ENERGY CONVERSION LECTURE

Prof. Omar Badran

■ – Energy Resources

■ A – Energy
■ B – Conventional Energy Resources
■ C – Alternative Energy Resources
A Energy

■ 1. Sources of Energy
• What are the major sources of energy?
• How our usage of energy has changed in time?
■ 2. Energy Use
• To what purposes energy is used for?
■ 3. Challenges
• What major energy challenges are we facing?
1 Sources of Energy

■ Nature
• Energy is movement or the possibility of creating movement:
• Exists as potential (stored) and kinetic (used) forms.
• Conversion of potential to kinetic.
• Movement states:
• Ordered (mechanical energy) or disordered (thermal energy).
• Temperature can be perceived as a level of disordered energy.
• Major tendency is to move from order to disorder (entropy).
■ Importance
• Human activities are dependant on the usage of several forms
and sources of energy.
• Energy demands:
• Increased with economic development.
• The world’s power consumption is about 12 trillion watts a year, with 85%
of it from fossil fuels.
1 Sources of Energy

Chemical
• Fossil fuels (Combustion)
Non-Renewable Nuclear
• Uranium (Fission of atoms)

Chemical
Energy • Muscular (Oxidization)
Nuclear
• Geothermal (Conversion)
• Fusion (Fusion of hydrogen)
Gravity
Renewable • Tidal, hydraulic (Kinetic)
Indirect Solar
• Biomass (Photosynthesis)
• Wind (Pressure differences)
Direct Solar
• Photovoltaic cell (Conversion)
1 Chemical Energy Content of some Fuels (in MJ/kg)

Wood
Coal
Crude Oil
Kerosene
Ethanol
Methanol
Methane
Natural Gas
Gasoline
Hydrogen

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140

1 Sources of Energy

■ Energy transition
• Shift in the sources of energy that satisfy the needs of an
economy / society.
• Linked with economic and technological development.
• Linked with availability and/or remaining energy sources.
• From low efficiency to high efficiency.
• From solids, to liquids and then gazes:
• Wood, Coal.
• Oil.
• Natural gas and hydrogen.
1 Evolution of Energy Sources

Mid 21st
Century

Late 20th Animal

Century Biomass
Coal
Early 20th
Oil
Century
Natural Gas
Mid 19th Nuclear
Century Hydrogen

15th Century

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

1 Global Energy Systems Transition, (% of market)

100
Wood
Coal
80
Solids Gases
60
Hydrogen

40
Liquids

20
Oil

0 Natural Gas
1850 1900 1950 2000 2050 2100 2150
 World Fossil Fuel Consumption per Source, 1950-
1 2002 (in million of tons of equivalent oil)

8000

7000 Natural Gas

Oil
6000
Coal
5000

4000

3000

2000

1000

0
50

53

56

59

62

65

68

71

74

77

80

83

86

89

92

95

98

01
19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

20
Total World Electricity Generation by Type of Fuel,
2002

2%
7%

16%
Coal
40%
Natural Gas
Nuclear
Hydro
Oil
Other
16%

19%
1 Energy Sources

■ Hubbert’s peak
• Geologist who predicted in the 1950s that oil production in the
United States would peak in the early 1970s:
• US oil production peaked in 1973.
• Assumption of finite resource.
• Production starts at zero.
• Production then rises to a peak which can never be surpassed.
• Peak estimated around 2004-2008:
• One estimate places it symbolically at Thanksgiving 2005.
• Once the peak has been passed, production declines until the
resource is depleted.
 World Annual Oil Production (1900-2004) and
1 Estimated Resources (1900-2100)

30
Actual
Predicted
25

20
Billions of barrels

15

10

0
1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 2030 2040 2050 2060 2070 2080 2090 2100
2 Energy Use

■ Energy and work

• Energy provides work.

Energy
• Technology enables to use energy
more efficiently and for more
purposes.
Work
• Traditionally, most of the work was
performed by people:
Modification • Many efforts have been done to
alleviate work.
• Creating more work performed by
machines and the usage of even
Appropriation & more energy.
Transfer
Processing
2 Energy Use

Modification of the Appropriation and Transfer

Environment Processing
■Making space suitable for ■Extraction of resources ■Movements of freight,
human activities. (agricultural products and people and information.
■Clearing land for raw materials). ■Attenuate the spatial
agriculture. ■Modifying resources inequities in the location of
■Modifying the (manufacturing). resources by overcoming
hydrography (irrigation). ■Disposal of wastes distance.
■Establishing distribution (Piling, decontaminating ■Growing share of
infrastructures (roads). and burning). transportation in the total
■Constructing and energy spent
conditioning (temperature
and light) enclosed
structures.
3 Challenges

■ Energy Supply
• Providing supply to sustain growth and requirements.
• A modern society depends on a stable and continuous flow of
energy.
■ Energy Demand
• Generate more efficient devices:
• Transportation.
• Industrial processes.
• Appliances.
■ Environment
• Provide environmentally safe sources of energy.
• Going through the energy transition (from solid to gazes).
B Conventional Energy Resources

■ What sources of energy have filled our requirements so

far?
■ 1. Coal
■ 2. Petroleum
■ 3. Natural Gas
■ 4. Hydropower
■ 5. Nuclear Power
1 Coal

■ Nature
• Formed from decayed swamp plant matter that cannot
decompose in the low-oxygen underwater environment.
• Coal was the major fuel of the early Industrial Revolution.
• High correlation between the location of coal resources and early
industrial centers:
• The Midlands of Britain.
• Parts of Wales.
• Pennsylvania.
• Silesia (Poland).
• German Ruhr Valley.
• Three grades of coal.
1 Coal

Carbon content (%)

■ Anthracite
0 20 40 60 80 100
• Highest grade; over 85% carbon.
• Most efficient to burn.
• Lowest sulfur content; the least
Energy
Lignite Carbon
polluting.
• The most exploited and most
rapidly depleted.
■ Bituminous
Bituminous
• Medium grade coal, about 50-75%
carbon content.
• Higher sulfur content and is less
fuel-efficient.
• Most abundant coal in the USA.
Anthracite
■ Lignite
• Lowest grade of coal, with about
40% carbon content.
0 500 1000 1500 2000
• Low energy content.
Burned energy (1,000 calories per kg)
• Most sulfurous and most polluting.
1 Global Coal Production, 2002 (M short tons)

