Family Type, Juvenile Delinquency and Academic Achievement of Adolescents

in Kampala District

By

Nanyonjo Mabel

2010/HD12/3093

A Dissertation Submitted to the School of Psychology in Partial Fulfillment of the

Requirements for the Award of the Degree of Master in Educational Psychology of

Makerere University

June 2018
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Declaration

I, Nanyonjo Mabel, hereby declare that this is my original work and has never been presented to

any institution for any award.

Signature: ………………………… Date: …………………

NANYONJO MABEL (Student)

Registration Number: 2010/HD12/3093U

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Approval

This is to certify that this dissertation has been submitted for review with my approval as

supervisor.

Signature: ……………………..…………

Professor Grace Kibanja (Supervisor)

Date………………………………………
 iv

Dedication

In memory of my late parents; Mr Elijah Kulabako Kazibwe and Mrs Joy Allen Kulabako

Kazibwe who passed on when I was still a small girl.

To all my children, this is to inspire you. You should always be better at what you do best.
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Acknowledgement

I am very grateful to the Almighty God for the gift of life, courage and wisdom to go

through this academic experience; may His name be glorified.

I am indebted to my supervisor Professor Grace Kibanja who has tirelessly encouraged,

directed and guided me throughout this academic journey. A journey filled with unforgettable

experiences, hard work, persistence and fun! You made it seem easy even when things became

super challenging. With sincere compliment I wish to acknowledge your everlasting intellectual

guidance bestowed towards this dissertation.

I thank all my teachers, right from pre-primary school to high school and all my lecturers

in both the School of Education and the School of Psychology for their efforts to nurture my

career.

I am grateful to my late parents for a good foundation they laid for me; it has been a

cornerstone for my academic endeavors.

I thank all the participants in this study. Thank you for being part of a study that will be

beneficial to many parents, teachers, researchers, and other categories of people.

Sincere gratitude goes to all copyright material used in this dissertation. While every care

has been taken to trace and acknowledge copyright, I tender my apologies for any accidental

infringement where copyright has proved untraceable in my reference.

In a special way I thank my husband, Mr. Mabonga Francis for all your support. Words

can never ever express how grateful I am! Thank you.

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Table of Contents

Declaration..........................................................................................................................ii

Approval............................................................................................................................iii

Dedication..........................................................................................................................iv

Acknowledgement..............................................................................................................v

Table of Contents...............................................................................................................vi

List of Tables…………………………………………………………………………….ix

List of Figures…………………………………………………………………………….x

Abstract.............................................................................................................................xi

Chapter One : Introduction..............................................................................................................1

Back ground........................................................................................................................1

Problem...............................................................................................................................7

Purpose…………………………………………………………………….………………7

Objectives………………………………………………………………………..………..8

Scope...................................................................................................................................8

Significance……………………………………………………………………………...10

Conceptual Frame Work...................................................................................................10

Chapter Two: Literature Review………………………………………………………..……….12

Introduction.......................................................................................................................12

Family Type and Academic Achievement among Adolescents.......................................16

Family Type and Juvenile Delinquency among Adolescents...........................................25

Juvenile Delinquency and Academic Achievement.........................................................31

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Hypotheses........................................................................................................................35

Chapter Three: Methodology.........................................................................................................37

Introduction.......................................................................................................................37

Research design................................................................................................................37

Study Area/Site…...………………………..………………………………………………………………………….…
38

Target / Accessible population..........................................................................................39

Sample...............................................................................................................................39

Sampling Techniques........................................................................................................40

Data Collection Instruments.............................................................................................41

Quality Control................................................................................................................45

Data Management and Analysis......................................................................................48

Procedure and Ethical Consideration..............................................................................49

Limitations........................................................................................................................51

Chapter Four: Results....................................................................................................................52

Introduction.......................................................................................................................52

Results for Hypothesis One .............................................................................................52

Results for Hypothesis Two............................................................................................61

Results for Hypothesis Three………………………………………………………...….65

Summary for Study Findings……………………………………………………………67

Chapter Five: Discussion, Conclusions, and Recommendations...................................................70

Introduction.......................................................................................................................70

Discussion of Hypothesis One:………………………………………………………….70

Discussion of Hypothesis Two:…………………………………………………………75

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Discussion of Hypothesis Three:………………………………………………………..77

Conclusions.......................................................................................................................78

Recommendations.............................................................................................................80

Areas for Further Research……………………………………………………………...84

References.....................................................................................................................85

Appendices......................................................................................................................109

Appendix A: Questionnaire on Family Type and Perceived Academic achievement…110

Appendix B: Questionnaire on Family Type and Juvenile Delinquency.......................111

Appendix C: The English Proficiency Test..................................................................117

Appendix D: The Mathematics Proficiency Test………………………………………120

Appendix: E: Scoring Method, answers, and Grading .................................................121

Appendix: F:Table for Determining Sample size...........................................................122

Appendix: G:Delinquency Reliability Statistics for pilot study.....................................123

Appendix: H:Delinquency Reliability Statistics for this study.......................................125

Appendix I: Percieved Academic Achivement Reliability Statistics for pilot study......124

Appendix J: Percieved Academic Achivement Reliabilty Statistics for this study........125

Appendix K: Test item analysis......................................................................................126

Appendix L: Test retest reliability..................................................................................127

Appendix M: Parent's/Guardian's Consent Letter………………………………………128

Appendix N: Participant's Invitation Letter……………………………………….……129
Appendix O: Map of Kampala…………………………………………………………130
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List of Tables

Table 1: Response Rate and Demographic Data of the Participants………………………………40

Table 2: Participants’ Responses on Percieved Academic Achievement....................................53

Table 3: Independent Samples t-test Results on Percieved Academic Achievement ....................56

Table 4: Participants’ Scores on the Proficiency Tests.................................................................57

Table 5: Independent Samples t-test Results on the English Proficiency Test.............................58

Table 6: Independent samples t- Test Results on the Mathematics Proficiency Test....................59

Table 7: Indipendent samples t- test Results on both proficiency tests…………………........

……..60

Table 8: Participants’ Responses on Delinquency........................................................................61

Table 9: Independent Samples t-test on Delinquency...................................................................64

Table10:Correlation results between Academic Achievement and Juvenile Delinquency……..65

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List of Figures

Figure 1: The Relationship between Family Type Juvenile Delinquency and Academic

Achievement among Adolescents in Kampala District.................................................11

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Abstract
The study was undertaken to compare adolescents raised in the single parent family type

with those raised in the two parent family type on juvenile delinquency and academic

achievement. A relationship between juvenile delinquency and academic achievement was also

investigated. The study used both a comparative and correlation designs involving 230

adolescents (115 from the single parent family type, and 115 adolescents from the two parent

family type) from 10 randomly selected day secondary schools in Kampala district. To measure

academic achievement, both a self-report questionnaire on perceived academic achievement and

proficiency tests in English and Mathematics were used; while juvenile delinquency was

measured using a self-report questionnaires. Analyses was carried out using SPSS 17th version at

a significant level of 0.5. T-tests and Pearson product moment (r) correlations were used to test

the hypotheses. Results indicated that adolescents in a two parent family type exhibit higher

academic achievement (M =70.39, SD =.524) than those in the single parent family type (M

=40.42, SD = 2.181); t (228) = -14.17, p = .001; p < .05.) It was also revealed that adolescents in

the single parent family type exhibit more delinquent behaviour (M = 26.97, SD = 4.54) than

those in the two parent family type, (M =19.16, SD = 2.55); t (228) = 16.09, p = .001; p < 0.05.).

The study also revealed a significant negative relationship between juvenile delinquency and

academic achievement (r (230) = -.550**, p < 0.01). Basing on the study findings, there is need to

caution that the societal consequences of a shift from the traditional two parent family type to a

sing parent family type can’t be ignored but also whether a single or two parent family type;

parents should make time to interact with their children and maintain a strong positive parent-

child relationship to offer adequate moral, social, educational, and emotional support. This
 xii

makes a huge difference in raising well adjusted adolescents to avoid juvenile delinquency and

boost academic achievement among adolescents.

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Chapter One

Introduction

Back ground

In human context, a family could be defined as a social institution found in all societies

that unites people in cooperative groups to care for one another, including children (Macionis,

2010). All societies contain families, but exactly who people call their kin has varied through

history and varies today from one culture to another (Macionis, 2010). In the U.S., a family is

officially defined by the U.S. Census Bureau as a group of two or more people who are related

by blood, marriage, or adoption and who live together ( U.S Census Burea,2002). A family is

viewed as the principal institution for the socialization of children mainly because it is the

strongest socializing force in life; families teach children to control unacceptable behavior, to

delay gratification, and to respect the rights of others. Families can teach children aggressive,

antisocial and violent behaviors (Macionis, 2010; Wright &Wright, 1994).

The traditional two parent family type with a working father, a stay at home mother, and

their biological children was considered the ideal family for the wellbeing of children (Howell,

2015). Today less than one in ten families reflects that ideal family. Since World War 11, the

ecological environment of the family has undergone significant changes (Amato 2000, 2010).

Historical contexts show that families have been evolving for centuries due to social and

economic factors, thus resulting in various family types. It is believed that the industrial

revolution coupled with technology exerted indirect effects on the world of a child when it pulled

men away from the farms into factories, introduced feminization of the work place which gave

birth to the “working mother”, and today the influx of employment opportunities and strong

emphasis on individualism have negated the purpose of the family to the disadvantage of the
 2

child (Macionis, 1995). Thus, the family continues to evolve to take the form of a variety of

types such as a blended family type, a cohabiting family type, a single parent family type and

others.

However, a comprehensive review of recent academic research shows that family type;

that is, whether a child’s parents are married, divorced, single, remarried, or cohabiting- has a

significant influence on children’s educational achievement (Archana & Kiran, 2012; Sofie et al.,

2013). Family type affects preschool readiness, educational achievement at elementary,

secondary, and college levels. This is regarded a fact because the family type in which the child

stays affects a range of child behavior that can bare directly on educational success, for example,

school misbehavior, drug and alcohol consumption, sexual activity and teen pregnancy, and

psychological distress (Amato, 2010). Research on the consequences of family type on

adolescents also suggests that adolescents of single parent families are more likely to; be

impoverished, abuse drugs, do poorly in school, become pregnant before the age of twenty, and

have emotional and behavioral problems (Tillman et al., 2007).

Although research has provided such disheartening findings, since 1950, the number of

one- parent families has increased substantially. In 1970, about 11% of children lived in single-

parent families. During the 1970(s) divorce became much more common, and the number of

families headed by one parent increased rapidly and between 1960 and 2016 23% of children in

United States of America were reported to be staying in a single parent family (United States

Census Bureau, 2016). In 2000, a single-parent headed 21% of white families, 35% of Hispanic

families, and 55% of African American families (Feldman, 2008). In china, divorce rates are

increasing hence creating single parent families. About 1.9 million couples divorced in China in

2006, an increase of 128,000 couples or 7% of the previous year. Many of these divorced
 3

couples had children (Guo, 2016). In 2003, 14% of all Australian households were single-parent

families. Since 2001, 31% of babies born in Australia have been born to unmarried mothers. In

the United Kingdom, there were 1.9 million single parents as of 2009, with 3million children.

There were 1.7 million children born to unmarried mothers in 2007 a figure much greater than

the number reported in 1980 (National statistics United Kingdom, July 7th, 2005).

This increase in single-parent families is not only a phenomenon isolated in the western

world. Even in Africa there is a high increase in single-parent families. In South Africa, in 1985

more than 25,000 children were products of homes run by a single parent, in 1998, 22%

households in South Africa were run by single parents (National Statistics online, United

Kingdom July 7th, 2005).

In Uganda, although National statistics of single parent families are not provided, it is

reported that divorce is on the rise. Statistics (New Vision, Friday, November 24 th, 2017).

