penetration depends on their energy and the matter they are traveling
through.
 They have enough energy to ionize matter and can damage or destroy living cells.
X-Radiation
X-rays are just like any other kind of electromagnetic radiation. They can be produced
in packets of energy called photons, just like light. There are two different atomic
processes that can produce X-ray photons. One is called Bremsstrahlung (a German
term meaning “braking radiation”) and the other is called K-shell emission. They can
both occur in the heavy atoms of tungsten which is often the material chosen for the
target or anode of the X-ray tube.
Both ways of making X-rays involve a change in the state of electrons. However,
Bremsstrahlung is easier to understand using the classical idea that radiation is emitted
when the velocity of the electron shot at the tungsten target changes. The negatively
charged electron slows down after swinging around the nucleus of a positively charged
tungsten atom and this energy loss produces X-radiation. Electrons are scattered
elastically or in elastically by the positively charged nucleus. The in elastically
scattered electron loses energy, and thus produces X-ray photon, while the elastically
scattered electrons generally change their direction significantly but without loosing
much of their energy.
Bremsstrahlung Radiation
X-ray tubes produce X-ray photons by accelerating a stream of electrons to energies of

several hundred kilo electron volts with velocities of several hundred kilometers per
hour and colliding them into a heavy target material. The abrupt acceleration of the
charged particles (electrons) produces Bremsstrahlung photons. X-ray radiation with a
continuous spectrum of energies is produced with a range from a few keVto a
maximum of the energy of the electron beam.
The Bremsstrahlung photons generated within the target material are attenuated as they
pass through, typically, 50 microns of target material. The beam is further attenuated
by the aluminum or beryllium vacuum window. The results are the elimination of the
low energy photons, 1 keVthrough15 keV, and a significant reduction in the portion of
the spectrum from 15 keVthrough50 keV. The spectrum from an X-ray tube is further
modified by the filtration caused by the selection of filters used in the setup
LIMITATION
 We cannot use this technique for complex technique
 Two side access is required
 Laminar defects can’t be found
 Safety considerations are important
 The method is very expensive
WHAT DO WE DO HERE?
We have something called a source by which we pass a radiation through the test
material and we get the result in a film placed beneath the test material.
PRINCIPLE
The principle is the differential absorption of x-rays by different materials.
Basic Principles
In radiographic testing, the part to be inspected is placed between the radiation source
and a piece of radiation sensitive film. The radiation source can either be an X-ray
machine or a radioactive source (Ir-192, Co-60, or in rare cases Cs-137). The part will
stop some of the radiation where thicker and more dense areas will stop more of the
radiation. The radiation that passes through the part will expose the film and forms a
shadowgraph of the part. The film darkness (density) will vary with the amount of
radiation reaching the film through the test object where darker areas indicate more
exposure (higher radiation intensity) and liter are as indicate less exposure
(higher radiation intensity).
This variation in the image darkness can be used to determine thickness or composition
of material and would also reveal the presence of any flaws or discontinuities inside
the material.
SOURCES
A source is an instrument that emits radiation. We have sources for X-ray and Gamma
rays.
x-rays: The source for x-rays is a Vacuum-Tube.
Gamma rays: The source for Gamma rays is a Gamma Camera.
NUCLEAR PHYSICS
We need to know some basics about what an atom is and its constituents and also some
basic terms associated with it.
ATOM – Atom is the smallest unit than an element, can be divided into, and still
remaining identifiable, as that element is called atom. An atom has a nucleus
containing protons and neutrons and electrons revolving around it.
PROTON – Proton is a constituent of an atom having positive charge situated inside
the nucleus of an atom.
NEUTRON-Neutron is a constituent of an atom having only mass and no charge.
ELECTRON- Electron is a constituent of an atom revolving around the nucleus of an
atom.
ATOMIC NUMBER(Z)- Atomic number is the number of protons in an atom.
MASS NUMBER(A)- Mass number is the sum of Atomic number and number of
neutrons.
ISOTOPES- These are atoms having same Atomic number but different Mass
number.
INTERACTION OF X-RAYS AND GAMMA RAYS WITH MATTER
The attenuation that results due to the interaction between penetrating radiation and
matter is not a simple process. A single interaction event between a primary x-ray
photon and a particle of matter does not usually result in the photon changing to some
other form of energy and effectively disappearing. Several interaction events are
usually involved and the total attenuation is the sum of the attenuation due to different
types of interactions. These interactions include the photoelectric effect, scattering, and
pair production. The figure below shows an approximation of the total absorption
coefficient, (µ), in red, for iron plotted as a function of radiation energy. The four
radiation-matter interactions that contribute to the total absorption are shown in black.
The four types of interactions are: photoelectric (PE), Compton scattering (C), pair
production (PP), andThomson or Rayleigh scattering (R). Since most industrial
radiography is done in the 0.1 to 1.5 MeV range, it can be seen from the plot that
photoelectric and Compton scattering account for the majority of attenuation
encountered.
Summary of different mechanisms that cause attenuation of an incident x-ray
beam
Photoelectric (PE) absorption of x-rays occurs when

the x-ray photon is absorbed, resulting in the ejection of
electrons from the outer shell of the atom, and hence the
ionization of the atom. Subsequently, the ionized atom
returns to the neutral state with the emission of an x-ray
characteristic of the atom. This subsequent emission of
lower energy photons is generally absorbed and does not contribute to (or hinder) the
image making process. Photoelectron absorption is the dominant process for x-ray
absorption up to energies of about 500 KeV. Photoelectron absorption is also dominant
for atoms of high atomic numbers.
Compton scattering (C) occurs when the incident x-

ray photon is deflected from its original path by an
interaction with an electron. The electron gains energy
and is ejected from its orbital position. The x-ray
photon loses energy due to the interaction but continues
to travel through the material along an altered path.
Since the scattered x-ray photon has less energy, it,
therefore, has a longer wavelength than the incident photon. The event is also known
as incoherent scattering because the photon energy change resulting from an
interaction is not always orderly and consistent. The energy shift depends on the angle
of scattering and not on the nature of the scattering medium.
Pair production (PP) can occur when the x-ray
photon energy is greater than 1.02 MeV, but
really only becomes significant at energies around
10 MeV. Pair production occurs when an electron
and positron are created with the annihilation of
the x-ray photon. Positrons are very short lived
and disappear (positron annihilation) with the formation of two photons of 0.51 MeV
energy. Pair production is of particular importance when high-energy photons pass
through materials of a high atomic number.
Below are other interaction phenomenon that can occur. Under special circumstances
these may need to be considered, but are generally negligible.
Thomson scattering (R), also known as

Rayleigh, coherent, or classical scattering, occurs
when the x-ray photon interacts with the whole
atom so that the photon is scattered with no
change in internal energy to the scattering atom,
nor to the x-ray photon. Thomson scattering is
never more than a minor contributor to the absorption coefficient. The scattering
occurs without the loss of energy. Scattering
is mainly in the forward direction.
Photo disintegration (PD) is the process by

which the x-ray photon is captured by the
nucleus of the atom with the ejection of a
particle from the nucleus when all the energy
of the x-ray is given to the nucleus. Because
of the enormously high energies involved, this process may be neglected for the
energies of x-rays used in radiography.
RADIOACTIVITY
Isotopes introduce difference in Mass number and this is called Mass defect. The
energy equivalent of this mass difference is responsible for keeping the Protons and
Neutrons of the nucleus bound together. This nucleus binding force for a stable
nucleus overcomes repellent Coulombicforce acting within. When the repellant force
is high or elements of Atomic number greater than 82, They don’t remain stable and
start to form stable element. This disintegration of high atomic nuclei due to
repellant coulombic force is called Radioactivity, during disintegration Alpha 𝛼 ,
Beta 𝛽 and Gamma 𝛾 rays are emitted.During the radioactive decay process, a
particle and/or a photon are emitted from the parent atom. The particles emitted carry
energy proportional with their mass and speed. The photons carry energy
proportional to their frequency. The photons and the particles interact with the
surrounding matter. This interaction depends on their type (alpha, beta, gamma,
neutrons, etc.), mass, electrical charge, energy, and on the composition of the
surrounding materials
3.1 Alpha Radiation
Since the alpha particle is basically a He nucleus (2 protons & 2 neutrons), it is the
largest and most massive type of radiation (except for fission fragments). Additionally,
the interaction of alpha particles with matter is very strong due to the alpha particle's
electrical charge of 2 units. Alpha trajectories can be deviated by both electric and
magnetic fields. The major energy loss mechanism for alpha particles is electronic
excitation and ionization. The specific ionization of an alpha particle is very high, in
the order of thousands of ion pairs per centimetre of air.
Because of the strong interaction of alpha particles with matter, they have a short
range; a sheet of paper, the surface layer of dead skin (epidermis), or a few centimetres
of air can easily stop them. Consequently, there is no concern for external irradiation of
people. However, when gamma radiation is emitted together with alpha particles,
precautions against external irradiation caused by gamma rays should be taken into
account.
When inhalation or ingestion of an alpha emitting radioactive material occurs, internal

irradiation becomes a major concern. The alpha particles interact strongly with the
surrounding internal tissues (live tissue). All of their energy is absorbed inside the
body, potentially causing damage to the cells. Therefore, special precautions are taken
when handling open, volatile sources of alpha emitting radionuclides.
3.2 Beta Radiation