760

Production
Not significant World Coal Production by Type, 2000
7%
18%

Anthracite
Bituminous
Lignite

75%
1 Coal

■ Coal use
• Thermal coal (about 90% use):
• Used mainly in power stations to produce high pressure steam, which
then drives turbines to generate electricity.
• Also used to fire cement and lime kilns.
• Until the middle of the 20th Century used in steam engines.
• Metallurgical coal:
• Used as a source of carbon, for converting a metal ore to metal.
• Removing the oxygen in the ore by forcing it to combine with the carbon in
the coal to form CO2.
• Coking coal:
• Specific type of metallurgical coal.
• Used for making iron in blast furnaces.
• New redevelopment of the coal industry:
• In view of rising energy prices.
1 Coal Consumption, 1950-1998 (in millions of tons)

4000
Rest of the world
3500 India
U.S.
3000 China

2500

2000

1500

1000

500

0
50
52
54
56
58
60
62
64
66
68
70
72
74
76
78
80
82
84
86
88
90
92
94
96
98
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
 Coal as % of Energy Use and Electricity Generation,
1 1998

United States
Electricity (%)
Germany Energy (%)

Denmark

Ukraine

South Korea

Australia

India

Poland

China

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
2 Petroleum

■ Nature
• Formation of oil deposits:
• Decay under pressure of billions of microscopic plants in sedimentary
rocks.
• “Oil window”; 7,000 to 15,000 feet.
• Created over the last 600 million years.
• Exploration of new sources of petroleum:
• Related to the geologic history of an area.
• Located in sedimentary basins.
• About 90% of all petroleum resources have been discovered.
• Production vs. consumption:
• Geographical differences.
• Contributed to the political problems linked with oil supply.
2 Petroleum

■ Use
• Transportation:
• The share of transportation has increased in the total oil consumption.
• Accounts for more the 55% of the oil used.
• In the US, this share is 70%.
• Limited possibility at substitution.
• Other uses (30%):
• Lubricant.
• Plastics.
• Fertilizers.
• Choice of an energy source:
• Depend on a number of utility factors.
• Favoring the usage of fossil fuels, notably petroleum.
 Petroleum Production and Consumption, 2002 (M
barrels per day)

9,900

Production
Consumption
Not Included

2000 20.1 57.7 5.9 16.3

Industry
Transport
Non-energy
Other sectors
1973 26.2 42.2 6.4 25.2

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

2 Petroleum

■ Why an oil dependency?

• Favor the usage of petroleum as the main source of energy for
transport activities.
• The utility factors were so convenient that a dependency on
petroleum was created.
■ Taxes
• Should oil be taxed?
• Should the development of alternative sources of energy be
accelerated or enforced?
2 Factors of Oil Dependency

Occurrence Localized large deposits (decades)

Transportability Liquid that can be easily transported. Economies of scale

Energy content High mass / energy released ratio

Reliability Continuous supply; geopolitically unstable

Storability Easily stored

Flexibility Many uses (petrochemical industry; plastics)

Safety Relatively safe; some risks (transport)

Environment Little wastes, CO2 emissions

Price Relatively low costs

2 Costs of Finding Oil, 1977-2000

18 70
Difference between oil costs and finding costs
16
60
Worldwide oil finding costs
Costs of finding oil ($ per barrel)

14
50
12

Difference
10 40

8 30

6
20
4
10
2

0 0
77

79

81

83

85

87

89

91

93

95

97

99
19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19
2 Petroleum

■ Oil reserves
• The world oil production is currently running at capacity:
• Limited opportunities to expand production.
• 20% of the world’s outcome comes from 14 fields.
• Ghawar:
• The world’s largest oil field; been on production since 1951.
• Produces approximately 4.5 million barrels of oil per day.
• 55 to 60% of Saudi Arabia’s production.
• Expected to decline sharply (use of water injection).
• Could be 90% depleted.
• OPEC countries may have overstated its reserves:
• Production quotas are based upon estimated reserves.
• The larger the reserves, the more an OPEC country can export.
• In the 1980s, most OPEC reserves doubled “on paper”.
• Extraction continues while reserves remain the same(?).
2 Major Crude Oil Reserves, 2003

Billions of barrels
0 50 100 150 200 250 300

Saudi Arabia

Iraq

Iran

Kuwait

United Arab Emirates

Russia

Venezuela

Nigeria

Libya

China

United States

Mexico

Algeria

Norway

Angola
2 Global Oil Reserves, 2003

Barrels (2003)
Less than 5 billion
5 to 25 billions

25 to 50 billions

50 to 150 billions
70%
Reserves
More than 150 billions 60% Production
50%

40%

30%

20%

10%

0%
North Central & S. Western Eastern Middle East Africa Asia &
America America Europe Europe & Oceania
FSU
 Demand for Refined Petroleum Products by Sector in
2 the United States, 1960-2000 (in Quadrillion BTUs)

40

35

30

25

20

15

10

0
1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000
Transportation Industrial Residential and commercial Electric utilities
 Petroleum Production, Consumption and Imports,
2 United States, 1949-2002

8 60
Production
7 Consumption
Imports 50

6 Real oil price

40
Millions of barrels

Dollars per barrel

5

4 30

3
20

10
1

0 0
49

52

55

58

61

64

67

70

73

76

79

82

85

88

91

94

97

00
19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

20
2 Major Oil Flows and Chokepoints, 2003

Bosphorus
3.0 Hormuz Million barrels
per day
3.8
Suez 15.3
15
0.4 3.3 Malacca
Panama Bab el-Mandab 10
11.0
3

1
2 Petroleum

■ A perfect storm?
• Booming oil prices after 2004.
• Prior oil spikes linked with short lived geopolitical events.
• The situation has changed at the beginning of the 21st century.
• A production issue:
• Petroleum extraction appears to be running at capacity.
• Demand, especially new consumers (China), is going up.
• A distribution issue:
• Limited additional tanker and pipeline capacity.
• A refining issue:
• Limited additional refining capacity.
• No refineries were built in the US since 1974.
3 Natural Gas