Statistics obtained from the High Court Family Division show that 32 couples had called it quits

only half way into 2013 and this was considered way too high compared to only 12 couples that

had divorced in 2012. Also, with the increasing incidences of divorce, teenage pregnancies,

bereavement through AIDS, Malaria, the changing roles of mothers, and the just ended civil war

in the Northern parts of the country, the circumstances of being a single- parent have become

increasingly inevitable. It is important to note that Uganda is registering an increase in the

number of people divorcing and these have led to the increase in single- parent families. In 2009

about 100 divorce cases were filed by both men and women at Nakawa and Mengo courts in

Kampala alone (New Vision, Friday 8th May, 2009). Though national figures are not available, a

review of records in these courts suggests the numbers have been rising; the magistrate’s court at
 4

Nakawa, for instance, registered an increase in pending cases of divorce from 31 in 2005, 42 in

2006, 52 in 2007, and 64 in 2009 (New Vision Friday 8th May, 2009).

It is also true that Uganda has many unmarried teens who are single mothers; Uganda

has the highest teenage pregnancy rates in East Africa at 25% with many primary school-going

teenage girls leaving school as they become mothers (Matsamura, 2010; Inter press service

News Agency). Many of these girls become single mothers hence leading to a rise in more single

parent families in Uganda.

As more and more families progress towards the single parent family type, there is an increase in

juvenile delinquent behavior among the adolescents. A study on family type and juvenile delinquency

suggests that Single parent families and in particular mother- only families, have been cited as those that

produce more delinquent adolescents than the traditional two parent families (Angel, 2009; Samantha,

2012; Wright & Wright, 1994). In fact, as the traditional two parent family fades out to give way to the

single parent family type in Uganda, a substantial number of adolescents in Uganda have become

delinquents. In 2005, 848 juvenile delinquents were recorded by the Ugandan police (A report on juvenile

delinquency by the Uganda crime police 2008). It is also sad to note that 2,200 juveniles were remanded

in 2007; they, besides murder, stole, assaulted people, raped, robbed and abused drugs (New Vision,

Wednesday 8th October, 2008). In 2007, 868 juveniles were involved in defilement, 506 were involved in

theft, 266 were involved in assaults, 48 were involved in murder, 30 were involved in drugs abuse, 16

were involved in robbery, and 22 were involved in rape (New Vision, Wednesday, 8 th October, 2008). In

2008, 2,421 delinquents were recorded showing an increase of 221 delinquents from the previous number

of 2,200 in 2007 (Uganda crime police report, 2008). Remand homes in Uganda are also registering

increasing numbers of inmates; Naguru remand home in Kampala was designed to house 45 inmates,

however by 2014 it had registered 130 inmates of whom 12 were girls, 85 of the total number of 130 were

capital offenders. These were adolescents between the age of 12 and 18; (The Daily Monitor, 2016)
 5

The recent decades of family change—including the increases in divorce and separation

rates, single parenthood, cohabitation, and step family formation—led to an explosion in popular

and academic interest in the consequences of family dynamics for children’s well-being and life

chances ( Amato, 2000, 2010; Amato & James 2010; McLanahan et al. 2013; Ribar, 2004;

Sweeney, 2010). Most notably, previous studies have found that children who do not live with

both biological parents fare somewhat worse than those who do in terms of psychological

wellbeing, health, schooling, and later labor market attainment, and differ with respect to their

own family lives in adulthood (McLanahan et al., 2013). Scholars have interpreted these findings

through a relatively small group of factors that include parental and children’s stress associated

with family transitions, family conflict, changes in economic resources, and parenting styles.

Beyond these established findings; in the Ugandan setting, several questions remain imperfectly

answered. These questions could include whether or not there is a difference in academic

performance between adolescents that live in a two parent family type with those that live in a

single parent family and also if there is a difference in exhibiting delinquent behavior between

the adolescents living in the two different family structures.

This study was modeled on the postulates of Bowlby’s theory of attachment. According

to the theory, attachment in infants is primarily a process of proximity seeking to an identified

attachment figure in situations of perceived distress or alarm for the purpose of survival. Infants

become attached to adults who are sensitive and responsive in social interactions with the infant,

and who remain as consistent caregivers. Bowlby assumes that the development of an attachment

between the primary care taker and the child is the basic foundation of all future development

(Bowlby, 1980). Bowlby says that children need to form one main attachment (monotropy) that

would be special and of more importance to the child than any other. Bowlby emphasized that
 6

prolonged separation of a child from this special person would result in long-term psychological

damage. This theory explains that children who are separated from their main attachment can

experience anxiety and a feeling of deprivation, they would lack emotional bonding and they

would not be able to form lasting relationships later in life because they would lack or have low

levels of empathetic understanding. This model emphasizes that all children internalize working

models of self and others based on repeated interactions with care givers that serve as templates

for navigating relationships throughout the life span. These working models provide the

foundation for self-efficacy beliefs; affect regulation strategies, the self- concept, and behavioral

strategies for distress management (Bowlby, 1980).

The study relied on Bowlby’s theory to explain the relationship between Family type,

juvenile delinquency and academic achievement because the single parent model with in itself is

comprised of emotional scaring left by separation and this could lead to reduced intelligence.

The parent in the single parent family type may also fall short on quality time to spend with their

children to form a strong bond of attachment since they are over whelmed with responsibilities

of providing for the children and also parenting (Brown, 2010; Santrock, 2009). Due to the

separation from one of the parents, adolescents in single parent families experience

psychological damage hence displaying socially incompetent behaviour which can compromise

their relationship not only in the society where they live but also with their teachers and peers at

school; a situation which is most likely to lower their grades at school (Amato, 2010; Santrock,

2009). When the child is securely attached to a parent, they are able to explore and master their

environments- school actives are part of that environment. If the family falls short of this secure

attachment- then chances are high that the child will perform poorly at school and also become a

delinquent. Although Bowlby emphasizes maternal attachment over paternal attachment as the
 7

major determinant of a child’s well being, this study emphasized the attachment of both parents

as core elements of academic achievement and proper social development.

Problem

Many research findings suggest that the family type in which children are raised greatly

impacts their academic achievement and can predict problem behaviour (Egunsola, 2014; Tamas,

2015; Yongmin & Yuanzhang, 2011). Although there is a large Anglo-Saxon research literature

on this area of study, there is not much literature about the same in the Ugandan context hence

the need to investigate this phenomena further in the Ugandan context. Uganda is also

witnessing a shift from the traditional two parent family type to other family types and most

commonly the single parent family type. This shift is reflected through more divorce rates, high

teenage pregnancies which are estimated to be at 25% and the highest in East Africa, death of

spouses due to ailments like HIV/AIDS, malaria and others (New vision Friday 8th May, 2009;

Daily Nation 11th August, 2012). Considering the powerful influence of the two parent family

type on the social, emotional and cognitive development of a child, it is important to find out

whether or not staying in a two parent family type or a single parent family type could negatively

impact Ugandan adolescents through increased risks of problematic behavior and low academic

achievement.

Purpose

The purpose of the study was to compare the academic achievement of adolescents in a

two parent family type with that of the adolescents in a single parent family type in Kampala

district with an aim of finding the difference in academic achievement. The study also intended

to compare the adolescents in the single parent family type with those in the two parent family

type in Kampala district in order to find out the difference in exhibiting delinquent behaviour
 8

between the adolescents from either family type. The study also intended to if a relationship

exists between juvenile delinquency and academic achievement.

Objectives

The main objectives of this study were;

1. To compare the academic achievement of adolescents in a two parent family type with that of

the adolescents in a single parent family type in Kampala district.

2. To compare delinquent behavior among adolescents in a single parent family type with those

in a two parent family type in Kampala district.

3. To establish the relationship between juvenile delinquency and academic achievement.

Scope
The study focused on single-parent families and the traditional two-parent families to

compare the adolescents from either family type on juvenile delinquency and academic

achievement. The adolescents were selected from 10 day secondary schools in Kampala district.

Kampala is the largest city and capital of Uganda. Kampala district was preferred because it

records high numbers of juvenile delinquents. Over 10,000 juveniles live on the streets of

Kampala; these engage themselves in pick-pocketing, sniffing fuel and taking drugs (New Vision

July 28th, 2007). It is also true that Kampala is situated in the central part of Uganda, therefore it

houses people from different backgrounds; this would lend credibility to the research findings. It

is also important to note that Kampala has many of the best performing schools in the country; it

would be credible for participants to be selected from these schools since the study considered

using proficiency tests as a means of collecting data. As compared to other districts in Uganda,

adolescents in Kampala can read and comprehend any material written in English. Since the

study involved filling questionnaires that were written in English, on average every participant in
 9

the study would be able to read and fill the questionnaires easily, so the study would not be

compromised by the participants’ inability to read. It was upon such a background that Kampala

district was chosen over other district for this study.

Academic achievement is the outcome of education – the extent to which a student has

achieved their goals (Annie, 1996). Kaggwa (2003) defined academic achievement as the quality

and quantity of knowledge, skills, techniques and positive attitudes, behaviors and philosophy

that students achieve. The exploration of academic achievement has led to numerous empirical

studies and fundamental progress such as the first intelligence test by Binet and Simon.

However, as academic achievement is a broad topic, different studies have focused mainly on

selected aspects of academic achievement (Spinath, 2012). Academic achievement in this study

was characterized by having high perceived academic achievement, being proficient in the

English language and in Mathematics. Perceived academic achievement is what an individual

thinks they achieve in their academic endeavors (Bardwell, 1984; Ronald & Nancy, 2008).

Perceived academic achievement is an important aspect as it leads to behavioral, motivational,

and cognitive changes which improve actual academic performance (Bardwell, 1984; Ronald &

Nancy, 2008). The predictors which were considered important for participants’ perceived

academic achievement in this study were whether the participants had high self assessment of

cognitive competences that are taught and learned in a formal learning environment; whether the

participants had high self assessment of commitment and diligence to their school work; whether

they had high self assessment of school perceived safety and whether they had high perceived

parental involvement in their school work.

Juvenile delinquents are defined as young persons who are not yet adults and are

predisposed to committing crimes and acting against what is generally perceived as good
 10

conduct with in their communities (Manning, 2008). In this study, juvenile delinquents were

defined as adolescents who behave contrary to; the expected laws, rules, principles, values and

norms that are generally upheld by many societies in Uganda and the state at large. These are

children whose actions are destructive both to self and the societies in which they live; children

who involve in property crimes such as theft; abuse drugs and alcohol; involve in violent acts-

like; physical fights, and other related violent crimes; those that use vulgar and offensive

language; those that engage in voluntary sexual acts like prostitution and fornication, and other

sexual crimes like rape.

Significance

The purpose of academic research is to gain a better understanding of an aspect under

study. This study therefore is especially relevant in the field of Social and Educational

Psychology. It contributes to a deeper comprehension of the influence of family type on juvenile

delinquency and academic achievement. The study is therefore going to contribute literature that

other researchers can use for further research.

The study will also be beneficial to society through making clear explanations about how

family type is linked to juvenile delinquency and academic achievement and making suggestions

on how parents should raise their children in their respective family type so as not to compromise

their academic achievement and to avoid delinquency tendencies among adolescents.

The study will also help the teachers to know how to handle adolescents who come from

different family backgrounds so as to become achievement oriented while at school.

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Conceptual Frame Work

Academic achievement
Family type

-Single Parents -Perceived academic achievement

-Two Parents -Proficiency in Mathematics

- Proficiency in the English language

Juvenile Delinquency

-Violent crimes

-Property crimes
Figure 1: The relationship between family type juvenile
- Drug & alcohol abuse

- Sexual crimes delinquency and academic achievement among adolescents in

-voluntary sexual activities Kampala district

The study focused on the single parent family type and the traditional two parent family type

to compare the adolescents from either family type on juvenile delinquency and academic

achievement. In this study, family type was the independent variable, while academic

achievement and juvenile delinquency were dependent variables. It was conceptualized that

family type; that is whether an adolescent stays with both their parents, or with just a single

parent, determines whether or not an adolescent achieves highly in their academic endeavors,

and also whether or not an adolescent becomes a juvenile delinquent. The frame work also

suggested that juvenile delinquency can have an influence on academic achievement.

Chapter Two
 12

Literature Review

Introduction
This chapter discusses different theoretical views on juvenile delinquency and reviews

literature related to family type, juvenile delinquency and academic achievement. The review of

literature is conceptualized under the objectives of the study which focused mainly on comparing

adolescents from the single parent family type with those in the two parent family type on

academic achievement and juvenile delinquency. This chapter also discusses literature on the

relationship between juvenile delinquency and academic achievement.