Positrons, positively charge beta particles, interact with electrons from surrounding
matter through the process called annihilation of radiation, producing 2 gamma rays
(see chapter 2.5).
Electrons are negative beta particles with relatively light mass. Their interaction with
matter can be characterized as average. There are 2 main mechanisms of interaction
that are important from the point of view of radiation protection.
3.2.1 Excitation and Ionization
The interaction between the electric field of a beta particle and the orbital electrons of
the absorbing medium leads to inelastic collisions that generate electronic excitation
and ionization. Because of the continuous spectrum of beta particles, the specific
ionization (the number of ion pairs created per cm of air) decreases from
approximately 200 ion pairs with increase of beta energy, reaching a minimum of
approximately 60 ion pairs at beta energy of 1 MeV.
3.2.2 Bremsstrahlung
The second important mechanism of reducing energy of beta particles is

"bremsstrahlung". When a high-speed charged particle passes through a medium, it
occasionally undergoes a substantial nuclear scattering, which results in the emission
of continuous electromagnetic energy called bremsstrahlung or "braking radiation".
This energy is in the range of X-rays (lower electromagnetic energy than gamma rays)
and becomes more energetic if the stopping material is made of heavy materials such
as metals of high Z. The use of light materials reduces "bremsstrahlung". This is why
light materials such as Plexiglass are used to absorb beta radiation.
When gamma emission follows beta disintegration, protection against gamma rays is
also required. In this situation, we need to stop the beta particles first with light
materials and then gamma and bremsstrahlung radiation with heavy material (lead or
other metal).
Because of the continuous energy distribution, absorption of beta particles in material

is also continuous. The range, however, has a maximum value for different materials,
and is related to the maximum energy of the beta particles. For example, tritium (H-3)
has a low maximum beta energy (0.018 MeV) and a maximum range in air of 6 mm.
On the other hand, P-32 has a higher maximum beta energy (1.71 MeV) and a
maximum range in air of 7.9 m.
3.3 Gamma Radiation

Gamma rays are photons (quanta of light) and have no electric charge and no rest
mass. Therefore, the interaction of gamma rays with matter is weak. There are 3
mechanisms that are important from the point of view of radiation protection.
3.3.1 Photoelectric Effect
An electron is emitted from an atom (ionization process) with energy equal to the
energy of the gamma ray and the gamma ray dissapears. The electron then moves
through matter and loses its energy as described for beta interactions. This is the
predominant effect at low gamma energies.
3.3.2 Compton Scattering
The gamma ray interacts with an electron, causing an increase in the electron's energy.
A new gamma ray with a smaller energy is then emitted. The electron interacts as
explained earlier. The new gamma ray can escape from the matter or can be absorbed
through the photoelectric effect. The Compton effect is the predominant effect at
intermediate gamma energies.
3.3.3 Pair Production
High-energy gamma rays are absorbed and two particles are created (an electron and a
positron) and share the energy of the gamma ray. The electron interacts with matter, as
explained above for beta interaction. The positron loses its energy through ionization
or excitation. If it is stationary, the positron interacts with an electron creating two
gamma rays with energies of 511 keV each (annihilation radiation). These two gamma
rays can escape or interact with matter through the Compton scattering or Photoelectric
effect.
The absorption of gamma rays obeys an exponential law. There is no definite range of
absorption for gamma rays in matter. Protection against gamma rays (as well as against
X-rays) is best obtained with heavy materials (lead or other metals), as well as with
large quantities of concrete or other materials. For example, the earth's atmosphere
protects us against high-energy gamma rays and other high-energy radiation coming
from outer space.
3.4 Neutrons
Neutrons, which have rest mass but are electrically neutral, undergo weak interactions
with matter. Their mechanism of interaction is through collisions. Having a mass
similar to that of the protons, their greatest interactions occur with atoms of Hydrogen
(like billiard balls colliding with each other). After a number of collisions, the neutron's
energy decreases and is finally totally absorbed. Due to the high content of water in
human tissue, neutrons are considered very hazardous. Protection against neutrons can
be obtained with materials containing H or other light nuclei (like water, wax, or
concrete).
The interaction of neutrons with boron nuclei is the main mechanism used for neutron
detection:
As a result of this nuclear reaction, alpha particles and gamma rays are emitted with
energies of 480 keV and could be detected by the instrument. Therefore, detection of
neutrons is an indirect process.
X-RAY EQUIPMENT
The major components of an X-ray generator are the tube, the high voltage generator,
the control console, and the cooling system. As discussed earlier in this material, X-
rays are generated by directing a stream of high speed electrons at a target material
such as tungsten, which has a high atomic number. When the electrons are slowed or
stoppedby the interaction with the atomic particles of the target, X-radiation is
produced. This is accomplished in an X-ray tube such as the one shown in the figure.
The tube cathode (filament) is heated with a low-voltage current of a few amps. The
filament heats up and the electrons in the wire become loosely held. A large electrical
potential is created between the cathode and the anode by the high-voltage generator.
Electrons that break free of the cathode are strongly attracted to the anode target. The
stream of electrons between the cathode and the anode is the tube current. The tube
current is measured in milliamps and is controlled by regulating the low-voltage
heating current applied to the cathode. The higher the temperature of the filament, the
larger the number of electrons that leave the cathode and travel to the anode. The
milliamp or current setting on the control console regulates the filament temperature,
which relates to the intensity of the X-ray output.
The high-voltage between the cathode and the anode affects the speed at which the
electrons travel and strike the anode. The higher the kilo-voltage, the more speed and,
therefore, energy the electrons have when they strike the anode. Electrons striking with
more energy results in X-rays with more penetrating power. The high-voltage potential
is measured in kilovolts, and this is controlled with the voltage or kilo-voltage control
on the control console. An increase in the kilo-voltage will also result in an increase in
the intensity of the radiation. The figure shows the spectrum of the radiated X-rays
associated with the voltage and current settings. The top figure shows that increasing
the kV increases both the energy of X-rays and also increases the intensity of radiation
(number of photons). Increasing the current, on the other hand, only increases the
intensity without shifting the spectrum.
A focusing cup is used to concentrate the stream of electrons to a small area of the
target called the “focal spot”. The focal spot size is an important factor in the system's
ability to produce a sharp image. Much of the energy applied to the tube is transformed
into heat at the focal spot of the anode. As mentioned above, the anode target is
commonly made from tungsten, which has a high melting point in addition to a high
atomic number. However, cooling of the anode by active or passive means is
necessary. Water or oil re-circulating systems are often used to cool tubes. Some low
power tubes are cooled simply with the use of thermally conductive materials and heat
radiating fins.
In order to prevent the cathode from burning up and to prevent arcing between the
anode and the cathode, all of the oxygen is removed from the tube by pulling a
vacuum. Some systems have external vacuum pumps to remove any oxygen that may
have leaked into the tube. However, most industrial X-ray tubes simply require a
warm-up procedure to be followed. This warm-up procedure carefully raises the tube
current and voltage to slowly burn any of the available oxygen before the tube is
operated at high power.
In addition, X-ray generators usually have a filter along the beam path (placed at or
near the x-ray port). Filters consist of a thin sheet of material (often high atomic
number materials such as lead, copper, or brass) placed in the useful beam to modify
the spatial distribution of the beam. Filtration is required to absorb the lower-energy X-
ray photons emitted by the tube before they reach the target in order to produce a
cleaner image (since lower energy X-ray photons tend to scatter more).
The other important component of an X-ray generating system is the control console.
Consoles typically have a keyed lock to prevent unauthorized use of the system. They
will have a button to start the generation of X-rays and a button to manually stop the
generation of X-rays. The three main adjustable controls regulate the tube voltage in
kilovolts, the tube amperage in milliamps, and the exposure time in minutes and
seconds. Some systems also have a switch to change the focal spot size of the tube.
GAMMA CAMERAS
Radio Isotope (Gamma-ray) Sources
Manmade radioactive sources are produced by introducing an extra neutron to atoms of

the source material. As the material gets rid of the neutron, energy is released in the
form of gamma rays. Two of the most common industrial gamma-ray sources for
industrial radiography are Iridium-192 and Cobalt-60. In comparison to an X-ray
generator, Cobalt-60 produces energies comparable to a 1.25 MV X-ray system and
Iridium-192 to a 460 kV X-ray system. These high energies make it possible to
penetrate thick materials with a relatively short exposure time. This and the fact that
sources are very portable are the main reasons that gamma sources are widely used for
field radiography. Of course, the disadvantage of a radioactive source is that it can
never be turned off and safely managing the source is a constant responsibility.
Physical size of isotope materials varies between manufacturers, but generally an
isotope material is a pellet that measures 1.5 mm x 1.5 mm. Depending on the level of
activity desired, a pellet or pellets are loaded into a stainless steel capsule and sealed
by welding. The capsule is attached to short flexible cable called a pigtail.
The source capsule and the pigtail are housed in a shielding device referred to as a
exposure device or camera. Depleted uranium is often used as a shielding material for
sources. The exposure device for Iridium-192 and Cobalt-60 sources will contain 22 kg
and 225 kg of shielding materials, respectively. Cobalt cameras are often fixed to a
trailer and transported to and from inspection sites. When the source is not being used
to make an exposure, it is locked inside the exposure device.
To make a radiographic exposure, a crank-out mechanism and a guide tube are