■ Nature
• Formation:
• Thermogenic: converted organic material into natural gas due to high
pressure.
• Deeper window than oil.
• Biogenic: transformation by microorganisms.
• Composition:
• Composed primarily of methane and other light hydrocarbons.
• Mixture of 50 to 90% by volume of methane, propane and butane.
• “Dry” and “wet” (methane content); “sweet” and “sour” (sulfur content).
• Usually found in association with oil:
• Formation of oil is likely to have natural gas as a by-product.
• Often a layer over the petroleum.
3 Natural Gas

■ Reserves
• Substantial reserves likely to satisfy energy needs for the next
100 years.
• High level of concentration:
• 45% of the world’s reserves are in Russia and Iran.
• Regional concentration of gas resources is more diverse:
• As opposed to oil.
• Only 36% of the reserves are in the Middle East.
3 Natural Gas

■ Use
• Mostly used for energy generation.
• Previously, it was often wasted - burned off.
• It is now more frequently conserved and used.
• Considered the cleanest fossil fuel to use.
• The major problem is transporting natural gas, which requires
pipelines.
• Gas turbine technology enables to use natural gas to produce
electricity more cheaply than using coal.
■ Liquefied natural gas (LNG)
• Liquid form of natural gas; easier to transport.
• Cryogenic process (-256oF): gas loses 610 times its volume.
• Value chain:
• Extraction
• Liquefaction
• Shipping
• Storage and re-gasification
3 Global Natural Gas Reserves, 2003

Trillion Cubic Feet (2003)

Less than 10 trillion
10 to 50 trillion

50 to 100 trillion

100 to 200 trillion

40%
Reserves
More than 200 trillion 35%
Production
30%

25%

20%

15%

10%

5%

0%
North Central & S. Western Eastern Middle East Africa Asia &
America America Europe Europe & Oceania
FSU
4 Hydropower

■ Nature
• Generation of electricity using the flow of water as the energy
source.
• Gravity as source.
• Requires a large reservoir of water.
• Considered cleaner, less polluting than fossil fuels.
■ Tidal power
• Take advantage of the variations between high and low tides.
4 Hydropower

Sun
Evaporation
Water
Sufficient and regular
Precipitation precipitations
Rivers
Flow
Reservoirs
Accumulation Suitable local site
Dam
Gravity
Turbine

Power loss due to

Electricity
distance
4 Hydropower

■ Controversy
• Require the development of vast amounts of infrastructures:
• Dams.
• Reservoirs.
• Power plants and power lines.
• Very expensive and consume financial resources or aid resources that
could be utilized for other things.
• Environmental problems:
• The dams themselves often alter the environment in the areas where they
are located.
• Changing the nature of rivers, creating lakes that fill former valleys and
canyons, etc.
 World Hydroelectric Generating Capacity, 1950-98
4 (in megawatts)

800,000
Brazil
700,000 Canada
United States
600,000
World
500,000

400,000

300,000

200,000

100,000

0
50

53

56

59

62

65

68

71

74

77

80

83

86

89

92

95

98
19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19
5 Nuclear Power

■ Nature
• Fission of uranium to produce energy.
• The fission of 1 kg (2.2 lb) of uranium-235 releases 18.7 million
kilowatt-hours as heat.
• Heat is used to boil water and activate steam turbines.
• Uranium is fairly abundant.
• Requires massive amounts of water for cooling the reactor.
5 Nuclear Power

Production and storage Suitable site (NIMBY) Large quantities

Uranium Reactor Water

Fission
Waste storage and
disposal Steam

Turbine

Electricity
5 Nuclear Power Plants, 1960-2002 (in gigawatts)

400 35

350 30
300
25
250

Construction
20
Capacity

200
15
150
10
100

50 5

0 0
60
62
64
66
68
70
72
74
76
78
80
82
84
86
88
90
92
94
96
98
00
02
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
20
20
Capacity Decommissioned Construction
5 Nuclear Power

■ Nuclear power plants

• 430 operating nuclear power plants (civilian) worldwide.
• Very few new plants coming on line:
• Public resistance (NIMBY syndrome).
• High costs.
• Nuclear waste disposal.
• 30 countries generate nuclear electricity:
• About 17% of all electricity generated worldwide.
• United States:
• 109 licensed nuclear power plants; about 20% of the electricity.
• Licenses are usually given for a 40 year period.
• Many US plants will be coming up for license extensions by 2006.
• No new nuclear power plant built since 1979 (Three Mile Island incident).
• China:
• Plans to had 2 new nuclear reactor per year until 2020.
5 Global Nuclear Energy Generation, 2003

Billion Kilowatthours (2003)

Less than 25.00
25 to 100
100 to 200

200 to 500

More than 500

5 Nuclear Power

■ Nuclear waste disposal

• Problem of nuclear waste disposal; radioactivity.
• Low level wastes:
• Material used to handle the highly radioactive parts of nuclear reactors .
• Water pipes and radiation suits.
• Lose their radioactivity after 10 to 50 years.
• High level wastes:
• Includes uranium, plutonium, and other highly radioactive elements made
during fission.
• Nuclear wastes have a half-life about of 10,000 to 20,000 years.
• Requirements of long-term storage in a geologically stable area.
• Long Term Geological Storage site at Yucca Mountain.
5 Nuclear Power

■ Reliance
• Some countries have progressed much further in their use of
nuclear power than the US.
• High reliance:
• France, Sweden, Belgium, and Russia have a high reliance on nuclear
energy.
• France has done this so as not to rely on foreign oil sources.
• It generates 75% of its electricity using nuclear energy.
• The need to import most fossil fuels provides an extra impetus to turn to
nuclear energy.
• Phasing out:
• Nuclear energy perceived as financially unsound and risky.
• No new nuclear power plant built in Europe since Chernobyl (1986).
• The German parliament decided in 2001 to phase out nuclear energy
altogether.
5 Nuclear Power as % of Electricity Generation, 1998

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80

France
Belgium
Sweden
Slovakia
South Korea
Hungary
Switzerland
Finland
Japan
Germany
Spain
Britain
Czech Republic
United States
Canada
5 Nuclear Power