Theoretical Review

No single theoretical orientation can adequately explain the multiple variables and factors

that cause delinquent behavior and low academic achievement. That said, it is important to note

that so many theories have been advanced in regard to explaining the possible causes of juvenile

delinquency and academic achievement among adolescents and many opposing and concurring

arguments have been stated. According to Bowlby’s theory of attachment - to which this study

was modelled; attachment between a parent and a child is a mechanism that insures survival

through stressful situations, and it is important that parents/caregivers devote time to their

children’s interests, academics and guidance as this would promote feelings of love, obligation

and responsibility that bond the child to a family. This bond will evert children from partaking in

criminal behavior (Bowlby, 1969; Ryan, et al, 2008). Bowlby’s theory informs us that continual

disruption of the attachment between an infant and their primary caregiver (mother) could result

in long term cognitive, social and emotional difficulties for that infant. The long term

consequences of maternal deprivation might include; delinquency, reduced intelligence,

increased aggression, depression and affectionless psychopathy. I would also assume that if the
 13

parent–child relationship is disrupted during infancy, long-term negative consequences are the

inability to show affection or concern for others; hence aggressive and delinquent behavior. The

While Bowlby gives us a window through which we can understand why some

adolescents may become delinquents and achieve less academically, he majorly focusses on the

attachment with the mother. But we all know that, children can have more than one attachment

and in this case it could be their father and any other person that they are familiar with. I would

think that the theory can still be relied upon in understanding the value of child-parent

interactions. Parents who form warm relationships with their children and have minimal conflict

with them, provide adequate monitoring and supervision all of which help in raising well

balanced children and it reduces adolescent’s risk for a variety of problems, including precocious

transitions, such as early pregnancy, premature independence from parents, and school dropout.

Also, if there is lack of strong and adequate positive parent-child interactions, children could be

at risk of involvement with deviant peers.

Hirschi’s Control theory seems to be partly in agreement with Bowlby’s theory of

attachement. According to Hirschi’s General Theory, it is conceptualized that an effective bond

between parents and their children through which children internalize conventional norms of

society is vital. The quality of bond functions as an indirect parental control; conventional

behavior of the child is achieved as a by-product of strong child-parent attachments (Gottfredson

& Hirschi, 1969). This ideally would mean that delinquency will be low in families with strong

affective ties, because juveniles who are strongly attached to their parents are more likely to care

about the normative expectations of their parents which protects against delinquent impulses.

Delinquent behavior will increase if the bond to the parent is weak.

 14

The Control theory presents information that normal controlling influences of family

members and school officials such as teachers have weak bonds with poor performing students.

These students in turn do not feel the controlling fear of disappointing or disobeying these

individuals which lowers the inhibition for engaging in delinquency (Michael et al., 1981).

The General Strain Theory’s view of delinquency brings a different perspective through

which to understand why adolescents get involved in juvenile delinquency. According to this

theory, individuals who experience strain or stressors often become upset and sometimes cope

with deviance. Such individuals may engage in crime to end or escape from their strains (Agnew,

2006). Delinquency, therefore results from the blockage of goal-seeking behavior. Being in a

state where individuals are unable to achieve valued goals, individuals become frustrated and

may turn into delinquents (Robert, 1938). Weak bonds between a parent and a child; failure to

provide for the child or to give the child emotional, social, and or even economic support could

lead to strain. Children could become deviant because of their inability to achieve what they

perceive as “positively valued goals” (Holist et al., 2009). I would like to think that delinquency

would be lower in Families with strong affective ties; where valued goals of adolescents like

feelings of being loved and supported through a strong parent - child bond are met. When the

adolescents do not experience these expectations, they are likely to experience anger and

frustration, which can lead to deviant behavior and compromised academic achievement. It is

also believed that adolescents turn to crimes and or delinquent behavior for tangible and esteem-

laden rewards that fall short from school-related performance, they turn to crime to achieve

happiness, money, material goods and attention that they cannot achieve through perceived

school success, (Erick, 2018).

 15

The social learning theory is another important theoretical premise that could be explored

in this study. It suggests delinquent behavior is learned from major influencers in a child’s

environment (like their family and friends) within a series of rewards and punishments that guide

the child towards delinquent behavior. (Bandura & Walter, 1963; Erick, 2018). It should be

noted that children that are raised in environments that do not have positive influencers or role

models to demonstrate desired behavior are predisposed to becoming delinquents and also are

most likely to have low academic achievement. Adolescents from chaotic families may feel rage,

embarrassment, and humiliation. They would also feel isolated and vulnerable. They feel starved

for attention, approval and affection and could seek all these in various ways including engaging

in delinquent behavior.

Although many empirical studies have found evidence suggesting that the family type in

which children are raised can make a difference between raising well-adjusted adolescents and

those that defy the social norms and get involved in delinquent crimes, a systematic review of the

link between family type, juvenile delinquency and academic achievement is an area that has not

been fully investigated in Uganda and so there are not so many studies yet that are specific to

Uganda; hence the need for this study.

 16

Difference in the Academic Achievement of Adolescents in Single Parent Families and

those in Two Parent Families.

A family is a group of people affiliated by consanguinity, affinity, or co-residence. It is

the principal institution for the socialization of children (Scott, 2005). The family, being a

powerful influence on the child and its importance as a primary agent of socialization could in no

doubt enhance or hinder the academic achievement. Families can be a support or a source of

stress and distraction to adolescents while at school. They set a platform for one to adjust at

school and the ability to adjust in school sets the stage for academic success (Biblarz & Raftery,

1999; Drea & Christopher, 2017). It is assumed that a family must provide a good social,

emotional and educational environment to achieve the optimal state of adjustment that

adolescents need to thrive.

Among all family types, the best family type for academic achievement would be the two

parent family type or the intact family type because it provides the best environment for

children’s ability to adjust in school (Biblarz & Raftery, 1999; Shafa et al., 2014). Research

findings in a longitudinal study in the US found that students from nuclear intact families had the

best academic achievement, while those in the alternative family types performed fairly (Amato,

2007; Anthony, 2014; Zill, 1996). Suet and Gillian (2003) add their voice to the above and say

that children who do not live in intact two parent families tend to be less proficient in math and

science. Compared with peers in intact families, children in single-parent families, score on

average, lower on math and science achievement tests, according to a large international survey

(McLanahan et al., 2013; Suet & Gillian 2003).

It is unanimously believed by many researchers that although adolescents grow up in diverse

families, in virtually every family, parents play an important role in supporting and stimulating
 17

the children’s academic achievement and attitudes towards school; however, this greatly depends

on the type of family in which the parents raise their children (David et al., 2010; Epstein, 2007a,

2007b; Schader, 2008). Nyamusana (2010) emphasizes the role of parental support in academic

achievement and says that parents are meant to ensure that children’s discipline is checked; they

are to monitor performance at school and to provide school materials for their children so that

their children can achieve academic success. However, single parents tend to provide less

supportive parental practices for children’s schooling in comparison to intact two parent family

type (Brown, 2010; Cooksey & Fondell, 1993), yet the value that parents place on education can

mean the difference in whether the adolescents do well in school or not. Single parent families

always breed a situation where the single parent can not have enough time to emphasize the

value of education (Simpkin et al., 2006).

As far as achievement of children is concerned, achievement beliefs work miracles if they are

positive, but these achievement beliefs are set by families. In contrast to families with two

parents, single parent families are usually pressed by the burden of living thus they cannot afford

to set high achievement expectations. Many single parent families are always stressed out with

frustrations of all kinds; hence have lower achievement expectations for their children (Entwisle

& Alexander, 1996; Julie et al., 2010). This situation leads to potentially harmful self defeating

practices, such as learned helplessness in children hence leading to negative achievement beliefs

which transform into low academic success (Estrda et al., 1987; Fred, 2014). It is important to

note that parents with high expectations do more than having positive and encouraging attitudes

toward the children so that the children can live up to their parents’ expectations (Olson & Stone,

2005). However with the negative or low achievement beliefs that are synonymous with the

single parent family type, parents in this family type set low achievement expectations for their
 18

children- a situation that compromises their children’s academic achievement because the

children become lazy and fail to exploit their full potential.

At this point it is important to acknowledge the role of personality traits and academic

achievement of adolescents since personality traits are formed within the family (Asghar &

Sayed, 2012; Tomori, 1994). Family relations and family dynamics represent, in addition to a

number of subjective and objective factors, important determinants of the adolescent personality

profile (Mayer, 1988; Thomas et al., 2012). Research has proven that many adolescents in the

single parent family type exhibit negative personality traits. Previous studies have reported a

variety of disturbances in several domains of personality functioning among adolescents in single

parent families. Examples of these disturbances include recklessness; lack of a sense of

responsibility and inhibition; absence of shame, guilt, or regret; lack of goal-directedness; and

inadequate capacity for relationships (Hill & Rutter, 1994). Several researchers have also

identified high levels of depression, anxiety, low self-esteem, and low educational goals as

common personality characteristics of these adolescent (Mayer, 1988; Ochonogor, 2014).

However, such personality traits make their instructors or teachers together with their school

peers feel less attracted to them. This destroys the teacher-student relationship, and the student –

student relationship yet it is so important for students to have a positive friendly relationship with

their teachers and their school peers in order to benefit from school programs (Emily, 2013;

Kewall & Ramani, 2009; Samuel, 2008).

It is also important to know that emotions have the potential to influence academic

achievement, for example, students learn and perform more successfully when they feel secure,

and happy. In addition, emotions such as anxiety and sadness have the potential to distract
 19

students’ learning efforts by interfering with their ability to attend to tasks at hand (Boekaerts,

1993; Caitlyn & Katie, 2016; Sibnath, 2010; Oatly& Nundy, 1996). Negative motions can limit

the capacity to balance emotional issues with school work; they can create anxiety especially

about school work, and trigger further negative emotional responses to classroom events. When

our emotions are heightened up, we use up all our mental resources and this makes us unable to

perform. It is however true that the children in single parent households suffer from emotional

incompetence as they have to go through stressful events in their lives. Due to separation from

one of the parents, feelings of being rejected and constant fear of emotional loss, accompany

children in single parent families throughout their childhood, and tend to culminate in

adolescence, a time when the feelings become even more destructive and are further intensified

by the adolescent's need for independence. Feelings of inferiority additionally impede separation

of children from one of their parents. Their loneliness provides an ideal breeding ground for the

accumulating anxiety, self-rejection, and mistrust of others. Hostility associated with these

feelings may assume various forms of aggression. Such adolescents use self destructing remedies

such as taking alcohol to relieve anxiety, reduce dissatisfaction and mistrust (Berlin, Davis, &

Orenstein, 1988; Carl, 2015; Ellis, Ottaway, Varner, Becker, & Moore, 1997a, 1997b). This

works against academic achievement of such adolescents.

Jeynes, (2011) points out that emotional closeness of a family greatly influences how

well a child can succeed academically within their educational careers. Jeynes examined the

importance of parental involvement in relation to a child’s ability to academically succeed and

found that parental involvement had a positive impact on a child’s academic achievement across

diverse populations of children. With a single parent family however this closeness may be

limited since the single parent is hardly available to give this emotional bond. On the other side
 20

of the coin, the two parent family type can also fall short of this emotional closeness if the family

is going through marital conflicts. Under such situations, a two parent family type could actually

be worse than a single parent family type.

A recent research review of family functioning in Africa American students’ academic

achievement found that when African American parents monitored their son’s academic

achievement by ensuring that home work was completed, restricted time spent on nonproductive

distractions (such as video games and TV), and participated in a consistent, positive dialogue

with the teachers about their sons’ academic work; their sons’ academic achievement benefited

(Ghulam, 2012; Mandra, 2006). As earlier mentioned above, the single parent may have less or

no time to help their children with home work, they are less likely to monitor their children’s

academic progress and have less parental control, so they can not restrict their children on non

productive activities such as video games and TV (Amato, 2005). Failure to monitor the

adolescents has left many adolescents spending more time in front of a television set than they do

with their parent and their academic projects. In U.S. 8- to 18- year- olds on average spend more

than 21 hours a week watching television (Roberts & Foehr, 2008).It should however be

remembered that there is a small link between heavy television watching and non clinical

attention levels in children (Perri, 2012; Schmidt & Vander, 2008). In general, television has not

been shown to influence children’s creativity but is negatively related to their mental ability

(Comstock & Scharrer, 2006; Wataru & Keiko, 2013). The more children watch TV, the lower

their school achievement because it takes away their time for engaging in achievement- related

tasks such as home work, reading, writing and mathematics. Researchers have found out that

children’s achievement is negatively linked to the amount of time they watch TV in terms of

self-defeating tastes and preferences, TV attracts children to entertainment, sports, commercials,

 21

and other activities that capture their interests more than school achievement. Children who are

heavy TV watchers tend to view books as dull and boring (Comstock & Scharrer, 2006; Iman et

al., 2010).