attached to opposite ends of the exposure device. The guide tube often has a collimator
(usually made of tungsten) at the end to shield the radiation except in the direction
necessary to make the exposure. The end of the guide tube is secured in the location
where the radiation source needs to be to produce the radiograph. The crank-out cable
is stretched as far as possible to put as much distance as possible between the exposure
device and the radiographer. To make the exposure, the radiographer quickly cranks
the source out of the exposure device and into position in the collimator at the end of
the guide tube. At the end of the exposure time, the source is cranked back into the
exposure device. There is a series of safety procedures, which include several radiation
surveys, that must be accomplished when making an exposure with a gamma source.
HALF
NATURAL ARTIFICIAL RADIATION DECAYING PRODUCTION PENETRATING
ISOTOPE LIFE
(STABLE) (UNSTABLE) OUT PUT PROPERTY PROCRS THICKNESS(STEEL)
PERIOD
74.3 NUCLEAR
IRRIDIUM Ir191&193 Ir192 0.5 RHM/Ci YES 3”
DAYS FISSION
5.36 NUTRAN
COBALT Co59 Co60 1.37RHM/Ci YES 9”
YEARS BOMBARTMENT
33.3 NUCLEAR
CESIUM Ce136 Ce137 0.37RHM/Ci YES 4”
YEARS FISSION
Terminology
Geometric un -sharpness is a term used describe the edges of the test material in the
radiographic film.
µg = (s * t ) / (sfd-t)
Where, µg- geometric unsharpness
s – Size of source
t – Thickness of the test specimen
SFD- Source to Film Distance
SFD(Source to Film Distance)is the distance to be maintained between the source
and the Film during the test.
SFD = [(s*t) / µg] + t
Where, µg- geometric unsharpness
s – Size of source
t – Thickness of the test specimen
SFD- Source to Film Distance
Or
SFD = SOD +
OFD
Where, SOD is the Source to Object Distance

OFD is the Object to Film Distance
OFD(Object to Film Distance) is the distance to be maintained between the film and
the test object during the test.
SOD(Source to Object Distance) is the distance to be maintained between the source
and the test object during the test.
SOD = (F * T) /
µg
Where, F – Focal Spot

T – Material Thickness
µg- Geometric Un-sharpness
If the value of µg is low, the edge will be clear. If the value of µg is high, the edge
will not be clear.
To have a good edge detection i.e to have an optimum µg,
 Source should be small.
 SOD is to be large.
 OFD is to be small.
 SFD should be very small.
Image gets distorted if the source and filmortest specimen and film is not parallel.
Metal Thickness µg in inches µg in mm

Below 2” 0.020” 0.5mm
2” to 3” 0.030” 0.75mm
3” to 4” 0.040” 1.0mm
>4” 0.070” 1.75mm
INVERSE SQUARE LAW
 Newton's Inverse Square Law
Any point source which spreads its influence equally in all directions without a
limit to its range will obey the inverse square law. This comes from strictly
geometrical considerations. The intensity of the influence at any given radius (r)
is the source strength divided by the area of the sphere. Being strictly geometric
in its origin, the inverse square law applies to diverse phenomena. Point sources
of gravitational force, electric field, light, sound, and radiation obey the inverse
square law.
SAFE DISTANCE:
I1D12=I2D22
Where,
I1– INTENSITY OF SOURCE
D1– 1(METER)
I2 – SAFE DISTANCE
D2- SAFE DISTANCE
As one of the fields which obey the general inverse square law, a point radiation
source can be characterized by the diagram above whether you are talking
aboutRoentgens, rads, or rems. All measures of exposure will drop off by the
inverse square law. For example, if the radiation exposure is 100 mR/hr at 1 inch
from a source, the exposure will be 0.01 mR/hr at 100 inches.
 FILM FACTOR AND FILM DENSITY
FILM FACTOR: It is the amount of radiation required to produce density i.e

Darkness in the film.
FILM DENSITY: It is the degree of darkness seen in the film . It is nothing

but the amount of blackeneing in the film.
D = log 10 (I0/It)
Where, D- film density
I0- initial intensity of incident light
It- intensity of transmitted light
FILM DENSITY MINIMUM MAXIMUM
X-RAY 1.8 4
GAMMA 2 4
HALF LIFE
Half Life Period is defined as the time taken for half of the reaction to be completed
i.e. the time in which the concentration of a reactant is reduced to half of its original
value is called Half Life Period of the reaction.
General expression for Half- life period of a reaction of nth order will be as follows:
In general, for a reaction of nth order
t1/2 α [A0] 1-n
Or
t1/2 α 1/ [A0] n- 1
FINAL SOURCE STRENGTH:
At=AO e-µ(t/t/2)
Where,At- final source strength
AO- initial source strength
µ- 0.693
t- time period
t/2 –half life period of the isotope
HVT &TVT
Final source strength = Initial source
strength/2n
SHIELDING
HVT(Half Value Thickness) – It is the thickness of a material required to reduce the
radiation to half value of radiation.
TVT(Tenth Value Thickness) – It is the thickness of a material required to reduce the
radiation to one-tenth value of radiation.
Table showing values of HVT and TVT for different materials.
CONCRETE STEEL LEAD DEPLETED

URANIUM
ISOTOPES HVT TVT HVT TVT HVT TVT HVT TVT
IR192 4.1 13.5 1.25 4.2 0.5 1.65 0.31 1
CO60 6.1 20.3 2.0 6.6 1.2 4 0.7 2.2
CE137 4.9 16.3 1.5 5.0 0.7 2.2 0.4 1.3
NOTE: ALL VALUES MENTIONED ABOVE ARE IN CENTIMETERS.
IMAGE QUALITY INDICATORS
One of the methods of controlling the quality of a radiograph is through the use of
image quality indicators (IQIs). IQIs, which are also referred to as penetrameters,
provide a means of visually informing the film interpreter of the contrast sensitivity
and definition of the radiograph. The IQI indicates that a specified amount of change in
material thickness will be detectable in the radiograph, and that the radiograph has a
certain level of definition so that the density changes are not lost due to unsharpness.
Without such a reference point, consistency and quality could not be maintained and
defects could go undetected.
Image quality indicators take many shapes and forms due to the various codes or
standards that invoke their use. In the United States, two IQI styles are prevalent: the
placard, or hole-type and the wire IQI. IQIs comes in a variety of material types so that
one with radiation absorption characteristics similar to the material being radiographed
can be used.
IQI(FOR BOTH)
IQI SELECTION=MT×2/100
%SENSITIVITY LEVEL=(Min Visible Wire Dia /MT)×100
Hole-Type IQIs
ASTM Standard E1025 gives detailed requirements for the design and material
group classification of hole-type image quality indicators. E1025 designates
eight groups of shims based on their radiation absorption characteristics. A
notching system is incorporated into the requirements, which allows the
radiographer to easily determine if the IQI is the correct material type for the
product. The notches in the IQI to the right indicate that it is made of aluminum.
The thickness in thousands of an inch is noted on each pentameter by one or
more lead number. The IQI to the right is 0.005 inch thick. IQIs may also be
manufactured to a military or other industry specification and the material type
and thickness may be indicated differently. For example, the IQI on the left in
the image above uses lead letters to indicate the material. The numbers on this
same IQI indicate the sample thickness that the IQI would typically be placed on
when attempting to achieve two percent contrast sensitivity.
Image quality levels are typically designated using a two part expression such as
2-2T. The first term refers to the IQI thickness expressed as a percentage of the
region of interest of the part being inspected. The second term in the expression
refers to the diameter of the hole that must be revealed and it is expressed as a
multiple of the IQI thickness. Therefore, a 2-2T call-out would mean that the
shim thickness should be two percent of the material thickness and that a hole
that is twice the IQI thickness must be detectable on the radiograph. This
presentation of a 2-2T IQI in the radiograph verifies that the radiographic
technique is capable of showing a material loss of 2% in the area of interest.
It should be noted that even if 2-2T sensitivity is indicated on a radiograph, a