Pro Nuclear Side Con Nuclear Side

■Reduced fossil fuels dependence ■Fear of accidents and sabotage
■Enhanced energy security (terrorism)
■Environmental benefits ■Waste disposal
■High construction and
decommission costs
C Alternative Energy Resources

■ What new sources of energy are likely to satisfy future

demands?
■ 1. Context
■ 2. Hydrogen and Fuel Cells
■ 3. Solar Energy
■ 4. Wind Energy
■ 5. Geothermal Energy
■ 6. Biomass Fuels
1 Context

■ Emergence
• Received increasing attention since the first oil crisis in 1973:
• Attention varies with fluctuations in the price of oil.
• Several alternate sources need further research before they can
become truly viable alternatives.
• Moving from carbon-based sources to non-carbon based:
• Europe: 22% of its energy to come from renewable sources by 2010.
■ Unsustainability of fossil fuels
• The resource itself is finite.
• Use contributes to the global warming problem.
• Some 35% of the carbon emissions in the USA is attributable to
electric power generation.
• Employing substitutes for fossil fuels in that area alone would
help alleviate our greenhouse gas problem.
1 Context

CO2 Emissions from Energy ■ Fuel use efficiency

Usage, United States 2001 • Not an alternate energy source.
• Can have a great impact on
conservation.
10% • After 1973, many industries were
7%
motivated to achieve greater
efficiency of energy use.
• Many appliances (including
home air conditioners) were
54% made more energy efficient.
29% • The USA continually ranks
behind Europe and Japan in
energy efficiency.

Residential Commercial
Industrial Transportation
 Average Gasoline Consumption for New Vehicles,
1 United States, 1972-2004 (in miles per gallon)

30
28
26
24
22
20
18
16 Cars
14 Light Trucks
12 Average
10
72

74

76

78

80

82

84

86

88

90

92

94

96

98

00

02

04
19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

20

20

20
 Light-Duty Vehicles Sales in the United States, 1975-
1 2004 (in 1,000s)

18000
Trucks
16000
Cars
14000

12000

10000

8000

6000

4000

2000

0
75

77

79

81

83

85

87

89

91

93

95

97

99

01

03
19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

20

20
 Change in Average Vehicle Characteristics, 1981-
1 2003 (in %)

Acceleration

Horsepower

Weight

Fuel Economy

0 20 40 60 80 100
1 Typical Energy Use for a Car

8% 12%
6%

Momentum
13%
Exhaust
Cylinder cooling
Engine friction
32% Transmission and axles
Braking

29%
1 Context

■ Nuclear fusion
• Currently researched but without much success.
• It offers unlimited potential.
• Not realistically going to be a viable source of energy in the
foreseeable future.
2 Hydrogen and Fuel Cells

■ Hydrogen
• Considered to be the cleanest fuel.
• Compose 90% of the matter of the
Hydrogen Oxygen
universe.
Fuel • Non polluting (emits only water and
heat).
• Highest level of energy content.
Fuel Cell
■ Fuel cells
Catalytic conversion • Convert fuel energy (such as hydrogen)
to electric energy.
• No combustion is involved.
Water Electricity
• Composed of an anode and a cathode.
• Fuel is supplied to the anode.
• Oxygen is supplied to the cathode.
• Electrons are stripped from a reaction
at the anode and attracted to form
another reaction at the cathode.
2 Hydrogen and Fuel Cells

■ Fuel cell cars

• Most likely replacement for the internal combustion engine.
• Efficiency levels are between 55% and 65%.
• May be introduced by 2004 (working prototypes).
• Mass produced by 2010.
■ Storage issues
• Hydrogen is a highly combustive gas.
• Find a way to safely store it, especially in a vehicle.
■ Delivery issues
• Distribution from producers to consumers.
• Production and storage facilities.
• Structures and methods for transporting hydrogen.
• Fueling stations for hydrogen-powered applications.
2 Hydrogen and Fuel Cells

■ Hydrogen production
• Not naturally occurring.
Fossil Fuels
Steam • Producing sufficient quantities to
Reforming satisfy the demand.
• Extraction from fossil fuels:
• From natural gas.
• Steam reforming.
Water Electrolysis
• Electrolysis of water:
• Electricity from fossil fuels not a
environmentally sound alternative.
• Electricity from solar or wind energy
Biomass Pyrolysis is a better alternative.
• Pyrolysis of the biomass:
• Decomposing by heat in an oxygen-
reduced atmosphere.
3 Solar Energy

■ Definition
• Radiant energy emitted by the sun (photons emitted by nuclear
fusion).
• Conversion of solar energy into electricity.
■ Photovoltaic systems
■ Solar thermal systems
3 Solar Energy

Level of insolation
Sun
(latitude & precipitation)

Solar cells Mirrors

Concentration

Water
Evaporation
Conversion
Steam

Turbine

Electricity
3 Global Solar Energy Potential
3 Solar Energy

■ Photovoltaic systems
• Semiconductors to convert solar radiation into electricity.
• Better suited for limited uses such as pumping water that do not
require large amounts of electricity.
• Costs have declined substantially:
• 5 cents per kilowatt-hour.
• Compared to about 3 cents for coal fired electrical power.
• Economies of scale could then be realized in production of the
necessary equipment.
• Japan generates about 50% of the world’s solar energy.
 World Photovoltaic Annual Shipments and Price
3 1975-2001

450 90
Shipments
400 80
Prices
350 70

300 60

Dollars per watt

Megawatts

250 50

200 40

150 30

100 20

50 10

0 0
75

77

79

81

83

85

87

89

91

93

95

97

99

01
19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

20
 Photovoltaic Production by Country or Region, 1994-
3 2001

400

350

300

250
Rest of World
Europe
200
Japan
U.S.
150

100

50

0
1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001
3 Solar Energy

■ Solar thermal systems

• Employ parabolic reflectors to focus solar radiation onto water
pipes, generating steam that then power turbines.
• Costing about 5-10 cents per Kwh.
• Require ample, direct, bright sunlight.
• Drawback of the solar thermal systems is their dependence on
direct sunshine, unlike the photovoltaic cells.
■ Limitations
• Inability to utilize solar energy effectively.
• There is currently only about a 15% conversion rate of solar
energy into electricity.
• Low concentration of the resource.
• Need a very decentralized infrastructure to capture the resource.
4 Wind Power