It should also be known that the degree to which the family members immerse

themselves in literacy materials appear to be associated with improved academic out comes

(National Center for Education Statistics, 1996; Ralph, 2013;). Many behaviors can be learned at

least partly through modeling; the social learning theory as advanced by Bandura Albert

emphasizes this (Bandura, 1965). Examples that can be cited are; students can watch parents

read, and they too can model that behavior hence be motivated to read. With the limited time

single parents may have and the high stress levels, they may not be in position to immerse

themselves in literacy materials (Nelson et al., 2001).

In some ways, children in single parent families are at a greater risk of achieving less

academically than children in other types of families even when they have the same academic

abilities because of the economic constrains that are synonymous with single parent families.

Family income influences parental support and supervision and involvement in educational

factors related to school achievement (Nelson et al., 2001; Zhang, 2012). In fact, economic

constraints in families account for the different levels of stress that different families experience.

As compared to two parent families, single parent families experience more stress levels due to

economic constraints and children in stressed family environments may exhibit less education

efficacy (Jensen, 2013; Rosser et al., 2001). However, in a study conducted by Jink and Morgan

(1999), it was found out that the degree to which students have strong senses of academic

efficacy can help them to become successful in meeting academic and school demands.

Academic self efficacy reflects the level of confidence or competence a student reports for
 22

completing or succeeding with academically related tasks and achievement (Jink & Morgan,

1999).

In his description of the context of human development, Brofenbrenner (1979)

emphasizes the potential impact of the family on each learner (Brofenbrenner & Morris, 2006).

A family, in which there is responsiveness, reciprocity, and mutual positive feelings, the learner,

is more likely to have a positive impact. Brofenbrenner stresses that the need for the developing

individual to have a strong and enduring emotional attachment to another individual in order to

facilitate learning and development is important. Brofenbrenner argues further that the absence

of a father in a family contributes to low motivation for achievement, inability to defer rewards,

low esteem all of which culminate into low academic achievement (Sara et al, 2014; Wayne,

2007). Thomas, Krampe, and Newton (2008) discussed the importance of father involvement in

relation to a child’s ability to achieve academic success and say that the presence of a father with

in a house-hold is associated with greater academic achievement (Muhammad & Alay, 2014;

Sara et al, 2014; Thomas, et al, 2008).

Families are also said to be the primary agents of social net works. They play a primary

role in fostering primary social peer relationships. Peer relations play powerful roles in children’s

academic achievement (Allen & Antonishak, 2008; Lawrence, 2009); peers are children of about

the same age or maturity level. One most important function of this peer group is to provide a

source of information and comparison about the world outside the family. Vygotsky puts

emphasis on the role of peers for cognitive development (Vygotsky, 1962). Peer relations are

linked to whether the child does well in school or not because peers can foster ether positive or

negative attitudes towards school (Basangwa, 1994). It is however absurd to note that with the

limited time they have to spend with their children, many single parents do not take keen interest
 23

in knowing who their children’s peers are or to help them make the right choice of peers; besides

many single parent families stay in “poor” neighborhoods which predispose their children to

“wrong” peers with less or no motivation to study and achieve academic success (Bukowski et

al, 2007; Kevin, 2016; Song & Siegel, 2008). According to a National Survey of America’s

Families (2002), it was found that 57% of single parent families were considered low income and

living in poorer neighborhoods (National Survey of America’s Families, 2001). Researchers

however state that the characteristics of a child’s neighborhood are associated with academic

achievement. Studies have shown that children who reside in low income neighborhoods are

more likely to perform poorer in school than children residing in affluent neighborhoods as seen

through achievement scores on standardized tests. These neighborhoods effects on the

adolescents are due to the child’s more contact with schools and peers with in the low- income

neighborhoods (Andreias et al., 2010).

From a resource perspective, parents in their respective family types provide their

children with valuable social and financial capital, and these types of resources tend to be more

limited in families with one parent. Social capital refers to social benefits that are gained through

networks of relationships that foster interaction among individuals within these networks and the

exchange of knowledge, support, and other valuable resources (Bourdieu, 1986; Cheung &

Genet, 2011). Within the context of the family, social capital is typically measured by the

strength of ties between family members. Therefore parental absence may reduce family social

capital by weakening relationships between children and nonresident parents, typically fathers,

and sometimes even between the remaining resident parent and his or her children. For example,

single mothers are often less able to provide emotional support and monitor their children

effectively if they are overburdened by financial and emotional strains or are less able to balance
 24

work and family responsibilities successfully. Such children in such families will lose out on the

benefit of knowledge exchange a situation that compromises their academic excellence (Mc

Lanahan & Sandfur, 1994; Sara et al., 2014).

With a divergent view, Barajas, believes that adolescents in single parent families

achieve academic success too just like any other children in other family types (Barajas, 2012).

He indicates that 70% of children from single-parent homes graduate from high school, and that

50 of them attend college (Barajas, 2012). Nancy, adds her voice to the above and argues that the

statistics presented against single families reflect social prejudice. She says that within the single

parent family type children thrive, develop and grow, just as they do in a variety of other family

types (Nancy, 1999). Tragically, they must do so in the face of powerful social stigma that works

to undermine them. She adds that many two-parent families function as a single-parent family in

that one person is primarily responsible for needs of the children. In today's society of two

paycheck families, children in all families might attend daycare or become latchkey children

(Kelly & Ann, 2010; Nancy, 1999).

Some researchers emphasize that there are also reasons to expect that children living in

single parent families, and with mothers in particular, may sometimes have an advantage over

children living with two parents; resulting in better outcomes for children in single-parent

families. Prior research suggests that female-headed households, and households where mothers

have more decision making power, tend to make decisions in favor of child schooling in some

regions of the world (Woldehanna et al., 2005, 2006). In other words, when mothers have more

decision-making power, which is likely when they are single mothers, children may be more

likely to be enrolled in school, particularly if mothers place a higher value on their children’s

schooling than fathers. Since the majority of single-parent families are single-mother families,
 25

this may reflect the experiences of many children living with one parent in low-income

countries. For instance, a number of studies in Sub-Saharan Africa have found that children are

more likely to succeed in the educational arena if they are raised in female-headed households,

compared to children raised in homes with their two biological parents (Fuller et al., 1999);

which is partly explained by the tendency for mothers to invest greater resources, including time,

money, and emotional support to facilitate the education of their children than fathers (Lloyds et

al., 1996).

Having reviewed the literature about family type and academic achievement from several

researchers and or scholars, the study sought to understand if adolescents in the two family

setting achieve more academic success than their counterparts in the single parent family.

Difference in Delinquent Tendencies between Adolescents in Single Parent Families and

those in Two Parent Families

In Uganda, juvenile delinquency is becoming a threat that has been witnessed throughout

the country but the majority of the delinquents live in Kampala. Juveniles that develop

delinquency however have got many reasons stemming from the family background to many

others. Many families in Uganda live in terrible conditions that influence juveniles into acts of

delinquency (Kyeyune, 1999). The family as the foundation of human society has been singled

out as a cause of juvenile delinquency. The composition of families is one aspect of family life

that is consistently associated with delinquency. The family ideally is meant to provide a sense of

security and stability that is necessary for adolescents to grow well with proven moral standards

and emotional well being. When there is a break down in the family structure, it may have
 26

tremendous impact on children, and their ability to function well may be compromised (Brown,

2010; Pearlstein, 2011; Wright & Wright, 1994).

The two parent family type is thought to be ideal for molding a child into a socially

acceptable being. It is believed that adolescents that grow up in two parent families enjoy the

benefit of co- parenting. Co parenting is the support that parents provide one another in jointly

raising a child. Poor coordination between parents, undermining of the other parent, lack of

warmth, and disconnection by one parent places adolescents at risk for behavioral problems like

depression and delinquency (Feinberg & Kan, 2008; Jeffrey et al., 2014). In most cases

adolescents who do not have two parents may need to depend on one parent to meet most of their

needs. With limited finances and time, a single parent may be less likely to provide the adequate

support a child needs to develop well socially and such children are at a great risk of becoming

delinquents (Jeffrey et al., 2014; Wright & Wright, 1994).

Single parent families are associated with increased risks of negative social, behavioral

and emotional outcomes for children. Adolescents who live in families in which marital

relationships have been disrupted by divorce or separation are more likely to display behavioral

problems, including delinquency than adolescents from two- parent families (Amato, 2003;

Marnie, 2015). Research has shown that adolescents from single parent households are more

prone to delinquent behaviour, including drug and alcohol use (Amato, 2003; Aurora et al.

2010).

Researchers have frequently highlighted the most important role of the family to the

adolescent and they unanimously agree that the quality of parent-child relationship is

instrumental in determining adolescents' behavior (Dekovic et al., 2004; Hair, Moore, Garrett,

Ling & Cleveland, 2008; Machteld et al., 2009; Wissink et al., 2006). Also Dekovic (1999)
 27

emphasises that negative parent-adolescent relationship is related to high level of externalizing

behavioral problems. Adolescents who experience negative distant relationships with their parents are

less likely to internalize their parental values and norms, and adolescents who experience warm

and positive relationship with their parents are more likely to express their thoughts, feelings and

their daily activities to their parents and thus decrease the opportunities for delinquency (Kerr &

Stattin, 2000; Wendi et al., 2011). Parents who have a positive and strong relationship with their

children spend more time to talk with them, and engage in their children’s leisure activities, this

alone can lead to reduced delinquency (Warr, 2005).

Nagadya, (2011) seems to agree with the above. In her study of family roles and the

social behaviour of children in Uganda,it was found out that high amounts of positive parent –

child attachment through communication between parents and the adolescents or through quality

parent-child interaction reduces delinquency. The findings suggest that the least amount of

communication through less parent- child interaction the family provides, the more likely the

child will engage in delinquent activities. It is however true that the single parent families engage

in the least amounts of interaction and communication with their children due to the busy

schedule they have, a situation which predisposes the adolescents to delinquent tendencies.

Hirschi (1969) adds his voice to the above and says that parents who show affection

toward their children, establish good communication with them, and provide opportunities for

them to be involved in the family, and also create positive and strong parent-child relationship.

The youth in turn, will display positive behaviors and refrain from delinquency because they do

not want to lose parental approval and affection. A good quality of the parent-child relationship

also promotes adolescents’ healthy development by fostering good peer relationship which

reduces the chance of negative behavior (Reitz et al., 2006). Since parents in single parent families
 28

have limited time to bond with their children and cement this kind of parent- child interaction,

chances are high that the adolescents in this family type can fall victims of delinquency.

An other disheartening fact is that single parents- in a single parent family type often find

it hard to get assistance and if they must work to support themselves and their families, they are

likely to have difficulty providing supervision for their children. Parental supervision is a

parenting technique that involves looking after, or monitoring a child’s activities like school

activities, media interests, and others. Adolescents are not capable of making informed decisions

for their well being. They need to be protected from violent or pornographic imagery or

information that challenges the value system that their local culture instills in them. However due

to the limited time single parents have, they tend to use neglectful parenting styles. They are less

or not involved in their children’s lives directly. Such children behave in socially incompetent

ways. They tend to have poor self control, do not handle independence well, and all of these

conditions may lead to delinquency (Amato, 2006; Nagadya, 2011).