defect of the same diameter and material loss may not be visible. The holes in
the IQI represent sharp boundaries, and a small thickness change. Discontinues
within the part may contain gradual changes and are often less visible. The IQI is
used to indicate the quality of the radiographic technique and not intended to be
used as a measure of the size of a cavity that can be located on the radiograph.
Wire IQIs
ASTM Standard E747 covers the radiographic examination of materials using wire
IQIs to control image quality. Wire IQIs consist of a set of six wires arranged in order
of increasing diameter and encapsulated between two sheets of clear plastic. E747
specifies four wire IQI sets, which control the wire diameters. The set letter (A, B, C or
D) is shown in the lower right corner of the IQI. The number in the lower left corner
indicates the material group. The same image quality levels and expressions (i.e. 2-2T)
used for hole-type IQIs are typically also used for wire IQIs. The wire sizes that
correspond to various hole-type quality levels can be found in a table in E747 or can be
calculated using the following formula.
Where:
F = 0.79 (constant form factor for wire)
d = wire diameter (mm or inch)
l = 7.6 mm or 0.3 inch (effective length of wire)
T = Hole-type IQI thickness (mm or inch)
H = Hole-type IQI hole diameter (mm or inch)
Placement of IQIs
IQIs should be placed on the source side of the part over a section with a material
thickness equivalent to the region of interest. If this is not possible, the IQI may be
placed on a block of similar material and thickness to the region of interest. When a
block is used, the IQI should be the same distance from the film as it would be if
placed directly on the part in the region of interest. The IQI should also be placed
slightly away from the edge of the part so that at least three of its edges are visible in
the radiograph.
EXPOSURE TIME
The quality of radiographs and consequently the detection of flaws in materials
depends to aconsiderable extent, on the density of image. Thus, the selection of
exposure required toproduce the radiography density for best revilement of detects is
necessary. Theradiographic exposure time for a particular set up can either be
calculated directly or readoff from exposure charts. Commercial X-ray machine are
generally supplied with exposurecharts. For gamma source, exposure charts can be
prepared by the user or exposure can becalculated by using below equation.
n = job thickness expressed in number of HVLs.

FF = Film Factor
SFD = Source Film Distance [ cm ]
SS = Source Strength
[ Ci ]RHM = Roentgen Hour per Meter
The exposure charts are prepared by exposing a step wedge having different thickness,
asshown in figure below, to different exposure doses. Five or six different
densitiescorresponding to each thickness are obtained. The exposure for obtaining a
given density(for e.g. 2.0), for each thickness are then found out. A graph is then
plotted betweenthickness and exposure in Roentgens (in logarithm scale) for gamma
rays or mA-mins for X-rays. This graph is called exposure chart.Step Wedge.
TECHNIQUES IN RT
Single wall, single image (SWSI) is a technique whereby the radiographic source is
placed inside the pipe by some suitable method, the film wrapped around the outside of
the pipe and the exposure made as shown in Fig. 2. This may also be known as a
panoramic exposure. The IQI is placed on the outside of the pipe immediately beneath
the film. Both X- and gamma-radiography can be used, the source being placed in
position by the use of a pre-placed spider or by means of a crawler unit. This method is
most commonly used for the inspection of pipelines where the weld can be
radiographed in one exposure, making the technique rapid and cost effective.
Single wall, single image (SWSI) or panoramic radiographic technique

Where access to the bore is not possible or the pipe diameter is too small to permit the
use of an internal source then the double wall, single image (DWSI) technique is
used. Here the film is placed on the outside of the pipe on the farthest side from the
radiographic source, as shown in Fig. 3. The source may be offset slightly to avoid an
image of the upper part of the weld to be projected onto the film or directly in line. The
source may be close to or a substantial distance from the pipe, the location being a
compromise between a less sharp image but short exposure time for a small stand-off
and sharper image but longer exposure time for a large stand-off. The need to penetrate
two wall thicknesses means that the sensitivity will be poorer than with the single wall
single image technique. The technique also requires multiple exposures to enable the
complete circumference of the pipe to be examined – specification or contract
requirements frequently specify the minimum numbers of exposures to ensure
complete coverage and images of an acceptable quality. The technique is generally
used on pipes over 80mm in diameter.
Double wall Double image
The last technique is double wall, double image (DWDI), generally used only on pipes
less than 75-80mm in diameter. By offsetting the source from the weld centre line and
using a long source to film distance it is possible to project an image onto the film of
both the upper and the lower parts of the weld as shown in Fig. 4. As with the DWSI
technique multiple exposures are required to achieve complete coverage.
Double wall double image radiograph of a pipe butt weld. Note the IQI, identification
numbers and position markers.
FILM PROCESSING
The film used in RT has five layers as shown below.
LAYER 1,5: It is made up of Gelatin. This layer protects the Film from Scratches
while handling.
LAYER 2,4: It is a layer of sensitive emulsion containing Silver Bromide Grains(Ag-
Br). These Ag-Br grains have the ability to turn black when exposed to radiation.
LAYER 3: It is the center layer made of Polyester or Acetate.
Radiographic film consists of a transparent, blue-tinted base coated on both sides with
an emulsion. The emulsion consists of gelatin containing microscopic, radiation
sensitive silver halide crystals, such as silver bromide and silver chloride. When x-rays,
gamma rays or light rays strike the the crystals or grains, some of the Br- ions are
liberated and captured by the Ag+ ions. In this condition, the radiograph is said to
contain a latent (hidden) image because the change in the grains is virtually
undetectable, but the exposed grains are now more sensitive to reaction with the
developer.
Radiographic Film
X-ray films for general radiography basically consist of an emulsion-gelatin containing

radiation-sensitive silver halide crystals (such as silver bromide or silver chloride).
The emulsion is usually coated on both sides of a flexible, transparent, blue-tinted base
in layers about 0.012 mm thick. An adhesive undercoat fastens the emulsion to the film
base and a very thin but tough coating covers the emulsion to protect it against minor
abrasion. The typical total thickness of the X-ray film is approximately 0.23 mm.
Though films are made to be sensitive for X-ray or gamma-ray, yet they are also
sensitive to visible light. When X-rays, gamma-rays, or light strike the film, some of
the halogen atoms are liberated from the silver halide crystal and thus leaving the silver
atoms alone. This change is of such a small nature that it cannot be detected by
ordinary physical methods and is called a “latent (hidden) image”. When the film is
exposed to a chemical solution (developer) the reaction results in the formation of
black, metallic silver.
Film Selection
Selecting the proper film and developing the optimal radiographic technique for a
particular component depends on a number of different factors;
 Composition, shape, and size of the part being examined and, in some cases, its
weight and location.
 Type of radiation used, whether X-rays from an X-ray generator or gamma rays
from a radioactive source.
 Kilovoltage available with the X-ray equipment or the intensity of the gamma
radiation.
 Relative importance of high radiographic detail or quick and economical results.
Film Packaging
Radiographic film can be purchased in a number of different packaging options and

they are available in a variety of sizes. The most basic form is as individual sheets in a
box. In preparation for use, each sheet must be loaded into a cassette or film holder in a
darkroom to protect it from exposure to light.
Industrial X-ray films are also available in a form in which each sheet is enclosed in a
light-tight envelope. The film can be exposed from either side without removing it
from the protective packaging. A rip strip makes it easy to remove the film in the
darkroom for processing.
Packaged film is also available in the form of rolls where that allows the radiographer
to cut the film to any length. The ends of the packaging are sealed with electrical tape
in the darkroom. In applications such as the radiography of circumferential welds and
the examination of long joints on an aircraft fuselage, long lengths of film offer great
economic advantage.
Film Handling
X-ray film should always be handled carefully to avoid physical strains, such as
pressure, creasing, buckling, friction, etc. Whenever films are loaded in semi-flexible
holders and external clamping devices are used, care should be taken to be sure
pressure is uniform. Marks resulting from contact with fingers that are moist or
contaminated with processing chemicals, as well as crimp marks, are avoided if large
films are always grasped by the edges and allowed to hang free. Use of envelope-
packed films avoids many of these problems until the envelope is opened for
processing.
When the film is processed, it is exposed to several different chemicals solutions for
controlled periods of time. Processing film basically involves the following five steps.
Development - The developing agent gives up electrons to convert the silver halide
grains to metallic silver. Grains that have been exposed to the radiation develop more
rapidly, but given enough time the developer will convert all the silver ions into silver
metal. Proper temperature control is needed to convert exposed grains to pure silver
while keeping unexposed grains as silver halide crystals.This process removes the
protection layer and induce development. Alkaline solution or Hydroquinone solution
is used here. The time duration is 5 to 8 minutes. The concentration is 1:5 for Alkaline
and Water respectively.
Stop Bath - The stop bath simply stops the development process by diluting and
washing the developer away with water. This process uses Acetic acid. When film
taken out from development stage, small quantity of alkaline will remain in the film.
To remove Alkaline we use Acetic acid. We use Acetic acid for two functions:
1. To stop further Devlopment action, neutralizing the

alkaline developer.
2. To extend fixer life.
Fixing - Unexposed silver halide crystals are removed by the fixing bath. The fixer
dissolves only silver halide crystals, leaving the silver metal behind. It ha two sub
processes:
1. Clearing time: It removes all un exposed AgBr grains