Sun
Heat

Air

Pressure Major prevalent wind

differences systems
Wind

Wind mills
Fans Site suitability

Turbine

Electricity
4 Wind Power

■ Potential use
• Growing efficiency of wind turbines.
• 75% of the world’s usage is in Western Europe:
• Provided electricity to some 28 million Europeans in 2002.
• Germany, Denmark (18%) and the Netherlands.
• New windfarms are located at sea along the coast:
• The wind blows harder and more steadily.
• Does not consume valuable land.
• No protests against wind parks marring the landscape.
• United States:
• The USA could generate 25% of its energy needs from wind power by
installing wind farms on just 1.5% of the land.
• North Dakota, Kansas, and Texas have enough harnessable wind energy
to meet electricity needs for the whole country.
4 Wind Power

• Farms are a good place to implement wind mills:

• A quarter of a acre can earn about $2,000 a year in royalties from wind
electricity generation.
• That same quarter of an acre can only generate $100 worth or corn.
• Farmland could simultaneously be used for agriculture and energy
generation.
• Wind energy could be used to produce hydrogen.
■ Limitations
• Extensive infrastructure and land requirements.
• 1980: 40 cents per kwh.
• 2001: 3-4 cents per kwh.
• Less reliable than other sources of energy.
• Inexhaustible energy source that can supply both electricity and
fuel.
 World Wind Energy Generating Capacity, 1980-2002
4 (in megawatts)

35,000
Capacity
30,000 Addition

25,000

20,000

15,000

10,000

5,000

0
80

82

84

86

88

90

92

94

96

98

00

02
19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

20

20
5 Geothermal Energy

■ Hydrogeothermal
• 2-4 miles below the earth's surface, rock temperature well above
boiling point.
• Closely associated with tectonic activity.
• Fracturing the rocks, introducing cold water, and recovering the
resulting hot water or steam which could power turbines and
produce electricity.
• Areas where the natural heat of the earth’s interior is much
closer to the surface and can be more readily tapped.
5 Geothermal Energy

Winter ■ Geothermal heat pumps

House • Promising alternative to
heating/cooling systems.
• Ground below the frost line (about 5
5 feet
feet) is kept around 55oF year-round.
• During winter:
• The ground is warmer than the
55o F
outside.
• Heat can be pumped from the
Summer ground to the house.
• During summer:
House • The ground is cooler than the
outside.
5 feet • Heat can be pumped from the house
to the ground.

55o F
5 World Geothermal Power, 1950-2000 (in megawatts)

9000

8000

7000

6000

5000

4000

3000

2000

1000

0
50

53

56

59

62

65

68

71

74

77

80

83

86

89

92

95

98
19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19
6 Biomass

■ Nature
• Biomass energy involves the growing of crops for fuel rather than
for food.
• Crops can be burned directly to release heat or be converted to
useable fuels such methane, ethanol, or hydrogen.
• Has been around for many millennia.
• Not been used as a large-scale energy source:
• 14% of all energy used comes from biomass fuels.
• 65% of all wood harvested is burned as a fuel.
• 2.4 billion people rely on primitive biomass for cooking and heating.
• Important only in developing countries.
• Asia and Africa: 75% of wood fuels use.
• US: 5% comes from biomass sources.
 Energy Consumption, Solid biomass (includes
6 fuelwood)
Kenya
1990
Tanzania
2001
South Africa
Thailand
Congo, Dem Rep
Ethiopia
Viet Nam
Pakistan
Brazil
Indonesia
United States
Nigeria
India
China

0 50,000 100,000 150,000 200,000 250,000

Thousand metric tons oil equivalent
6 Biomass

■ Biofuels
• Fuel derived from organic matter.
• Development of biomass conversion technologies:
• Alcohols and methane the most useful.
• Plant materials like starch or sugar from cane.
• Waste materials like plant stalks composed of cellulose.
■ Potential and drawbacks
• Some 20% of our energy needs could be met by biofuels without
seriously compromising food supplies.
• Competing with other agricultural products for land.
6 Biomass

• Could contribute to reducing carbon emissions while providing a

cheap source of renewable energy:
• Burning biofuels does create carbon emissions.
• The burned biomass is that which removed carbon from the atmosphere
through photosynthesis.
• Does not represent a real increase in atmospheric carbon.
• Genetic engineering:
• Create plants that more efficiently capture solar energy.
• Increasing leaf size and altering leaf orientation with regard to the sun.
• Conversion technology research:
• Seeking to enhance the efficiency rate of converting biomass into energy.
• From the 20-25% range up to 35-45% range.
• Would render it more cost-competitive with traditional fuels.
Energy from Fossil Fuels
Prof. Omar Badran
FET/BAU
 Energy from Chemistry
• Question
– What is “chemical” energy?
• A form of potential energy
• Potential energy is stored in the (valence) electrons of atoms and
molecules
• Lecture Questions
– What are exothermic and endothermic chemical reactions?
• Exothermic reaction: produces energy, usually as heat or light
• Endothermic reaction: consumes energy as it proceeds
– Why do some reactions produce energy (and some consume it)?
• Chemical reactions
– Consists of breaking and forming bonds
– The formation of bonds always yields energy
– The breaking of bonds always requires energy
– The balance between these two processes determines the net energy
yield/requirement of a chemical reaction
 The Fossil Fuels
• What are the main fossil fuels?
– Coal, oil (petroleum), natural gas
Gas Coal
Gas
26% Coal 25%
26%
30%