Families differ in financial stability, but financial instability in a family is linked to

delinquency among juveniles. Adolescents in single parent families may have a different outlook

on life than children raised in a home with two parents because of financial instability. Financial

instability takes toll on a child living in a single parent family (Kristina et al, 2010). According to

a National Survey of America’s Families (2002), it was found that 57% of single parent families

were considered low income. 59% of the low income single parent families reported hardships in

finding food, 35% had housing related problems hence exposing them to living in poorer

neighborhoods where adolescents can be exposed to drugs, poor adult role models and other

delinquent activities (National Survey of America’s Families, 2001) .

 29

In explaining the relationship between family type and delinquency, one must understand

the role played by trauma (Juby & Farrington, 2001; Mary et al., 2014). Trauma is proposed as a

key to understanding the development and persistence of conduct for many features of

delinquency including lack of empathy, impulsivity, anger, acting out, and other associated

behaviors. Traumatic responses occur in the face of an event or environment so intense and

frightening that it overwhelms familiar coping mechanisms. Traumatic experiences are typically

stored as isolated, non integrated memories that can easily be stimulated by similar, non

traumatic sensations. If traumatic experiences are not addressed, understood, and integrated, they

can become an overpowering factor in personality development and identity formation. The

trauma can then be used to explain all subsequent responses and reactions (Dana & Lisa, 2013;

Greenwald, 2002). These traumatic experiences are a common phenomenon in both two parent

and single parent families, however the degree to which traumatic experience occur in the family

may also differ depending on the family type; for example adolescents in single parent families

feel abandoned. This type of thinking can affect the adolescents as they try to figure out why one

of their parents had to leave them. This could also prove true for children of a deceased parent.

Such feelings can cause trauma to the adolescents. Besides that, the violence that is characterized

in many two parent families can also explain the cause of the traumatic experiences (Diana,

2014; Greenwald, 2002).

It is also important to note that not all unhappy marriages end in divorce, some continue

in an atmosphere of conflict. However, there is a link between intra- family conflict or parental

conflict and delinquency. A child’s perception of his or her parents’ marital happiness is a

predictor of delinquency. Contemporary studies find that children who grow up in maladaptive

families and witness discord or violence later exhibit emotional disturbances and behavior
 30

problems. In fact some research efforts show that observing the abuse of a parent (mother) is a

more significant determinant of delinquency than even being the target of child abuse (Lary &

Brandon, 2012). It is however true that intra family conflict is synonymous with the two parent

family type; this therefore means that raising adolescents in a two parent family type that is full

of intra-family conflict could be worse than raising an adolescent in a peaceful single parent

family type.

Even in a single parent family type that has occurred due to separation, conflict between

parents often increases immediately following divorce (Amato, 2000; Noller, Feeney, Sheehan,

Darlington, & Rogers, 2008). There is considerable evidence that 8 to 15% of parents continue

their conflict 2 to 3 years after divorce or separation (Kelly, 2000, 2003; King & Heard, 1999;

Schroeder et al., 2010). Numerous scholars asserted that adolescents who are exposed to

frequent, intense, and unresolved conflict between parents are at increased risk of delinquent

behavior (Cui et al., 2007; Gerard et al., 2006; Housknecht & Hango, 2006; Krishnakumar,

Buehler, & Barber, 2003; Schroeder et al, 2010).

The General Strain Theory as advanced by Agnew (1992) seemed to agree that traumatic

experiences cause of juvenile delinquency. According to the theory, experiencing unpleasant

events or circumstances, including aversive situations at home, particularly arguments and

violence is the major strain that one can experience and one that can cause delinquency. The

theory proposes that adolescents are pressed into delinquency by negative emotional reactions

that result from being situated in an aversive situation from which they cannot escape. This

blockage frustrates the adolescent and may lead to desperate avoidance and or anger-based

delinquency (Brody, 2001).

 31

It is also true that adolescents have lower self esteem in a single parent family type as

compared to adolescents in the two parent family type. Unlike single parent families that come as

a result of bereavement, single parent families that happen as a result of separation lead to

aggravated depression, unhappiness, and a sense of loss which transform into low self esteem.

Low self esteem translates into negative or unpleasant behaviour. Self esteem issues play a major

role in the adolescents’ behavior; adolescents whose esteem is low can easily be victims to peer

pressure since they lose confidence and a sense of self worth which act as ingredients in directing

acceptable behavior (Nagadya, 2011; Todd, 2005).

This study therefore sought to find out whether adolescents in single parent families in

Kampala district really exhibit more delinquent behaviour than their counterparts in the two

parent family type.

Relationship between Juvenile Delinquency and Academic Achievement among

Adolescents in Kampala districts.

Academic achievement has become an educational touchstone for, most students, parents

and educators. Strong academic performance ideally is linked to a college acceptance and the

path to a dream career. It is however important to note that academic achievement varies among

educators, policy makers and other educational stakeholders. To some researchers; academic

achievement is defined as the performance outcomes that indicate the extent to which a person

accomplishes specific goals that were the focus activities in schools, college and or university

(Ricarda et al., 2017). In this study however, academic achievement was defined as the outcome

of education-the extent to which a student has achieved their goals. It is characterize by having
 32

high perceived academic achievement, being proficient in mathematics; and the English

language (mainly because it is the language of school instruction in Uganda).

Academic performance and juvenile delinquency have a long-standing, empirically

supported correlation (Eric, 2018). Juvenile delinquency and academic achievement have a long-

standing empirically supported correlation. Overall, poor academic achievement is related to

juvenile delinquency based on a number of individual, social, and institutional factors. In the

early twentieth century, articles appeared that linked school failure to delinquency. Therefore

studies on delinquency prevention that appeared later in the century focused on the cognitive

development of delinquent teens, and (Clarke & Gray, 1950; Lenroot, 1943; Peyser, 1932). It is

believed that the association between academic failure and delinquency is clear even very early

in elementary school (Hinshaw & Lahey, 1993: Tremblay et al; 1992). When school failure is

present, it tends to be associated with other negative out comes like delinquent behaviour

(Barone et al, 1995; Brier, 1989, 1995; Eliot, 1996; Frick et al, 1991; Manguin & Loeber, 1996).

It is also important to note that lower scores on tests of intellectual functioning and deficiencies

in learning abilities are attributed to delinquent behaviors (Rizzo, 1981; Zinkus & Gottlieb,

1979).

Simon and Blyth (1996) found that low grade point average in sixth grade students was

associated with increased delinquency. Other researchers have posed that delinquency leads to

academic failure due to the fact that delinquent youths have been found to be deficient in

processing information, as well as, in basic reading and mathematics skills (Beebe, 1993).

In a longitudinal study carried out by Zagar et al, (1989) on 2000 urban delinquent youths

who were at that time in eight grade, it was found that they had several academic deficits. It was

found out that the youths’ academic achievement scores in mathematics, reading and vocabulary
 33

ranged between mid-third grade levels to early fourth grade level. Some other studies have found

that academic achievement levels of delinquent adolescents rarely exceed elementary grade level

(Amster & Lazarus, 1984).

It is also important to note that, juvenile delinquents have difficulties in focusing

attention. They are easily distracted and are often restless. They cannot sit through the entire

class period without attracting attention and will probably demonstrate poor achievement. These

are some of the susceptibility hypotheses as forming the relationship between low levels of

academic attainment and involvement in delinquency (Brier, 1995).

Scientific research examines the relationship between poor school performance and

delinquency and it has been unanimously agreed that early aggressive behaviour may lead to

difficulties in the classroom (Elliot, 1989). Delinquent traits in a child may result in a child

receiving unfavorable evaluations from teachers or even peers. These in turn result in school

failure. Nsubuga (2002) says that extreme cases of delinquency pronounced in schools could

include disrespect for teachers and fellow students, drunkardness, smoking, fighting, and others

but involvement in such activities would deprive a student of time to concentrate on academics

and would destroy their teacher-pupil relationship hence affect their academic achievement

Juvenile delinquents often engage in a variety of problem behavior or rather disruptive

behavior, such as chronic non compliance with adults, temper tantrums, cruelty and other un

desirable behaviors such as engaging in what is known as status offenses like truancy, running

away from home (Larry & Brandon, 2012) all of which are counterproductive to academic

achievement. Juvenile delinquents have also been found to have a weak bond to school; low

commitment, low aspirations, and poor motivation to achieve academic successes (Shannon &

Jenny, 2014; Brewer et al, 2001). It is however a known fact that poor school performance is a
 34

strong predictor of involvement in crime. Children with lower academic performance are more

likely to offend frequently, more likely to commit more serious offences and more likely to

persist in crime (Machin et al, 2011; Maguin & Loeber, 1996; Meghir et al, 2012). 

It is also likely that children who perform poorly on academic tasks are likely to fail to

develop strong bonds to school and they have low aspirations for success (Erick, 2018; Farington

& Hawkins, 1991). Several studies have revealed that negative attitudes towards school by

juveniles experiencing school failure would often result in an increased disposition to engage in

delinquent behaviour as irregular school attendance, and negative peer relationships (Brier,

1995).

School failure undermines a student’s interest in commitment to school and learning and

a child may resort to delinquent peer association which aggravates the problem further and also

lead to severe delinquency (Elliot, 1989). The Cambridge study on delinquent development and

the Pittsburgh Youth Study have both found that low school achievement predicts adolescents’

delinquency (Maguin & Loeber, 1996). Lack of educational achievement is not only associated

with initial involvement in delinquency, but it also plays a role in the ongoing criminal activity

of those experiencing learning difficulties (Arhwamely & Katsiyannis, 2000). The school failure

hypothesis suggests that the failure experienced in school by juveniles is the first of the many

negative experiences that will result in delinquency because of development of a negative self-

image (Zamora, 2005). A negative self image and misbehavior become the way to deal with the

disappointment and disapproval (Beebe et al., 1993).

Educational histories of juvenile female offenders reflected repeated failure, unrealistic

ideations about how well academic skills were being performed, a high percentage of students

needing special education, and unsatisfactory past relationships with teachers (Fejes, et al, 1995).
 35

Bowker and Klein (1993) also reported that students who have low educational expectations are

at increased risk for gang membership.

According to Colvin et al, (1993) when children fail to measure up to the expected

academic achievement level, they feel frustrated, and as a result of their inability to measure up

to the school's expectations, they become frustrated children and will act out by turning the

school middle values upside down. In a reaction-formation to their frustration, these youths use

the gang as a means of adjustment. In the gang such youths act out their status frustrations in

non-utilitarian, malicious, negativistic forms of delinquency. By acting out these youths turn

courtesy into rudeness, respect for property becomes vandalism, the need to control aggression

becomes fighting, and so on. Of course such behavior is defined as delinquency (Yablonsky,

1997). Yablonsky further says that the frustrated children behave like this as a legitimate

opportunity structure to strike back at a larger society that produces their status-frustration

problems.

Students whose behaviors identify them as academically deficient are more likely to be

exposed to negative interaction and punishment in the classroom and are less likely to be

engaged in instructional time with their teachers. Classroom time for these students becomes

aversive and is highly predictive of behaviors such as disruption, non-compliance, or aggression

that lead to further negative interactions with teachers and often, eventual exclusion from school.

Longitudinal studies have also shown that the relationship between delinquent behavior

and academic achievement is reciprocal over time. As one increases, the other decreases and the

reverse is true (Brayant, et al; 2000). This study therefore aimed at finding out if there is a

relationship between juvenile delinquency and academic achievement.

 36

Hypotheses

This study was guided by the following hypotheses.

1. There is no significant difference in academic achievement between adolescents in single

parent families and those in two parent families.

2. There is no significant difference in exhibiting delinquent tendencies between adolescents in

single parent families and their counterparts in two parent families.

3. There is no significant relationship between juvenile delinquency and academic

achievement among adolescents in Kampala districts.

 37

Chapter Three

Methodology

Introduction
This chapter outlines the research methods that were used in testing the hypotheses

presented in chapter two. It describes the instruments, and assessment of the validity and

reliability of the instruments. It also presents data collection and analyses procedures. The

chapter has the following sub sections; research design, target population, sample size, sampling

techniques, data collection instruments, quality control, data management and analyses, ethical

considerations, and limitations of this study.