and the film appears clear.
2. Hardening: It hardens the emulsion Gelatin, Prevents
scratches while handling.
This process uses Sodium Thio -sulphate solution and the concentration is 1: 5 for
Sodium Thio-Sulphate and Water respectively. The duration is double the
Development time.
Washing - The film is washed with water to remove all the processing chemicals.The
water temperature to be maintained is 18-22 Degree Celsius. The duration is 30
minutes.
Drying - The film is dried for viewing. The temperature should be greater than
35Degree Celsius.
Processing film is a strict science governed by rigid rules of chemical concentration,

temperature, time, and physical movement. Whether processing is done by hand or
automatically by machine, excellent radiographs require a high degree of consistency
and quality control.
Manual Processing & Darkrooms
Manual processing begins with the darkroom. The darkroom should be located in a
central location, adjacent to the reading room and a reasonable distance from the
exposure area. For portability, darkrooms are often mounted on pickups or trailers.
Film should be located in a light, tight compartment, which is most often a metal bin
that is used to store and protect the film. An area next to the film bin that is dry and
free of dust and dirt should be used to load and unload the film. Another area, the wet
side, should be used to process the film. This method protects the film from any water
or chemicals that may be located on the surface of the wet side.
Each of step in the film processing must be excited properly to develop the image,
wash out residual processing chemicals, and to provide adequate shelf life of the
radiograph. The objective of processing is two fold: first, to produce a radiograph
adequate for viewing, and second, to prepare the radiograph for archival storage.
Radiographs are often stored for 20 years or more as a record of the inspection.
Automatic Processor Evaluation
The automatic processor is the essential piece of equipment in every x-ray department.
The automatic processor will reduce film processing time when compared to manual
development by a factor of four. To monitor the performance of a processor, apart
from optimum temperature and mechanical checks, chemical and sensitometric checks
should be performed for developer and fixer. Chemical checks involve measuring the
pH values of the developer and fixer as well as both replenishers. Also, the specific
gravity and fixer silver levels must be measured. Ideally, pH should be measured daily
and it is important to record these measurements, as regular logging provides very
useful information. The daily measurements of pH values for the developer and fixer
can then be plotted to observe the trend of variations in these values compared to the
normal pH operating levels to identify problems.
Sensitometric checks may be carried out to evaluate if the performance of films in the
automatic processors is being maximized. These checks involve measurement of basic
fog level, speed and average gradient made at 1° C intervals of temperature. The range
of temperature measurement depends on the type of chemistry in use, whether cold or
hot developer. These three measurements: fog level, speed, and average gradient,
should then be plotted against temperature and compared with the manufacturer's
supplied figures.
Film interpretationand reference radiographs
Film interpretation
The common term for film interpretation is film viewing. Film viewing in fact means
the evaluation of the image quality of a radiograph for compliance with the code
requirements and the interpretation of details of any possible defect visible on the film.
For this purpose, the film is placed in front of an illuminated screen of appropriate
brightness/luminance. The edges of the film and areas of low density need to be
masked to avoid glare.
The following conditions are important for good film interpretation:
• brightness of the illuminated screen (luminance)

• density of the radiograph
• diffusion and evenness of the illuminated screen
• ambient light in the viewing room
• film viewer’s eye-sight
Poor viewing conditions may cause important defect information on a radiograph to go
unseen.
Reference radiographs
The two main areas for the application of radiography are weld examination and
examination of castings. Radiography is also used to check complex assemblies for
proper construction, and for many other technical applications. The following selection
of radiographs illustrates the wide variety of possibilities for detection possibilities of
defects or errors.
Viewing Radiographs
After the film processing, radiographs are viewed using a light-box (or they can be
digitized and viewed on a high resolution monitor) in order to be interpreted. In
addition to providing diffused, adjustable white illumination of uniform intensity,
specialized industrial radiography light-boxes include magnifying and masking aids.
When handing the radiographs, thin cotton gloves should be worn to prevent
fingerprints on the radiographs.
Film exposure and handling errors
Before a particular difference in density in a radiograph is attributed to a defect in
the object examined, it must be sure that it is not the result of incorrect handling- or
processing of the film. It is, therefore, essential to be able to recognise such faults
when examining the film in order to prevent their recurrence. It is often possible to
identify faults due to wrong processing by looking obliquely at the surface of the
film while facing towards the light, and comparing the two emulsion surfaces. The
X-ray image usually is identical on both sides of the film, while a fault in
processing will frequently affect only one surface, and can be seen as a change in
reflection on the surface. The most common faults, and their possible causes, are
listed below:
Insufficient contrast
a: with normal density:
1. radiation too hard

2. over-exposure compensated by reduced developing time
3. unsuitable or wrongly mixed developer
4. prolonged development in too cold a developing bath
b: with insufficient density:

1. insufficient development
2. exhausted developer
Excessive contrast (i.e. lack of intermediate tones)
1. radiation too soft

2. under-exposure, compensated by prolonged developing
General lack of density
1. radiation too soft

2. under-exposure, compensated by prolonged developing
General excessive density

1. over-exposure
2. prolonged development or developing temperature too high
Insufficient sharpness
1. source-to-focus distance too short

2. source or object moved during exposure
3. film-to-object distance too great
4. dimensions of source or focus too big
5. poor contact between film and screens
6. wrong type of foil used
Grey fog (local or overall)
1. unsuitable dark room safelighting

2. excessive exposure to safelight (i.e. too long or too close)
3. film accidentally exposed to X-ray or Gamma-ray or to white light
4. heavy scatter
5. film out-of-date or stored under unsuitable conditions (ground fog)
6. extreme under-exposure compensated by excessive developing
7. exhausted or wrongly mixed developer
8. film cassette with film exposed to heat (e.g. sunlight, heat from radiators etc.)
9. cassette not properly closed (edge fog)
Yellow fog
1. prolonged development in badly oxidised developer

2. exhausted fixing bath
3. insufficient rinsing between developing and fixing
Note: It may take months before yellow fog becomes apparent.
Mottled fog
A greyish, mottled fog generally means the film is out-of-date or that it has been stored
underunfavourable conditions, e.g. in damp surroundings.
Whitish deposit
1. water used to make up developer or fixer too hard
2. wash water too hard
3. film insufficiently rinsed after development
Clear patches
1. minute round spots with sharp edges: the film was not kept moving
in the first 30 seconds of development
2. drops of fixer or water fell onto the film before development
3. marks from mechanical damage to the emulsion before exposure
4. marks due to rapid and uneven drying of the film (this occurs when there are
still droplets of water on the film when placed in the drying cabinet)
5. clear patches can occur from the film sticking to another film or to the tank wall
during development
6. grease on the film slowing down or preventing the penetration of the developer
7. screen(s) in poor condition
8. foreign bodies (for example metal particles ) between film and screen
during exposure
9. small, clear, hollow spots (usually with dark edges) may occur when the emulsion
has been subjected to local attack of bacteria. This is generally the result of slow
drying in a warm damp climate, particularly if there are impurities in the wash water.
Clear lines or streaks
1. the film envelope has been scored with a pointed object before exposure.
2. film insufficiently moved during development
3. uneven drying (film has been carelessly wiped dry after washing)
4. drops of fixer or stopbath have fallen on the emulsion before development
Clear shapes
1. clear crescent shapes may appear when, before exposure, the film has been
bent between two fingers
2. fingerprints may occur when the film has been touched with dirty fingers,
contaminated for example with grease, fixer, stopbath or acid
Dark patches
1. drops of developer have fallen onto the film before development
2. drops of water have fallen onto the film before development
3. electrical discharge marks, especially at low relative humidity of the air
4. marks from mechanical damage to the emulsion after exposure
Dark lines or streaks
1. the emulsion has been scratched after exposure

2. the film envelope containing the film has been scored or written on
with a pointed object after exposure
3. insufficient agitation of the film during development
4. uneven drying
5. water or developer has trickled down the surface of the emulsion prior
to development
Dark shapes
1. dark crescent shapes (see “clear shapes” above); these are darker than
the surrounding area if the bending occurred after exposure
2. fingerprints: the film has been touched with dirty fingers
3. electrical discharge (see “dark patches).
SAFETY AND HEALTH