Global OECD
Oil Oil
44% 49%

• How are they mostly used? OECD: Organization for Economic

– Coal: electricity Cooperation and Development
– Oil: transportation, heating
– Natural gas: heating, electricity, cooking
Use of Coal
Use of Natural Gas
Use of Oil
 King Coal
• Lecture Questions
– What is coal?
• A solid mixture consisting largely (about 85%) of carbon
– Representative formula is C135H96O9NS
– Plenty of other impurities
» Toxic metals like Pb, Hg, As
» Radioactive isotopes of various types
– Three broad grades of coal
» Anthracite (hard coal). Highest carbon content and heat value.
» Bituminous coal (soft coal)
» Lignite (brown coal). Lowest carbon content and heat value.
– How is coal formed?
• Originated as plant matter in hot, muggy regions
– Most current coal formed 200-350 million years ago
– Plant matter decays under conditions of low oxygen, high heat and
pressure
» First converted to peat
 Natural Gas
• What is natural gas?
– Gaseous mixture of hydrocarbons
• Mostly methane, CH4 (60-80%)
• Others: C2 HCs (5-9%), C3 HCs (3-18%), C4 HCs(2-14%)
• How is it formed?
– Decomposition of plant and animal remains that had been buried
• Again: lack of oxygen, high heat and pressure
• Methane is produced by anaerobic respiration
– Plenty produced in sediments and landfills
– Often accompanies coal and oil deposits
 Oil
• What is oil (petroleum)?
– A very complicated liquid mixture of hydrocarbons
– Liquid HCs start at C4-C5
– Almost always contains dissolved natural gas as well
• How is it formed?
– Again, decomposition of biological matter
• Most probably originated from ocean-dwelling microorganisms
Oil Recovery
Primary Recovery of Oil
Secondary Recovery of Oil
Oil Recovery
Oil Distillation
 Oil Distillate Refinement
• Gasoline Formation
– Conversion of other oil fractions to gasoline
– Cracking
• Breaking apart larger molecules into smaller ones
• Thermal cracking
• Catalytic cracking
• Gasoline enhancement
– Purpose
• Make it burn better of cleaner
• Example: antiknock agents
– Tetraethyl lead (TEL)
– MTBE
– Oxygenated Gasoline
• Reduce CO emissions
• MTBE, ethanol, methanol
– Reformulated Gasoline (RFG)
• Oxygenated gasolines with fewer volatile hydrocarbons
• Reduce CO emissions
• Reduced smog
• May have reduced impact on groundwater (lower BTEX)
 Environmental Impacts of Fossil Fuels
• What are the environmental impacts of using fossil fuels
as energy sources?
– Extraction
• Coal mining
• Oil and gas drilling
– Storage and Transport
• Leaks, spills
– Combustion
• Contributes to global warming, acid rain, smog, PM, eutrophication,
toxic metals, exposure to radioactivity
– All contribute to global warming, nitrate PM, eutrophication, and
acidification due to HNO3
– Coal is the main culprit for SO2, metal and radionuclide emissions. It is
also the worst of the three for PM.
 The Future of Fossil Fuels
• Nonrenewable resources
– They will eventually be exhausted and need to be replaced
– Global warming may accelerate the replacement (or not)
• Reserves and Resources
 Peak Oil
• When will we run out of oil (and natural gas)?
– Most important question is maybe: when will production begin to
decline? (ie, “when will peak oil production occur?”)
– In March 1998, two retired petroleum geologists (Campbell and Laherre)
claimed that oil would peak in the first decade of the 21st century
Peak Oil: Other Estimates
 Peak Oil
• Unconventional Sources of Oil
– Potentially a very large resource
• Oil shales, tar sands, heavy oil
• Extends peak production by 2-3 decades
– Problems
• More energy intensive (thus more expensive); more environmentally damaging
 Preface

The main text referred to is the book

entitled: Principles of Energy Conversion by
Archie W. Culp.
Most Figure captions, Tables and
Appendices are taken from this text.
 Chapter-1
Energy Basics:
Energy classification, resources and
utilization
Energy is a property, when changed, it will produce heat
and/ or work (KE, TE)
Major advances in human civilizations are measured by
useful energy consumption
Sometimes, energy consumption is not always useful.
For example: flares of gas from oil wells and from refinery
flares.
This is an energy consuming activity that is wasteful to
the economy and harmful to the environment.
 The 3-E's

Energy Economy Environment

 Primary Energy
A quantity that any kind of energy can be expressed in its units.
For example, Jouls (J), kilojouls (kJ), Megajouls (MJ), Gigajouls (GJ)
British Thermal Unit (Btu), Million Btu (MBtu),
Ton of Oil Equivalent (T.O.E)……..used in countries that mostly use oil.
Barrel of Oil Equivalent (B.O.E)… . " " " " " " "
Ton of Coal Equivalent (T.C.E)….. " " " " " " coal.
For example, Jordan consumed 7.35 Million T.O.E in the year 2012.
All units are transferrable to each other. For example:
1 B.O.E = 5.8 x 106 Btu
1 T.O.E = 7 B.O.E
See App. B for more conversion factors.
 Energy vs. Economy
Define: Energy consumption per capita= Energy
consumption/ population
Gross National Product (GNP) as the total economical
activity in a country including all goods and services.
GNP per capita = GNP/ population
The energy vs. economy situation in any country may be
represented by Fig.1.1
Notes:
If both parameters are high → good
If both parameters are low → bad
If below the line this is better than above the line
because there is saving in energy for the same GNP.
 Energy and Power

Power = Energy / time = dE / dt

dE = P dt
E = ʃ P dt = P ʃ dt
Usually, in energy and power problems, the amount
that is fixed is E
and t may be reduced to get higher P
An important feature of energy and power is that:
Energy is cumulative but power is not.
Energy can be stored but power cannot.
 Units of Energy

In SI system In British system

E ≡ Joul = N.m E ≡ Btu, ft.lb
P ≡ Joul / sec = Watt P ≡ Btu / hr , ft.lb / s
1 hp = 550 ft.lb / s
1 kW = 1.341 hp
Now if 1 W = J/ s
Hence 1 J = W.s
1 kJ = 1 kw.s
= 1 kW-hr / 3600
1 kW-hr = 3600 kJ; a famous unit mostly used in electricity
generation.
 Example:

A 100 W bulb is switched ON for 8 hours. If the

price of electricity is 50 fils / kW-hr, what is the
cost of energy consumed during that period?
Sol'n. 1 J = W.s
E = P. t = 100 x 8 x 3600 = 2.88 x 106 J = 2.88
x 103 kJ
= 2.88 x 103/ 3600 = 0.8 kW-hr
0.8 x 50 = 40 fils
 1.4 Energy Types and
Classifications