Research design
The study was conducted using a comparative and a correlational design.  Comparative

research is the act of comparing two or more things with a view to discovering something about

one or all of the things being compared (Micheal et al, 2004; Przeworski et al, 1970). Using a

comparative design the researcher is attempting to answer questions in regard to the differences

between two or more groups (John, 1969; Melinda et al, 2006). Two or more cases are explicitly

contrasted to each other regards to a specific phenomenon or along a certain dimension, in order

to explore parallels and differences among the cases (John, 1969). Comparisons not only uncover

differences between social entities, but reveals unique aspects of a particular entity that would be

virtually impossible to detect otherwise (Dale, 1995). This study used this design to compare

adolescents in a single parent family with those in the two parent family type on juvenile

delinquency and academic achievement with the intension of finding out if there are differences

in academic achievement and exhibiting delinquent behaviour.

 38

As mentioned earlier, a correlational design was used too in this study. A correlation

design is used to look for association between variables. The aim of this design is to find out if

there is a relationship between variables. It also helps to understand the degree of association

between two measures (Ray, 1993). For this study in particular, a correlation design was used to

find out if there was a relationship between juvenile delinquency and academic achievement and

to find out the nature of relationship.

Study Area / Site

The Study area for this study was Kampala. Kampala is the capital and the largest city of

Uganda. Kampala is divided into five boroughs called divisions. These are Kampala Central

division, Kawempe division, Makndye division, Nakawa division and Lubaga division. Kampala

city is conterminous with Kampala District. The population of Kampala stands at over 2 million.

Kampala was the preferred choice for this study mainly because it is not only Uganda’s largest

city but also a capital city of Uganda; where high numbers of juvenile delinquent related crimes

are recorded. Kampala is battling teenage drug abuse and just in one month of January 2018,

more than 1,000 cases of drug-related offences particularly involving adolescents were recorded

(Daily Monitor, February 16th, 2018). Over 10,000 juveniles live on the streets of Kampala; these

engage themselves in pick-pocketing, sniffing fuel and taking drugs (New Vision July 28 th,

2007). It is also true that Kampala is situated in the central part of Uganda and a bee hive of

economic activities. Therefore it attracts people from different parts or regions of the country -

with of course different value systems and backgrounds. This would lend credibility to the

research findings.
 39

Target / Accessible Population

A target population is the entire aggregation of respondents that meet the designated set

of criteria (Burns & Grove 1997; Nestor et al, 2017; Paul, 2008). The target population for this

study consisted 1200 senior three adolescent students between the age of 15 and 18 and 40 day

secondary schools in Kampala district. It should be noted that schools were treated as a

population and the students that participated in the study were also considered a population. So

the study used two populations. Having two populations for this study was a conscious decision

to have a manageable population size to run a research on; to save time and money and to have a

more feasible approach.

Sample

This study used two samples. The schools from which the participants were selected was

treated as a sample and the students that participated in the study were treated as a sample too.

The school sample comprised 10 day secondary schools that were randomly selected from the

school population of 40 day secondary schools in Kampala. From these 10 day secondary

schools; a sample of 291 students was from a student population of 1200 students. The students’

sample was consciously selected to have an equal number of participants from both the single

parent family type and the two parent family type. The study used Krejcie and Morgan (1970) to

determine the student sample size. It should be noted however that after examining data, some

participants were subsequently removed due to inconsistency or incomplete questionnaires.

Some data indicated extreme outliers who were also dropped. Some participants failed to take

the mathematics proficiency test and these were dropped too. Table 1 below shows the traits of

the participants.
 40

Table 1: The Response rate and Demographic Data of the Participants

Variable Male % Female % Total

Family type

-Single parent 49 43% 66 57% 115

-Two parent 40 35% 75 65% 115

Total 89 39% 141 61% 230

Age

-15 37 42% 83 58% 120

-16 29 32% 40 28% 69

-17 19 21% 13 9% 32

-18 4 5% 5 5% 9

Total 89 141 230

Sex of parents in Single 49 43% 66 57% 115
parent families

The Table shows that the study used 230 participants. The majority of the participants in

the study were female. This does not suggest that the study was not gender sensitive; it was due

to the fact that the participants who were suitable and willing to be part of this study in every

school were generally female. Table 1 also shows that the average age of the participants was 15

years. It is also evident that most of the participants in the single parent family type were staying

with their mothers.

Sampling Techniques
Simple random sampling, and stratified random sampling techniques were employed to

select the samples. Simple random sampling is a method in which selections are drawn from a

population in a way that gives every member and every combination of members an equal

chance of being selected (Ray, 2012).

 41

Simple random sampling was used to select the school sample which comprised 10 day

secondary schools. To get this school sample, a manual lottery method was used. All the names

of the 40 day secondary schools in Kampala were written and assigned numbers on separate

strips. Each number represented a school. The strips with the numbers representing the schools

were folded, and put in a cup. They were then mixed up, and 10 strips were randomly selected.

The numbers that were picked represented the schools that were picked and these are the 10

schools that made up the school sample from which the students sample was drawn. Simple

random sampling was used because it would give an equal and independent chance to all schools

in the population to be selected so as to give a representative sample (William, 2012).

After selecting the 10 schools, Stratified random sampling was employed. Stratified

random Sampling is a probability sampling technique in which the entire population is divided

into smaller groups known as strata. In stratified random sampling, the strata are formed based

on members’ shared attributes or characteristics (Babbie, 2001; Theme, 2018). Stratified

random sampling can be used when we need to ensure that certain people are systematically

represented in the sample, especially if we expect that differences exist in certain groups (Ray,

1993; Theme, 2018).

This study, used family type as the stratifying variable and the participants from each of

the 10 participating schools were stratified into 2 strata. One stratum comprised participants

from the single parent family type, and the other comprised participants from the two parent

family type. Random samples were then drawn from each strata.

To get the strata size, the study used the stratified sample size formula, (Sample size of the strata

= size of the entire population/ population size * layer size). This study used a sample size of 291

participants from a population size of 1200 participants. The strata size for participants from
 42

either family type in every participating school therefore was calculated as (291/1200) x the

stratum size. A random sample from each stratum was then taken in a number proportional to

the stratum's size when compared to the population. These subsets of the strata were then pooled

to form a random sample. The study preferred stratified random sampling because it ensures that

each subgroups of a given population is adequately represented within the whole sample

population of a research study. And the logic behind using simple random sampling with

stratified random sampling was to lend credibility to the study and to add trustworthiness through

reducing judgment within a purposive category, but not for generalizability, to the findings

(Patton, 1990).

Data Collection Instruments

To measure juvenile delinquency among the adolescents, a 16 item questionnaire was

used. The study adopted items suitable for measuring juvenile delinquency in this study from

The National Youth Survey by Elliot (Elliot et al, 1988). The items had a reliability of 0.91. The

questionnaire on delinquency assessed if adolescents had involved themselves in delinquent

behaviour in the past one year and if so, the frequency of their behaviour. The 16 items on

juvenile delinquency were structured on a four point likert scale of; Never-1; one to two times-2;

three to four times -3; and more than four times-4. The total score of 16- on this scale meant that

the adolescents had never engaged in any delinquent behaviour while the total score of 64 meant

that the adolescents had engaged themselves in severe delinquent behaviour as 64 indicated the

highest level of involvement in delinquent behavior.

To measure academic achievement, a 15 item self-report questionnaire on a four point

Likert scale was used to assess the participants’ perceived academic achievement. The

questionnaire was self- made and was validated by the research supervisor. Content and
 43

Construct validity can be determined by expert judgement (Amin, 2005). The questionnaires had

a reliability coefficient of .734. Questionnaires were used since the study involved variables that

could not be directly observed; such as views, opinions, perceptions, attitudes, personality factors

and feelings of the participants. Such information is best collected using questionnaires.

Questionnaires could also save time (Bell, 1993; Stefan, 2016; Touliatos & 1988).

This study also used proficient tests in English and Mathematics to measure academic

achievement. An English Proficiency Test (EPT) was administered for the participants to

demonstrate their knowledge and skills or proficiency in the English language. English language

proficiency meant that a student had skills to read, write or comprehend a short and simple

passage in the English language with ease. This English test as a way of evaluating the

proficiency of English language learners was based on the Standard English vocabulary and

English grammar that any English learner would find in any English language learning material.

This proficiency test was to measure one’s command of the English language regardless of one’s

English language background. It is assumed that English proficiency tests are measures of

academic achievement because they denote the content and skill specific to the school

environment (Daller & Phelan, 2013; Hakuta, et al, 2000).

The study also used Mathematics Proficiency Test (MPT) as a measure of academic

achievement. The test items were based on the Ugandan Curriculum. This Mathematics test as a

way of evaluating the proficiency of Mathematics meant that the participants had mathematical

knowledge; they had ability to employ problem solving strategies, and to make good use of what

they know. Students had to know the concepts, strategies, and facts all of which are measures of

achievement in Mathematics (Howell, Fox, & Morehead, 1993; Silbert, Carnine, & Stein, 1990).

Proficiency in mathematics is an important goal for all students. Students who do not
 44

demonstrate proficiency in mathematics have serious gaps in academic achievement (The

National Academies Washington, 2001).

According to this study therefore, low or lack of proficiency in either mathematics or

English implied low academic achievement. Scores below 40% implied lack of proficiency in

either Mathematics or English; scores between 40%-49% meant very weak proficiency; scores

between 50%-59% meant weak proficiency; scores between 60%-69% meant average

proficiency; scores between 70%-79% meant slightly above average proficiency, and scores

from

For the relationship between juvenile delinquency and academic achievement, this study

conducted Pearson r product moment correlations between the variables measuring academic

achievement in the study and the scale measuring juvenile delinquency.

The selection of these tools was guided by the nature of data that was to be collected,

the time available as well as the objectives of the study. As mentioned earlier, questionnaires

were used in this study since the study was concerned with variables that could not be directly

observed such as views, opinions, perceptions, attitudes, personality factors and feelings of the

participants. Such information is best collected using questionnaires. Questionnaires could also

save time (Bell, 1993; Stefan, 2016; Touliatos & 1988Bell, 1993; TouLiatos & Compton, 1988).

It is also important to note that the overall aim of this study was to establish the influence of

family type on juvenile delinquency and academic achievement, and to find out the relationship

between juvenile delinquency and academic achievement among adolescents in Kampala district.

The study was concerned mainly with views; opinions, perceptions, feelings, attitudes, skills,

knowledge, and such information could best be collected through the use of questionnaires and

tests.
 45

Quality Control
To ensure quality control of the study, research instruments were validated. Validity of

research instruments refers to the extent to which the instruments measure what they are

supposed to measure. For this reason therefore, the test items in the proficiency tests and the

items in the questionnaires were assessed by the research supervisor from Makerere University.

Content and construct validity can be determined by expert judgment (Amin, 2005).

It is also important to note that the items on the scale measuring juvenile delinquency

were adopted from the National Youth Survey Self Report Delinquency Scale by Elliot 1989.

The scale had items that encouraged follow questions and broad frequency sets, and these are

used to increase reliability of the findings (Terence et al, 2004). The responses on this scale were

scored by the adolescent themselves through listing the number of times they had engaged in an

activity or behaviour in the last year. It is also important to note that this scale has an alpha of .91

(Elliot & Ageton, 19980). Based on the accepted alpha value of .7 or more being significant

(Cronbach, 1951); the National Youth Survey Self Report Delinquency Scale has high reliability.

Since the National Youth Survey Self Report Delinquency scale was not designed to

measure juvenile delinquency in Uganda, and the fact that not all items in the scale were used but

only 16 items were selected, chances of reduced reliability would be high. Therefore Cronbach’s

alpha coefficient was employed to determine the internal consistency of the selected items for

this study. A pilot study was therefore carried out in Mukono district, which is a neighboring

district outside the study area which was Kampala district. A pilot study is a trial run of the

major study (Cohen et al., 2002). A pilot study was to ensure that the items that were adopted

for the study were suitable to be used within the Ugandan context and in order to establish their

reliability within the Ugandan context. It was also important to assess the language clarity,
 46

ability to tap information from the respondents, acceptability in terms of item length, and ethical

consideration for the participants.