Radiation Health Risks
As mentioned previously, the health risks associated with the radiation is considered to
be one the major disadvantages of radiogaphy. The amount of risk depends on the
amount of radiation dose received, the time over which the dose is received, and the
body parts exposed. The fact that X-ray and gamma-ray radiation are not detectable by
the human senses complicates matters further. However, the risks can be minimized
and controlled when the radiation is handled and managed properly in accordance to
the radiation safety rules. The active laws all over the world require that individuals
working in the field of radiography receive training on the safe handling and use of
radioactive materials and radiation producing devices.
Today, it can be said that radiation ranks among the most thoroughly investigated (and
somehow understood) causes of disease. The primary risk from occupational radiation
exposure is an increased risk of cancer. Although scientists assume low-level radiation
exposure increases one's risk of cancer, medical studies have not demonstrated adverse
health effects in individuals exposed to small chronic radiation doses.
The occurrence of particular health effects from exposure to ionizing radiation is a

complicated function of numerous factors including:
 Type of radiation involved. All kinds of ionizing radiation can produce health
effects. The main difference in the ability of alpha and beta particles and gamma and
X-rays to cause health effects is the amount of energy they have. Their energy
determines how far they can penetrate into tissue and how much energy they are able
to transmit directly or indirectly to tissues.
 Size of dose received. The higher the dose of radiation received, the higher the
likelihood of health effects.
 Rate at which the dose is received. Tissue can receive larger dosages over a period
of time. If the dosage occurs over a number of days or weeks, the results are often not
as serious if a similar dose was received in a matter of minutes.
 Part of the body exposed. Extremities such as the hands or feet are able to receive a
greater amount of radiation with less resulting damage than blood forming organs
housed in the upper body.
 The age of the individual. As a person ages, cell division slows and the body is less
sensitive to the effects of ionizing radiation. Once cell division has slowed, the
effects of radiation are somewhat less damaging than when cells were rapidly dividing.
 Biological differences. Some individuals are more sensitive to radiation than others.
Studies have not been able to conclusively determine the cause of such differences.
Measures Relative to the Biological Effects of Radiation Exposure

There are four measures of radiation that radiographers will commonly encounter when
addressing the biological effects of working with X-rays or gamma-rays. These
measures are: Exposure, Dose, Dose Equivalent, and Dose Rate. A short description of
these measures and their units is given below
Exposure: Exposure is a measure of the strength of a radiation field at some point in

air (the amount of charge produced in a unit mass of air when the interacting photons
are completely absorbed in that mass). This is the measure made by radiation survey
meters since it can be easily and directly measured. The most commonly used unit of
exposure is the “roentgen” (R).
Dose or Absorbed Dose: While exposure is defined for air, the absorbed dose is the
amount of energy that ionizing radiation imparts to a given mass of matter. In other
words, the dose is the amount of radiation absorbed by and object. The SI unit for
absorbed dose is the “gray” (Gy), but the “rad” (Radiation Absorbed Dose) is
commonly used (1 Gy= 100 rad). Different materials that receive the same exposure
may not absorb the same amount of radiation. In human tissue, one Roentgen of X-ray
or gamma radiation exposure results in about one rad of absorbed dose. The size of the
absorbed dose is dependent upon the intensity (or activity) of the radiation source, the
distance from the source, and the time of exposure to radiation.
Personal safety and radiation protection
Effects of radiation
Nuclear radiations are harmful to living tissues. The damage done by radiations is
sinister as human senses are not capable of detecting even lethal doses of radiation.
The dose of radiationsabsorbed by human body is expressed in mSv (1 mSv = 100 rem
= 1 J/kg) which takes intoaccount the biological effectiveness of different types of
radiations such as alpha particles,
gamma rays, Xrays and neutrons etc. The overall outcome of exposure to radiation is
initiated by damage to the cell which is the basic unit of the organism. The effects of
radiation may be deterministic or stochastic, early or late, of somatic or genetic type.
Somatic effects depend upon three main factors.

(a) First of these factors is the rate at which the dose is administered. Cells begin the
repair processes as soon as some degree of damage has been received. When the body
is able to keep up with the damage, no injury or pathological change will be seen in the
irradiated individuals. However, the same amount of radiation given all at once would
produce a more severe reaction.
(b) The second is the extent and part of the body irradiated. It is known that certain
cells are more sensitive to radiation than others. Hence the overall effect of radiation
depends on the extent and part of the body irradiated.
(c) The third important factor is the age of the affected individual, persons growing
physically are in an accelerated stage of cells reproduction and most of the cells in the
body are dividing and hence sensitive to radiation. For this reason an exposure of a
given amount should be considered more serious for a young person than for an adult.
The somatic effects can either be immediate or delayed. Given below is a summary of
immediate effects when the whole body is acutely irradiated with a range of radiation
doses:
0–0.25 Sv: No manifested injuries and no clinical effects. Increase of frequency of

chromosomal observations in peripheral lymphocytes above 0.15 Sv whole body dose.
0.5–1 Sv: Some changes in blood count picture i.e. reduction in lymphocytes and
neutrophils with delayed recovery. Delayed effects may shorten life expectancy. No
clinical
symptoms .
1–2 Sv: Mild degree of ARS (acute radiation syndrome). Nausea, fatigue, dizziness.
Vomiting in 10–50% cases within 24 hours starting 2 hours after exposure or later.
Latent period about 3 to 4 weeks. Following the latent period, clinical symptoms
appear in a more severe manifestation. No disability.
2–4 Sv: Moderate ARS: nausea, fatigue, dizziness, loss of appetite. Vomiting within 2
hours in 70–90% of exposed persons. Latent period of 2 to 3 weeks where the victim
seems relaxed and recovering. The critical period follows with epilation, loss of
appetite and general weakness accompanied by fever, inflammation of the mouth and
throat, diarrhoea, nose bleeding. Death due to infections could occur in 0–50% of the
exposed individuals within 2 months withoutproper treatment with antibiotics and fluid
replacement .
4–6 Sv: Severe ARS: Nausea, weakness, loss of appetite, vomiting within one hour
with 100% incidence.Mild diarrhoea in less than 10% of exposed persons with an onset
of 3 to 8 hoursfollowing the whole body exposure. Headache in 50% of the exposed
persons within 4 to hours. Fever in 80–100% cases within 1 to 2 hours. Drop of
lymphocytes to about 500 on 2nd–3rdday. Latent period of 1 to 2 weeks followed by
severe clinical picture, fever, infections (pneumonia). Death in 50 to 80% of patients
within 2 months.
>8 Sv: Lethal ARS: Severe nausea, fatigue and vomiting within 10 minutes followed
by fever and diarrhoea and haemorrhage with no latent period. Rate of survival is very
poor and death occurs within 2 weeks in 90–100% of exposed individuals. At whole
body doses >15 Sv damage on the central nervous system characterized by cramps,
involuntary movements of the muscles (ataxia) followed by coma (lethargy). Death
occurs within 2 days due to irreversible circulatory cerebral oedema and probably heart
failure.
In case of protracted or low dose exposure, ionizing radiation may not produce
immediate consequences but some delayed effects may appear a long time after the
exposure. These types ofeffects may be late deterministic effects (life cataract) or
stochastic effects (radiation induced cancer or genetic effects).
Genetic effects may be explained in the following way. It is a fact that children inherit
characteristics such as appearance, strength, resistance to disease, temperament, etc.
from their parents. This happens because each of the parents contributes a
characteristic gene to the reproduction process. The genes are contained in the sperm
and egg cells of the parents producingthem. Radiation can modify and damage the
genes. However, genetic effects have never beenmanifested and proved in exposed to
radiation human population groups (neither in A-bombsurvivors).
In accordance with the recommendations of the International Commission on

Radiological Protection, (ICRP), the dose limit of ionizing radiation is that, which in
the light of present knowledge and in the opinion of competent medical authority, is
not expected to cause injury to aperson at any time during his lifetime and carries
negligible probability of cancer induction and genetic malformations.
Occupational workers
As per Schedule II of IAEA Safety Series No. 115, following criteria and dose limits
apply:
II-5: The occupational exposure of any worker shall be so controlled that the following
limits be not exceeded:
(a) an effective dose of 20 mSv per year averaged over five consecutive years;
(b) an effective dose of 50 mSv in any single year;
(c) an equivalent dose to the lens of the eye of 150 mSv in a year; and
(d) an equivalent dose to the extremities (hands and feet) or the skin of 500 mSv in a
year.
II-6: For apprentices of 16 to 18 years of age who are training for employment
involving exposure to radiation and for students of age 16 to 18 who are required to
use sources in the course of their studies, the occupational exposure shall be so
controlled that the following limits be not exceeded:
(a) an effective dose of 6 mSv in a year;