E ≡ N.m = Joul

E=P t
 1.4 Energy Types and
Classifications, cont'd.
Mechanical Energy is the sum of potential energy
and kinetic energy. It is the energy associated with the
motion and position of an object.
• Kinetic energy is present whenever an object is in
motion. Potential energy is based on the position of an
object; it is stored energy, and cannot do work on its
own. It can, however, be converted to other forms of
energy, including kinetic energy. A bowling ball
suspended 10 feet (3 m) above the ground, for example,
has no kinetic energy because it's not moving. It does,
however, have a large amount of potential energy (in this
case, gravitational potential energy) that would be
converted to kinetic energy if the ball was allowed to fall.
 1.4 Energy Types and
Classifications, cont'd.
An engine is an example
of a system that produces
mechanical energy.
 1.4 Energy Types and
Classifications, cont'd.
Electrical energy is energy newly derived from Electrical
Potential Energy. It is the energy absorbed or delivered
by an Electrical Circuit. "Electrical energy" refers to
energy which has been converted from electrical
potential energy. This energy is supplied by the
combination of Electric Current and Electrical Potential
that is delivered by the circuit. All electrical energy is
potential energy before it is delivered to the end-use.
Once converted from potential energy, electrical energy
can always be described as another type of energy
(heat, light, motion, etc.).
 1.4 Energy Types and
Classifications, cont'd.
Electricity Generation is the process of
generating electric energy from other forms of
energy (Wind, Solar, Water, Fuel Combustion,… ).

The fundamental principles of electricity generation

were discovered during the 1820s and early 1830s
by the British scientist Michael Faraday. His basic
method is still used today: electricity is generated by
the movement of a loop of wire, or disc of copper
between the poles of a magnet
 1.4 Energy Types and
Classifications, cont'd.
For electric utilities, it is the first process in
the delivery of electricity to consumers. The
other processes, electricity Transmission,
Distribution, and electrical power storage
and recovery using Pumped-Storage
methods are normally carried out by the
ElectricPower Industry
 1.4 Energy Types and
Classifications, cont'd.
Electricity is most often generated at a power
stations by electromechanical generators,
primarily driven by heat engines fueled by
chemical combustion or nuclear fission but also
by other means such as the kinetic energy of
flowing water and wind. There are many other
technologies that can be and are used to
generate electricity such as solar photovoltaics
and geothermal power.
 1.4 Energy Types and
Classifications, cont'd.

Turbo Generators provide the majority of the world's electric energy

 1.4 Energy Types and
Classifications, cont'd.
Electromagnetic Energy
A form of energy that is reflected or emitted from
objects in the form of electrical and magnetic waves
that can travel through space
Examples:
There are many forms of electromagnetic energy
including gamma rays, x rays, ultraviolet radiation,
visible light, infrared radiation, microwaves and
radio waves.
 1.4 Energy Types and
Classifications, cont'd.
3- Electromagnetic

E=h×ν=hc/λ

Where: h is Plank's constant,

ν is the frequency,
c is the speed of light,
λ is the wavelength

Cannot be stored.
1.4 Energy Types and
Classifications, cont'd.
 1.4 Energy Types and
Classifications, cont'd.
4- Chemical Energy: It is the energy liberated by a
chemical reaction or absorbed in the formation of a chemical
compound.
Chemical Energy Definition: Chemical energy is the energy
contained in the internal structure of an atom or molecule.
This energy could be in the electronic structure of a single
atom or in the bonds between atoms in a molecule.

Chemical energy is converted into other forms of energy by

chemical reactions.
mainly exothermic reaction; (Combustion)
The easiest to store: For example: hydrogen production
1.4 Energy Types and
Classifications, cont'd.
1.4 Energy Types and
Classifications, cont'd.
 1.4 Energy Types and
Classifications, cont'd.
• Nuclear Energy, is the use of exothermic
‫الحرارة الخارجية‬nuclear process, to generate
useful Heat and Electricity. The term includes
Nuclear Fission, Nuclear Decay and Nuclear
Fusion.
 1.4 Energy Types and
Classifications, cont'd.
• In nuclear, nuclear fission ‫ إنشطار‬is either a
nuclear reaction or a radioactive decay
process in which the nucleus of an atom
splits into smaller parts (lighter nuclei). The
fission process often produces free
neutrons and photons (in the form of
gamma rays), and releases a very large
amount of energy.
 1.4 Energy Types and
Classifications, cont'd.
• In nuclear physics, nuclear fusion ‫ اندماج‬is a
nuclear reaction in which two or more atomic nuclei
collide at a very high speed and join to form a new
type of atomic nucleus.

The Sun generates its

energy by nuclear fusion of
hydrogen nuclei into helium.
In its core, the Sun fuses
620 million metric tons of
hydrogen each second.
1.4 Energy Types and
Classifications, cont'd.
1.4 Energy Types and
Classifications, cont'd.

The Electric Station, in Pennsylvania,

United States. The two Boiling Water
Reactors are located inside the rectangular
containment building towards the front of
the cooling towers. The power station
produces 63 million KW. Hr per day
 1.4 Energy Types and
Classifications, cont'd.

American nuclear powered The Russian nuclear-powered

ships, the longest ever naval icebreaker
vessel, and the first nuclear-
powered aircraft carrier
1.4 Energy Types and
Classifications, cont'd.
 1.5 Energy Sources
Energy Sources

Renewable
Non-Renewable

Solar,
Wind
Fossil Fuel: Coal
Wave
Petroleum, Shale oil,
Hydro
Tar sand
Tide ‫المد‬
Gas
OTEC (Ocean
Nuclear Thermal Energy
Geothermal Conversion)
1.6 Energy Reserves
 1.6 Energy Reserves, cont'd.
One can concentrate on fossil fuels because they are the most
consumable energy sources during the late 1980's. The most important
ones:

Shale oil: 1.2 × 1021 J ‫الصخر الزيتي‬

Tar sand: 1.8 × 1021 J ‫قطران‬
Natural gas: 9.5 × 1021 J
Petroleum: 11.7 × 1021 J
Total: 24.2 × 1021 J

In 1986, the energy consumption in the world was 24 × 1019 J, which

means that the worlds energy reserves may be enough for about 100
years, given the consumption remained the same as that of 1986.
 1.6 Energy Reserves, cont'd.
Considering coal reserves: 200 × 1021 J
This will add about 833 years in order to consume coal, but coal has the
problem of pollution due to high sulfur content.