The questionnaires measuring juvenile delinquency were therefore administered to 20

senior three students (10 from the single parent family type and the other 10 from the two

parent family type). The participants were aged between 15 and 18 and they were from four

randomly selected day secondary schools in Mukono district. These 20 participants were

purposively selected. The reliability coefficient for each item in the questionnaire was

computed based on the responses of the students. The reliability coefficient for the pilot study

was .693(see appendix -G-) Although this was close to .70, the items were modified through

changing the wording to make them clearer to the participants this lead to a reliability

coefficient of 0.848 for the final study (see appendix-H-). Given that the reliability coefficient

was above 0.70, the scale measuring juvenile delinquency was considered sufficiently reliable

for the purpose of this study (Kathuri & Pals, 1993).

For the questionnaire measuring perceived academic achievement, the reliability

coefficient for the pilot study was .693. (See appendix-I-). To improve the validity in the final

study, one item was deleted leading to a better reliability coefficient of .734 (see appendix -J-),

which was also dependable (Kathuri & Pals, 1993).

To ensure quality control of the proficiency tests in English and Mathematics, the tests

were validated. Test validity is the extent to which a test accurately measures what it purports to

measure (Professional Testing Inc, 2005). The items were therefore reviewed by the research

supervisor from Makerere University to check for flaws, relevance, and to assess the language

clarity.
 47

Item difficulty, and item discrimination analysis were also considered (see appendix -K-),

Item discrimination refers to the ability of an item to differentiate among students on the basis of

how well they know the material being tested (Professional Testing Inc, 2005). Item difficulty is

a measure of the proportion of examinees who answered the item correctly (Professional Testing

Inc, 2005). The cut off value for both item difficulty and item discrimination index for the

proficiency tests was set at .03. Items that were below the cut off level but positive were revised,

while those that were negative were deleted. These tests therefore had internal consistency. The

ScorePak® report classifies item discrimination and item difficulty as "good" if the index is

above .30; "fair" if it is between .10 and.30; and "poor" if it is below .10 (ScorePak®, (2005).

Tests with high internal consistency consist of items with mostly positive relationships with total

test score (ScorePak®, (2005). Test destructors or incorrect options were also plausible and

incorrect without ambiguity.

Test retest reliability was also considered for both the Mathematics proficiency test and the

English proficiency test for purposes of internal consistence of the tests. The proficiency tests

were administered to the participants twice. The second administration of the tests was done after

one month from the first administration. The relationship between the two sets of scores as

administered to the participants was computed , and the relationship between the first and the

second administration of the Proficiency test in Mathematics was r (230) = 0.71, p < 0.01 and

that of the English proficiency test was r (230) = 0.86, p < 0.01 (see appendix L). The reliability

coefficients were all acceptable internal consistence of a test (Chronbach, 1951).

It is important to note that before administering either test, the participants were told the

purpose of the test and the test structure. The participants were also guided through the test

procedure. First, participants completed the background information. Next, the researcher and
 48

the proctors (who were teachers) distributed the test papers and specified the duration of the test

in order to ensure that correct procedures were followed. The Proficiency Tests had relevant

academic content; and had no bias. The tests had clear and unambiguous instructions that

identified skill and knowledge. The content was all relevant to the quality of the tests. The tests

had well scoring methods; the scoring was easy since the tests were of multiple choice test type.

The tests were also scored objectively using rights only method. Standardized administration and

security measures were employed to avoid compromising the reliability of the tests.

Procedure and Ethical Consideration

An introductory letter was obtained from the School of Psychology requesting authorities

at schools to allow the research to be carried out in the selected schools. The researcher

requested to meet the students to whom the purpose of the study was explained. The duration and

procedure of the study were made known to the students and they were informed of how

participants’ privacy would be respected. It was made clear that participation was voluntary and

that it was okay to withdraw from the study if one felt like doing so. Since some participants

were minors (participants below 18 years according to the Ugandan laws); and also due to the

fact that some parents would perhaps not be comfortable to have their children take part in the

study, all participants that were willing to be part of the study were asked to seek consent from

their parents. Consent letters were sent to the participants’ parents who were asked to sign them

to show that they were okay with their children taking part in the study. These letters were

returned to school from where the researcher received them before proceeding with the study.

Although these letters were signed, they were not binding agreements between the researcher and

the participants; therefore, participants were allowed to withdraw from the study if they wished

to. The participants were also given letters of invitation to participate in the study. Participants’
 49

rights to privacy were not violated; all the information about the participants acquired during the

study was treated as highly confidential and was not made available to others. Research results

were reported fully and accurately.

Data Management and Analysis

Data was analyzed and processed using the Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS)

17th version at a significant level of 0.5. For the delinquency scale, the four point likert scale was

coded as follows; (Never was coded -1-); (1-2 times was coded- 2-); (3-4 times was coded-3);

(more than 4 times was coded- 4-). The total score of 16- on this scale meant that the adolescents

had never engaged in any delinquent behaviour while the total score of 64 meant that the

adolescents had engaged themselves in severe delinquent behaviour as 64 indicated the highest

level of involvement in delinquent behavior.

For the scale measuring perceived academic achievement, the four point likert scale of;

strongly agree-4; agree-3; disagree-2; strongly disagree-1; was used. The total score of 60 meant

that the adolescent had the highest perceived academic achievement, and therefore better

academic achievement and the total score of 15 indicated that the adolescent had the lowest

perceived academic achievement, and therefore lower academic achievement.

The responses on the Likert scales were summed in composite scores that represented the

variables under investigation. This made the data on both Likert scales (the one measuring

perceived academic achievement, and that measuring juvenile delinquency) interval other than

ordinal.

For the proficiency tests in English and Mathematics, scores below 40% on the

proficiency tests implied lack of proficiency in either Mathematics or in English; scores between

40%-49% meant very weak proficiency; scores between 50%-59% meant weak proficiency;
 50

scores between 60%-69% meant average proficiency; scores between 70%-79% meant slightly

above average proficiency, and scores from 80% and above meant high proficiency in either

Mathematics or English. Low and lack of proficiency in either mathematics or English indicated

low academic achievement.

Also, the main objectives of this study were; To compare the academic achievement of

adolescents in a two parent family type with that of the adolescents in a single parent family type

in Kampala district; To compare delinquent behavior among adolescents in a single parent

family type with those in a two parent family type in Kampala district; and To establish the

relationship between juvenile delinquency and academic achievement.

The study focused on the single parent family type and the traditional two parent family

type in comparing the adolescents on juvenile delinquency and academic achievement. In this

study, family type was the independent variable, while academic achievement and juvenile

delinquency were dependent variables. It was conceptualized that family type; that is whether an

adolescent stays with both their biological parents, or with just a single parent, determines

whether or not an adolescent achieves highly in their academic endeavors, and also whether or

not an adolescent becomes a juvenile delinquent.

The study used quantitative process such as frequencies, percentages, means, and

standard deviations to analyze data. To test hypothesis one which stated that; there is no

significant difference in academic achievement between adolescents in single parent families

and those in two parent families, an independent samples t-test was conducted. To test

hypothesis two which stated that; there is no significant difference in exhibiting delinquent

behaviour between adolescents in single parent families and their counterparts in the two parent

families, an independent samples t- test was conducted, and to test hypothesis three which stated
 51

that; there is no relationship between juvenile delinquency and academic achievement, a Pearson

® product moment correlation was used to establish the relationship between juvenile

delinquency and academic achievement.

Limitations

Although this study may generate more literature in several important ways, it is

important to recognize its limitations;

This study used a comparative design, and for this reason, the groups used in the study

were pre existing, so the study had no control over the conditions that would happen to the

grouping variables to cause the results as they appeared. The attempts to draw cause and effect

conclusions in this study would be tenuous and tentative at best. A clear cause – effect cannot be

obtained because limited cause – effect information is availed.

Delinquent behaviour was self reported, and it is not clear if the participants reported

their behaviour correctly. Self report methods however are very useful in research taking the

advantage that people have a unique opportunity to observe themselves full-time (Baldwin,

2000).

There is no delinquency scale for Ugandan context, so the scale that was used to measure

delinquent behaviour among adolescents was not a Ugandan scale. However the Self Report

Scale developed by Elliot and Ageton 1980, from which items were adapted to measure

delinquency in this study caters for delinquent acts such as, violent crimes, property crimes, drug

abuse, sex related delinquent acts, which the study intended to measure as indicators of

delinquency. Besides, the items were assessed by the research supervisor, and also validated

during the pilot study to fit the Ugandan context.

 52

Chapter Four

Results

Introduction

This chapter presents the findings of the study. The presentation is done following the

objectives of the study which were; to compare the academic achievement of adolescents in a

two parent family type with that of the adolescents in a single parent family type; to compare

delinquent behavior among adolescents in a single parent family type with those in a two parent

family type; to establish the relationship between juvenile delinquency and academic

achievement.

Results for Hypothesis One

 53

The first hypothesis of this study states that; there is no significant difference in

academic achievement between adolescents in single parent families and those in two parent

families. Academic achievement in this study was characterized by having high perceived

academic achievement and being proficient in English and Mathematics. The participants

therefore were compared on basis of their perceived academic achievement and their proficiency;

both in English and Mathematics.

Perceived academic achievement was measured through responding to a self report

questionnaire. Perceived academic achievement in this study was defined as what an individual

thinks they achieve in their academic endeavors. The predictors which were considered

important for participants’ perceived academic achievement in this study were; whether the

participants had high self assessment of cognitive competences that are taught and learned in a

formal learning environment; whether the participants had high self assessment of commitment

and diligence to their school work; whether they had high self assessment of school perceived

safety and whether they had high perceived parental involvement in their school work. The table

below shows the adolescents’ response to the questionnaire measuring perceived academic

achievement.

Table 2:
Participants’ Responses on Perceived Academic Achievement
Statement Single parent Two parent

Agree Disagree Agree Disagree

I always want to learn 64% 36% 94% 6%

I participate regularly in class 35% 65% 76% 24%

I often find it easy to pay attention in class 48% 52% 84% 16%

I feel emotionally safe in class 37% 63% 81% 19%

Most of my teachers like me 46% 54% 85% 15%

 54

I don’t skip classes, I attend regularly 41% 59% 87% 13%

I have never felt like dropping out of school 75% 25% 90% 10%

School is very interesting 71% 29% 97% 3%

My performance in Mathematics is very good 16% 84% 25% 75%

My performance in English is very good 89% 11% 93% 7%

I always complete my school home work 50% 50% 83% 17%

I love reading my books during my free time 41% 59% 74% 26%

I always pass with a first grade 47% 53% 79% 21%

My parent (s) always help me with my school work 22% 78% 76% 24%

I often need extra help with class work 71% 29% 80% 20%

The findings in table 2 show that more adolescents in the two parent family type have

better self assessment of cognitive competences that are taught and learned in a formal

environment than the adolescents in the single parent family type. Findings revealed that

adolescents in the two parent family type reported better classroom achievement test scores, and

better teacher ratings of academic performance and grades. For example the majority (79%) of

the adolescents in the two parent family type agreed that they always get a first grades in class,

while only 47% of the adolescents in the single parent family type agreed. This therefore

revealed that adolescents in a two parent family type exhibit higher perceived academic

achievement than their counterparts in the single parent family.

For commitment and diligence towards school work, the findings in table 2 show that

adolescents in the two parent family type reported a higher level of diligence and commitment

towards school work than their counterparts in the single parent family type. This is

characterized by their ability to concentrate in class as reported by the majority (84%) of the

adolescents in the two parent family type. Lack of concentration as reported by many (52% ) of

the adolescents in the single parent family type leads to higher levels of redundant thoughts
 55

which waste mind power hence breeding; failure to complete home work projects and

assignments, less interest or motivation to learn, irregular school attendance, and failure to read

one’s books during one’s free time as reported by the majority of the adolescents in the single

parent family type according to table 2 all of which indicate low perceived academic

achievement.

For perceived school safety, the study revealed that more adolescents in the two parent

family type than the adolescents in the single parent family type reported better perceived school

safety. Table 2 shows that majority of the adolescents in the two parent family type reported that

they feel satisfied with school, their perception of what the teachers expect from them was also

positive, for example 85% of the adolescents in the two parent family type reported that their

teachers like them, while only 46% of the adolescents in the single parent family type reported

the same. Table 2 also shows that 81% of the adolescents in the two parent family type reported

that they feel emotionally safe while in class, while only 37% of the adolescents in the single

parent family type reported the same. This therefore shows that more adolescents in the single

parent family type have low perceived school safety, hence low academic achievement.