(b) an equivalent dose to the lens of the eye of 50 mSv in a year; and
(c) an equivalent dose to the extremities or the skin of 150 mSv in a year.
II-7: When, in special circumstances, a temporary change in the dose limitation

requirements is approved pursuant to Appendix I:
(I) the dose averaging period mentioned in para. II-5 (a) may exceptionally be up to 10
consecutive years as specified by the Regulatory Authority, and the effective dose for
any worker shall not exceed 20 mSv per year averaged over this period and shall not
exceed 50 mSv in any single year, and the circumstances shall be reviewed when the
dose accumulated by any worker since the start of the extended averaging period
reaches 100 mSv; or
(II) the temporary change in the dose limitation shall be as specified by the Regulatory
Authority but shall not exceed 50 mSv in any year and the period of the temporary
change
shall not exceed 5 years.
The occupational dose constrain for the whole body exposures in forty years of
working lifetime of an individual is 1 Sv. The maximum accumulated dose to a
radiation worker of age N years is given by (N-18) 20 mSv. This means that no
person less than 18 years of age can be employed for radiation work.
Radiation workers such as radiographers are subjected to ionizing radiation while

performing their work. The amount of radiation dose received depends on various
parameters andconditions such as time, distance, shielding and working procedure.
Thus, to ensure the safety ofradiographers, it is important that supervisors or radiation
protection officers continuouslyobserve and record the amount of radiation received by
each radiographer working under them.
Such an activity is called personnel monitoring.
In general, the main purposes of personnel monitoring are to ensure that the dose limit
is not exceeded, to limit the exposure of the individual radiographer, to assist the
medical authority in making analysis in the case of accidental over exposure and to
provide information about work practices and personal dose history. The other type of
monitoring is area monitoring in which the environment around the worker is
monitored. This includes checking the equipment containing radioactive sources, and
the correctness of the exposure procedures. Personnel monitoring devicesinclude film
badges, pocket dosimeters and thermo luminescence dosimeters (TLD), while the area
monitoring is done with the help of radiation survey meters.
Non-occupational workers
For all non-occupational workers and members of the public being exposed to external
radiation, the above mentioned dose limits must be reduced appreciably to keep limited
the spread of radiation effects if any. The criteria and dose limits specified by Schedule
II of the IAEA Safety Series No. 15 for this category of personnel are as given below:
II-8: The estimated average doses to the relevant critical groups of members of the
public that are attributable to practices shall not exceed the following limits:
(a) an effective dose of 1 mSv in a year;

(b) in special circumstances, an effective dose of up to 5 mSv in a single year provided
that the average dose over five consecutive years does not exceed 1mSv per year;
(c) an equivalent dose to the lens of the eye of 15 mSv in a year; and
(d) an equivalent dose to the skin of 50 mSv in a year.
RADIATION DETECTORS
Instruments used for radiation measurement fall into two broad categories:
 Rate measuring instruments.
Rate measuring instruments measure the rate at which exposure is received (more
commonly called the radiation intensity). Survey meters, audible alarms and area
monitors fall into this category. These instruments present a radiation intensity reading
relative to time, such as R/hrormR/hr. An analogy can be made between these
instruments and the speedometer of a car because both are measuring units relative to
time.
 Personal dose measuring instruments.
Dose measuring instruments are those that measure the total amount of exposure
received during a measuring period. The dose measuring instruments, or dosimeters,
that are commonly used in industrial radiography are small devices which are designed
to be worn by an individual to measure the exposure received by the individual. An
analogy can be made between these instruments and the odometer of a car because
both are measuring accumulated units.
Survey Meters
The survey meter is the most important resource a radiographer has to determine the
presence and intensity of radiation. There are many different models of survey meters
available to measure radiation in the field. They all basically consist of a detector and a
readout display. Analog and digital displays are available. Most of the survey meters
used for industrial radiography use a gas filled detector.
Gas filled detectors consists of a gas filled cylinder with two electrodes having a
voltage applied to them. Whenever the device is brought near radioactive substances,
the gas becomes ionized. The electric field created by the potential difference between
the anode and cathode causes the electrons of each ion pair to move to the anode while
the positively charged gas atom is drawn to the cathode. This results in an electrical
signal that is amplified, correlated to exposure and displayed as a value.
Audible Alarm Rate Meters
Audible alarms are devices that emit a short "beep" or "chirp" when a predetermined
exposure has been received. It is required that these electronic devices be worn by an
individual working with gamma emitters. These devices reduce the likelihood of
accidental exposures in industrial radiography by alerting the radiographer to exposure
levels or dosages of radiation above a preset amount. It is important to note that
audible alarms are not intended to be and should not be used as replacements for
survey meters. Modern survey meters have this alarm feature already built in.
Pocket Dosimeter
Pocket dosimeters are used to provide the wearer with an immediate reading of his or
her exposure to X-rays or gamma rays. As the name implies, they are commonly worn
in the pocket. The principal advantage of a pocket dosimeter is its ability to provide the
wearer an immediate reading of his or her radiation exposure. It also has the advantage
of being reusable. The limited range, inability to provide a permanent record, and the
potential for discharging and reading loss due to dropping or bumping are a few of the
main disadvantages of a pocket dosimeter.
The two types commonly used in industrial radiography are the Direct Read Pocket
Dosimeter and the Digital Electronic Dosimeter.
Direct Read Pocket Dosimeter
A direct reading pocket ionization dosimeter is generally of the size and shape of a
fountain pen. The accumulated dose value can be read by pointing the instrument at a
light source and observing the internal fiber through a system of built-in lenses. The
fiber is viewed on a translucent scale which is graduated in units of exposure. Typical
industrial radiography pocket dosimeters have a full scale reading of 200 mRbut there
are designs that will record higher amounts. During the shift, the dosimeter reading
should be checked frequently. The measured exposure should be recorded at the end of
each shift.
Digital Electronic Dosimeter

These dosimeters measure both dose information and dose rate and display them in
digital form. Also, some Digital Electronic Dosimeters include an audible alarm
feature which emits an audible signal or chirp with each recorded increment of
exposure. Consequently, the frequency or chirp rate of the alarm is proportional to the
radiation intensity. Some models can also be set to provide a continuous audible signal
when a preset exposure has been reached.
Film Badges
Personnel dosimetry film badges are commonly used to measure and record radiation
exposure due to gamma rays, X-rays and beta particles. The detector is, as the name
implies, a piece of radiation sensitive film. The film is packaged in a light proof, vapor
proof envelope preventing light, moisture or chemical vapors from affecting the film.
Film badges need to be worn correctly so that the dose they receive accurately
represents the dose the wearer receives. Whole body badges are worn on the body
between the neck and the waist, often on the belt or a shirt pocket.
The film is contained inside a film holder or badge. The badge incorporates a series of
filters to determine the quality of the radiation. Radiation of a given energy is
attenuated to a different extent by various types of absorbers. Therefore, the same
quantity of radiation incident on the badge will produce a different degree of darkening
under each filter. By comparing these results, the energy of the radiation can be
determined and the dose can be calculated knowing the film response for that energy.
The badge holder also contains an open window to determine radiation exposure due to
beta particles (since beta particles are shielded by a thin amount of material).
The major advantages of a film badge as a personnel monitoring device are that it
provides a permanent record, it is able to distinguish between different energies of
photons, and it can measure doses due to different types of radiation. It is quite
accurate for exposures greater than 100 mR. The major disadvantages are that it must
be developed and read by a processor (which is time consuming) and prolonged heat
exposure can affect the film.
Thermoluminescent Dosimeter (TLD)
Thermoluminescent dosimeters (TLD) are often used instead of the film badge. Like a
film badge, it is worn for a period of time (usually 3 months or less) and then must be
processed to determine the dose received, if any. TLDs can measure doses as low as 1
mRand they have a precision of approximately 15% for low doses which improves to
approximately 3% for high doses. TLDs are reusable, which is an advantage over film
badges. However, no permanent record or re-readability is provided and an immediate,
on the job readout is not possible.
A TLD has a phosphor, such as lithium fluoride (LiF) or calcium fluoride (CaF), in a
solid crystal structure. When a TLD it is exposed to ionizing radiation at ambient
temperatures, the radiation interacts with the phosphor crystal causing some of the
atoms in the material to produce free electrons and become ionized. The free electrons
are trapped and locked into place in the imperfections in the crystal lattice structure.
Heating the crystal causes the crystal lattice to vibrate, releasing the trapped electrons
in the process. Released electrons return to the original ground state, releasing the
captured energy from ionization as light, hence the name thermo luminescent. Instead
of reading the optical density (blackness) of a film, as is done with film badges, the
amount of light released versus the heating of the individual pieces of thermo
luminescent material is measured. The “glow curve” produced by this process is then
related to the radiation exposure. The process can be repeated many times.
Safety Controls
Since X-ray and gamma radiation are not detectable by the human senses and the
resulting damage to the body is not immediately apparent, a variety of safety controls
are used to limit exposure. The two basic types of radiation safety controls used to
provide a safe working environment are engineered and administrative controls.
Engineered controls include shielding, interlocks, alarms, warning signals, and material
containment. Administrative controls include postings, procedures, dosimetry, and
training.
Engineered controls such as shielding and door interlocks are used to contain the
radiation in a cabinet or a “radiation vault”. Fixed shielding materials are commonly
high density concrete and/or lead. Door interlocks are used to immediately cut the
power to X-ray generating equipment if a door is accidentally opened when X-rays are
being produced. Warning lights are used to alert workers and the public that radiation
is being used. Sensors and warning alarms are often used to signal that a predetermined
amount of radiation is present. Safety controls should never be tampered with or
bypassed.
When portable radiography is performed, most often it is not practical to place alarms
or warning lights in the exposure area. Ropes (or cordon off tape) and signs are used to
block the entrance to radiation areas and to alert the public to the presence of radiation.
Occasionally, radiographers will use battery operated flashing lights to alert the public
to the presence of radiation.
Safety regulations classify the areas surrounding the location where ionizing radiation
is present into restricted areas and controlled areas according to the radiation intensity
level:
Restricted areas: Areas with a dose rate higher than 300 mR/hmust be secure so that
nobody can enter this area. If anybody accidently enters this area, radiation must be
terminated and the person must be checked. Access is only permitted under specific
conditions and if there is an absolute need for it, the body dose should be calculated
and the personal dose measured.
Control areas: These are areas with dose rates which are equivalent to or higher than
0.75 mR/h. Control areas must be cordoned off and provided with a radiation warning
signs.
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
The primary advantages and disadvantages in comparison to other NDT methods are:
Advantages
 Both surface and internal discontinuities can be detected.