Considering Uranium 235 reserves: 13.7 × 1021 J

This will add 57 years to consume it,
but there is a safety problem here.

Considering solar power on the U.S. only: 187,000 × 1021 W. 1 J = W. s

× 3600 × 24 × 365 = 58.9 × 1021 J
Which is about 2.4 times of the fossil fuel reserves, but it is costly.
Considering wind power on the U.S. only: 970 × 1010 W
× 3600 × 24 × 365 = 0.3 × 1021 J
Which is enough for about 1.25 of the world's needs, but it is costly.
CONCLUSION: THERE IS NO MAJIC SOLUTION, ECCEPT WITH
CONSERVATION AND DEVELOPMENT AND INVESTMENT IN
RENEWABLE ENERGY.
•
1.7 Energy Utilization

‫استخدام‬
1.7 Energy Utilization
P=Petroleum
C=Coal
G=Gas
H=Hydroelectric
N=Nuclear
O=Other

R=Residential
I=Industrial
T=Transportation
E=Electricity
Production

Quad is unit of
HE =1015 Btu
Energy Utilization in Jordan
‫منوع‬
Energy Supply and Consumption

Energy supply and consumption in US, 1920-1986

Energy Growth
Energy Growth, cont’d.
Energy Consumption
 1.9 Energy Economics
Define the plant as any conversion device. It ranges from a
solar collector to a power station. The cost of the plant is
divided into two main categories:
1- Capital cost
A fixed amount to be paid, no matter if the plant was
operating or not. It covers: Equipment, Construction,
Land costs, Investment charges, Insurance and Taxes.
This cost is spread over a number of years to get the
annual capital cost.
2- Operational cost
Varies with power production. It covers Fuel,
Maintenance, Salaries, Wages and in some cases,
Production taxes.
How to obtain capital cost ‫تكلفة رأس المال‬
Assume a plant will be bought, for example, a solar collector
system.

Present (or Principal) value, Pr is the original cost of the plant, if

all of it was paid (cash) at once.

Final worth of the plant after t years, as the money value of the
plant if, instead, the capital was put in the bank and the interest
was collected. If the investment was compounded n times a year
at a rate of i / year, the final worth is:
 Final worth of Energy payments
Instead of installing the plant, assume that energy will be bought
from the electric company.

‫المعاش‬
Effective short-term interest rate
 Final worth with price escalation

If A is not constant, but varies over time due to price escalation at

a rate, e
based on m payments per year, and if the first payment was A1 ,
the final worth is:
 Breakeven Point
The year at which the final worth of money paid by the first method
equals to that of the second method plus a salvage value, SV.
Salvage Value, SV:
The price that the plant can be sold for at the breakeven point.
Effective Value of Pr

p : the construction payments

 Operating Cost
1- Fuel Cost
Heat Rate, HR, is the amount of heat units required to produce1
kW-h of electric energy
Relation with ηth
From the definition of thermal efficiency:
ηth = Work output / heat input = 1kWe h / Heat Rate

In British units: In SI units

If HR is in Btu/kWe-hr If HR is in kJ/kWe- hr
We know that: 1 kW = 3412 Btu/hr 1 kW = 1 kJ/s
ηth = 3412 / HR ηth = 3600 / HR
HR = 3412 / ηth HR = 3600 / ηth
 Operating Cost , cont’d.
Define: Unit fuel cost ≡ Cost of fuel / kWe –hr
If the price of fuel is f, cents/ 106 Btu then
Unit fuel cost = f [cents/ 106 Btu] × HR [Btu/kWe- hr]
= [ f / 106]. [3412 / ηth] = 0.003413 f / ηth
[cent/kWe-hr]

2- Labor Cost
Define: Unit labor cost = 1.14 × 10-5 N. AS / Pmax . CF
Where: N is the number of workers,
AS is the average annual salary, $
Pmax is rated output, MWe,
CF is the capacity factor ≡ average load / installed capacity
FOSSIL FUELS
Section 1
Fossil Fuels

A fuel is a substance that

provides a form of energy.
Such as heat, light, electricity, or
motion.
As a result of a chemical
change.
Combustion

The process of burning a

fuel is called combustion.

Gasoline + Oxygen
Carbon Dioxide + Water
Fossil Fuel
What are Fossil Fuels

 Fossil Fuels are the energy rich

substances formed from the remains
of once-living organisms.
 The three major fossil fuels are coal,

oil and natural gas.

 Fossil fuels are made of

hydrocarbons, they contain carbon

and hydrogen's.
Coal
Coal
 Coal is a solid fossil fuel formed from plant
remains.
 Known deposits of coal (and other fossil fuels) can
be obtained using current technology are called
reserves.
 Coal is the most plentiful fossil fuel in the U.S.
1. Its easy to transport
2. It provides lots of energy when burned.
Coal
OIL

 Oil is a thick, liquid fossil fuel, it is

formed from remains of small animals,
algae and protists.
 Petroleum is another name for oil.

 The United States consumes about one

third of all the oil produced in the world.
 Only 3% of the world’s supply is located
in this country.
Fossil Fuel Consumption
Refining Oil

 When oil is first pumped out of the

ground, it is called crude oil.

 A factory where crude oil is

separated into fuels and other
products by heating is called a
refinery.
Natural Gas
 The third major fossil fuel is natural gas.
 It is a mixture of methane and other gases.

 Advantages:

1. Provides lots of energy

2. Lower levels of air pollutants than coal and

oil
3. Its easy to transport.

 Disadvantage:

1. Highly flammable
Comparison
 Fuel Supply and Demand

 Fossil fuel takes hundreds of millions of

years to form.
 Fossil fuels therefore are considered a
nonrenewable resource.
 New resources of energy are needed
to replace the decreasing fossil fuel
reserves.