 Significant variations in composition can be detected.
 It has a very few material limitations.
 Can be used for inspecting hidden areas (direct access to surface is not required)
 Very minimal or no part preparation is required.
 Permanent test record is obtained.
 Good portability especially for gamma-ray sources.
Disadvantages
 Hazardous to operators and other nearby personnel.

 High degree of skill and experience is required for exposure and interpretation.
 The equipment is relatively expensive (especially for x-ray sources).
 The process is generally slow.
 Highly directional (sensitive to flaw orientation).
 Depth of discontinuity is not indicated.
 It requires a two-sided access to the component.
RADIOGRAPHIC EXAMINATION
Acceptance Criteria.
Indications shown on the radiographs of welds and characterized as defects are

unacceptable
under the conditions listed in this paragraph and shall be repaired as provided in
paragraph 6.2.7. Repaired welds shall be re-examined, either by radiography in
accordance with this paragraph or, at the option of the Manufacturer, ultrasonically in
accordance with paragraph 7.5.4 or 7.5.5 and the standards specified in this paragraph.
Should ultrasonic examination be performed, this examination method shall be noted
under remarks on the Manufacturer's Data Report
Form.
(a) Linear Indications
(1) Terminology
Thickness t - the thickness of the weld excluding any allowable reinforcement. For a
butt weld joining two members having different thicknesses at the weld, t is the thinner
of these two thicknesses. If a full penetration weld includes a filled weld, the thickness
of the fillet throat shall be included in the calculation of t .
(2) Acceptance/Rejection Criteria
(a) Any crack or zone of incomplete fusion or lack of penetration
(b) Any other linear indication that has a length greater than:
(1) 6 mm (1/4 in.) for t less than or equal to 19 mm (3/4 in.),
(2) for t greater than 19 mm (3/4 in.) and less than or equal to 57 mm (2–1/4 in.),
(3) 19 mm (3/4 in.) for t greater than 57 mm (2–1/4 in.).
(c) Any group of indications in line that has an aggregate length greater than t in a
length of except when the distance between the successive imperfections exceeds ,
where L is the length of the longest imperfection in the group;
(d) Internal root weld conditions are acceptable when the density or image brightness
change as indicated in the radiograph is not abrupt. Linear indications on the
radiograph at either edge of such conditions shall be evaluated in accordance with the
other sections of this paragraph.
(b) Rounded Indications
(1) Terminology
(a) Rounded Indications - indications with a maximum length of three times the width
or less on the radiograph are defined as rounded indications. These indications may be
circular, elliptical, conical, or irregular in shape and may have tails. When evaluating
the size of an indication, the tail shall be included.
(b) Aligned Indications - a sequence of four or more rounded indications shall be
considered to be aligned when they touch a line parallel to the length of the weld
drawn through the center of the two outer rounded indications.
(c) Thickness t - the thickness of the weld, excluding any allowable reinforcement. For
a butt weld joining two members having different thicknesses at the weld, t is the
thinner of these two thicknesses. If a full penetration weld includes a fillet weld, the
thickness of the fillet throat shall be included in the calculation of t .
(2) Acceptance Criteria
(a) Rounded Indication Charts - relevant rounded indications characterized as

imperfections shall not exceed those shown in Figures 7.5 through 7.10, which
illustrate various types of assorted, randomly dispersed and clustered rounded
indications for different weld thicknesses greater than 3 mm (1/8 in.). The charts for
each thickness range represent full-scale 150 mm (6 in.) radiographs, and shall not be
enlarged or reduced. The distributions shown are not necessarily the patterns that may
appear on the radiograph, but are typical of the concentration and size of indications
permitted.
(b) Relevant Indications (see Table 7.7 for examples) - only those rounded indications
that exceed the following dimensions shall be considered relevant and compared to the
acceptance charts for disposition.
(1) for t less than 3 mm (1/8 in.)
(2) 0.4 mm (1/64 in.) for t greater than or equal to 3 mm (1/8 in.) and less than or equal
to 6 mm (1/4 in.)
(3) 0.8 mm (1/32 in.) for t greater than 6 mm (1/4 in.) and less than or equal to 50 mm
(2 in.)
(4) 1.5 mm (1/16 in.) for t greater than 50 mm (2 in.)
(5) Maximum Size of Rounded Indication - the maximum permissible size of any
indication shall be or 4 mm (5/32 in.), whichever is smaller; except that an isolated
indication separated from an adjacent indication by 25 mm (1 in.) or more may be , or
6 mm (1/4 in.), whichever is less. For t greater than 50 mm (2 in.) the maximum
permissible size of an isolated indication shall be increased to 10 mm (3/8 in.).
(6) Aligned Rounded Indications - aligned rounded indications are acceptable when the
summation of the diameters of the indications is less than t in a length of (see Figure
7.3). The length of groups of aligned rounded indications and the spacing between the
groups shall meet the requirements of Figure 7.4.
(7) Clustered Indications - the illustrations for clustered indications show up to four
times as many indications in a local area, as that shown in the illustrations for random
indications. The length of an acceptable cluster shall not exceed the lesser of 25 mm (1
in.) or . Where more than one cluster is present, the sum of the lengths of the clusters
shall not exceed 25 mm (1 in.) in a 150 mm (6 in.) length weld.
(8) Weld Thickness t less than 3 mm (1/8 in.) - for tless than 3 mm (1/8 in.) the
maximum number of rounded indications shall not exceed 12 in. a 150 mm (6 in.)
length of weld. A proportionally fewer number of indications shall be permitted in
welds less than 150 mm (6 in.) in length.
(c) Image Density - density or image brightness within the image of the indication may
vary and is not a criterion for acceptance or rejection.
(d) Spacing - the distance between adjacent rounded indications is not a factor in
determining acceptance or rejection, except as required for isolated indications or
groups of aligned indications.

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CONTENTS

Radiography is used in a very wide range of aplications including medicine,

Nature of Penetrating Radiation

Properties of X-Rays and Gamma Rays

X-ray tubes produce X-ray photons by accelerating a stream of electrons to energies of

Photoelectric (PE) absorption of x-rays occurs when

Compton scattering (C) occurs when the incident x-

Thomson scattering (R), also known as

Photo disintegration (PD) is the process by

3.1 Alpha Radiation

When inhalation or ingestion of an alpha emitting radioactive material occurs, internal

3.2 Beta Radiation

3.2.1 Excitation and Ionization

The second important mechanism of reducing energy of beta particles is

Because of the continuous energy distribution, absorption of beta particles in material

3.3 Gamma Radiation

3.3.1 Photoelectric Effect

3.3.2 Compton Scattering

3.3.3 Pair Production

Manmade radioactive sources are produced by introducing an extra neutron to atoms of

To make a radiographic exposure, a crank-out mechanism and a guide tube are

Where, SOD is the Source to Object Distance

Where, F – Focal Spot

Metal Thickness µg in inches µg in mm

INVERSE SQUARE LAW

 Newton's Inverse Square Law

 FILM FACTOR AND FILM DENSITY

FILM FACTOR: It is the amount of radiation required to produce density i.e

FILM DENSITY: It is the degree of darkness seen in the film . It is nothing

Table showing values of HVT and TVT for different materials.

CONCRETE STEEL LEAD DEPLETED

It should be noted that even if 2-2T sensitivity is indicated on a radiograph, a

n = job thickness expressed in number of HVLs.

Single wall, single image (SWSI) or panoramic radiographic technique

X-ray films for general radiography basically consist of an emulsion-gelatin containing

 Relative importance of high radiographic detail or quick and economical results.

Radiographic film can be purchased in a number of different packaging options and

1. To stop further Devlopment action, neutralizing the

1. Clearing time: It removes all un exposed AgBr grains

Processing film is a strict science governed by rigid rules of chemical concentration,

Manual Processing & Darkrooms

Automatic Processor Evaluation

Film interpretationand reference radiographs

The following conditions are important for good film interpretation:

• brightness of the illuminated screen (luminance)

a: with normal density:

1. radiation too hard

b: with insufficient density:

Excessive contrast (i.e. lack of intermediate tones)

1. radiation too soft

General lack of density

1. radiation too soft

General excessive density

1. source-to-focus distance too short

Grey fog (local or overall)

1. unsuitable dark room safelighting

1. prolonged development in badly oxidised developer

Clear lines or streaks

Dark lines or streaks

1. the emulsion has been scratched after exposure

SAFETY AND HEALTH

The occurrence of particular health effects from exposure to ionizing radiation is a