For perceived parental involvement in school work, adolescents in the two parent family

type reported better perceived parental involvement than the adolescents in the single parent

family type. Table 2 shows that 76% of the adolescents in the two parent family type reported

that their parents always get involved in their school work, while only 22% of the adolescents in

the single parent family type reported that their parents get involved in their school work.

According to the findings as revealed in table 2, adolescents in the two parent family type

exhibited better perceived academic achievement since they reported more positively on the
 56

predictors of perceived academic achievement such as; having high self assessment of cognitive

competences that are taught and learnt in a formal learning environment; having high self

assessment of perceived commitment and diligence towards school work; having high self

assessment for perceived school safety; and having high self assessment for perceived parental

involvement in school work. This implies that adolescents in the two parent family type have

better academic achievement than their counterparts in the single parent family type.

An independent samples t-test was conducted to compare perceived academic

achievement of the adolescents in the single parent family type with that of the adolescents in the

two parent family type. The findings are presented in table 3;

Table 3:

An Independent Samples t-test Results on Perceived Academic Achievement

Family type Perceived Academic Achievement

N M SD T Df Sig

Single parent family From the

115 39.37 3.92 -17.30 228 .000
Two parent family
115 49.23 4.69 study

findings, there was a significant difference in perceived academic achievement between the

adolescents in the single parent family type (M = 39.37, SD =3.92) and those in the two parent

family type (M = 49.23, SD = 4.69); t (228) = -17.30, p = .001; p < .05. These results specifically
 57

suggest that adolescents staying in a two parent family type exhibit higher perceived academic

achievement as compared to their counterparts in a single parent family type.

To further establish the relationship between family type and academic achievement,

proficiency tests both in the English language and Mathematics were administered to the

adolescents. According to this study, scores below 40% implied lack of proficiency in either

Mathematics or English. Scores between 40%-49% meant very weak proficiency; scores

between 50%-59% meant weak proficiency; scores between 60%-69% meant average

proficiency; scores between 70%-79% meant above average proficiency, and scores from 80%

and above meant high proficiency in either Mathematics or English. Therefore scores from 60%

and above indicated high academic achievement while scores from 59% and below indicated low

academic achievement. The table below shows the scores of the participants.

Table 4:

Participants’ Scores on the Proficiency Tests

English Proficiency Test Mathematics Proficiency Test

Single parent family Two parent family Single parent family Two parent family

Marks frequency % frequency % frequency % frequency %

0-9 - - - 27 23% - -

10-19 - - - 23 20% 1 .9%

20-29 - - - 32 28% 3 3%

30-39 13 11% 3 2% 11 10% 7 6%

40-49 32 28% 14 12% 16 14% 69 60%

50-59 25 22% 15 13% 6 5% 35 30%

60-69 23 20% 18 16% - -

 58

English Proficiency Test Mathematics Proficiency Test

70-79 16 14% 26 23% - -

Marks
80-89 6 5% 39 34% - -

For the proficiency test in English, the results presented in table 4 reveal that there was a

difference in the scores. The findings revealed that more adolescents in the two parent family

type than those in the single parent family type demonstrated high proficiency in the English

language. Table 4 shows that 73% of the adolescents in the two parent family type demonstrated

proficiency in the English language, while only 39% of the adolescents in the single parent

family type demonstrated proficiency in the English language.

For the proficiency test in Mathematics, the findings suggest that many adolescents both

in the single parent family type and the two parent family type demonstrated very weak

proficiency hence low achievement in mathematics. It was however evident that the adolescents

in the single parent family type demonstrated a much weaker performance, hence lower

academic achievement. Table 4 shows that 81% of the participants in the single family type

demonstrated absolute lack of proficiency in Mathematics, while only 10% of the participants in

the two parent family type demonstrated total lack of proficiency in Mathematics. Despite this

weak performance on the proficiency test in Mathematics in either family type, still the

participants in the two parent family type demonstrated a better performance than their

counterparts in the single parent family type.

According to Table 4 therefore, the study revealed that adolescents in the two parent

family type outperformed their counterparts in the single parent family type on both proficiency
 59

tests. This implies that the adolescents in the two parent family type reported better academic

achievement.

An independent samples t-test was conducted to compare the achievement of the

adolescents from the single parent family type with those in the two parent family type on the

proficiency test in English. The findings are presented in table 5:

Table 5:

An Independent Samples t-test Results on the English Proficiency Test

Family type English Proficiency Test

N M SD t df Sig

Single parent family 115 54.5 1.39 -6.911 228 .000

Two parent family 115 69.5 1.50

From the study findings, it can be noted that there was a significant difference in

proficiency in English between the adolescents in the single parent family type (M = 54.5, SD

=1.39) and those in the two parent family type, (M = 69.5, SD =1.50); t (228) = -6.911, p = .001;

p < .05. These results specifically suggest that adolescents staying in a two parent family type

exhibit higher academic performance because they are more proficient in the English language as

compared to their counterparts staying in a single parent family type.

An independent samples t-test was analyzed to compare the achievement of the

adolescents from the single parent family type with those in the two parent family type on the

proficiency test in Mathematics. The findings are presented in table 6:

Table 6:

An Independent samples t- Test Results on the Mathematics Proficiency Test

 60

Family Type Mathematics Proficiency Test

N M SD T Df sig

Single parent 115 19.5 1.50 -14.80 164. .000

Two Parent 115 44.5 .725

From the study findings, there was a significant difference in proficiency in Mathematics

between the adolescents in the single parent family type (M = 19.5, SD =1.50) and those in the

two parent family type, (M = 44.5, SD =.73); t (164) = -14.80, p = .001; p < .05. These results

specifically suggest that adolescents staying in a two parent family type demonstrated better

proficiency in Mathematics as compared to their counterparts staying in a single parent family

type.

To further compare the academic achievement of the adolescents from the single parent

family type and the two parent family type, the two proficiency tests were put together and an

independent samples t-test was conducted. The findings are given in table 7 below;

Table 7:
An Independent Samples t-test on both Proficiency tests
Family type Mathematics and English Proficiency tests

N M SD T Df Sig

Single parent 115 40.42 2.181 -14.171 228 .000

Two parent 115 70.39 .524

From the study findings, there was a significant difference in academic achievement

between the adolescents in the single parent family type (M = 40.42, SD =2.181) and those in the
 61

two parent family type, (M = 70.39, SD =.524); t (228) = -14.171, p = .001; p < .05. These

results specifically suggest that adolescents staying in a two parent family type demonstrated

better academic achievement than their counterparts in a single parent family type.

According to the findings as revealed from the perceived academic achievement of the

participants, the proficiency tests, both in English and Mathematics; there was a significant

difference in academic achievement between the adolescents in single parent families, and those

in the two parent families. Adolescents in a two parent family type exhibited better perceived

academic achievement, and generally better proficiency in Mathematics and English hence better

academic achievement.

These findings specifically suggest that when adolescents stay in a single parent family

type, their academic achievement reduces. This means that these results are statistically

significant. The null hypothesis therefore “There is no significant difference in academic

achievement between adolescents in single parent family type and those in a two parent family

type” was rejected, and the alternative hypothesis was adopted. “There is a significant difference

in academic achievement between adolescents in the single parent family type and those living in

a two parent family type.” The results obtained from the study therefore are not by chance but

due to the influence of family type on academic achievement of adolescents in Kampala district.

Hypothesis Two
The second hypothesis in this study states that; there is no significant difference in

exhibiting delinquent behavior between adolescents in single parent families and those in two

parent families. Adolescents were subjected to a self report questionnaire measuring juvenile

delinquency and their responses are revealed in Table 8 below;

 62

Table 8:
Participants’ Responses on Delinquency
Statement Single Parent Family Two parent Family

How many times in the last one year have you--? Never 1-2 3-4 More Never 1-2 3-4 More
Times times Than 4 Times times Than 4
times times

Stolen any property 28% 27% 22% 23% 60% 18% 11% 11%

Stolen money 49% 38% 13% - 73% 21% 6% -

Used force to get money or other things 76% 16% 5% 3% 91% 9% - -

Knowingly kept or bought stolen property 41% 32% 16% 11% 64% 17% 11% 8%

Voluntarily had sexual relations 49% 34% 9% 8% 82% 18% - -

Tried to have sexual relations forcefully 88% 12% - - 94% 6% - -

Been paid for having sexual relations 63% 15% 11% 11% 93% 7% - -

Sold drugs like marijuana, cocaine, etc 63% 17% 13% 7% 90% 10% - -

Taken drugs like marijuana, cocaine, etc 57% 19% 11% 13% 90% 10% - -

Taken alcoholic drinks like beer ,spirits etc 45% 18% 12% 25% 82% 10% 3% 5%

Hit or threatened to hit an adult 80% 20% - - 96% 4% - -

Hit or threatened to hit a fellow student 61% 19% 6% 14% 78% 10% 7% 5%

Been involved in a physical fight 36% 37% 10% 17% 69% 15% 10% 6%

Attacked someone in order to hurt them 49% 31% 11% 9% 83% 17% - -

Destroyed any property on purpose 45% 22% 19% 14% 92% 8% - -

Used vulgar language 30% 22% 24% 24% 77% 15% 4% 4%

For property crimes like theft, table 8 indicates that more adolescents staying in a single

parent family type than their counterparts in the two parent family type had been involved in

property crimes, like theft. The study revealed that majority (72%) of the adolescents in the

single parent family had been involved in stealing property; 51% had been involved in stealing

money; 24% had used force to get money and other property; and 56% had been involved in

knowingly keeping and buying stolen property. On the other side, only 40% of the adolescents in

the two parent family type had been involved in stealing property; 27% had been involved in
 63

stealing money; only 9% had used force to get money and other property from other people; and

36% had been involved in knowingly keeping and buying stolen property. This study therefore

revealed that more adolescents in a single parent family type than the two parent family type

engage in property related crimes.

It was also discovered that more adolescents in the single parent family type had been

involved in sexual crimes. Table 8 shows that 51% of the adolescents in the single parent family

type had been involved in voluntary sexual relations; 12% tried to use force to have sexual

relations with other people; and 37% had been paid to have sexual relations. In the two parent

family type however, a small percentage of the adolescents had been involved in sexual crimes,

for example 18% of the adolescents reported that they had ever had sexual relations voluntarily;

6% reported that they had ever tried to use force to in order to have sexual relations; and 7%

reported that they had ever been paid to have sexual relations. This study therefore revealed that

more adolescents in a single parent family type than the two parent family type engage in sexual

related crimes.

For alcohol and substance abuse, the study further revealed that more adolescents in the

single parent family type than the two parent family type had been involved in alcohol and

substance abuse. Table 8 shows that 37% of the adolescents in the single parent family type

reported that they had ever sold marijuana, cocaine and other related drugs; 43% had taken drug

like marijuana, cocaine and other related substances; and 55% had taken alcoholic drinks such as

beer, spirits and others. On the other hand, only 10% of the adolescents in the two parent family

type confessed to having sold marijuana, cocaine and other drugs; 10% reported use of drugs like

marijuana, cocaine and others; and only 18% reported that they had ever taken alcohol.
 64

For violence, more adolescents living in a single parent family type also reported more

incidences of being violent than those living in a two parent family type. Table 8 reveals that

20% of the adolescents in the single parent family type reported that they had ever hit or

threatened to hit an adult; 39% reported that they had ever hit or threatened to hit their fellow

students; 64% reported that they had been involved in physical fights; 51% reported that they

had ever attacked someone with the idea of hurting them; and 55% of the participants reported

that they had ever destroyed property on purpose. On the other hand, table 8 shows that few

adolescents in the two parent family type reported violent behavior.

According to the results in Table 8, there is a difference in exhibiting delinquent

behavior between adolescents in single parent families and those in two parent families. The

findings in table 8 especially suggest that when adolescents live in a single parent family type,

they exhibit higher levels of juvenile delinquency.

An independent samples t-test was conducted to compare delinquency between

adolescents in a single parent family type and those in the two parent family type. The findings

are presented in table 9:

Table 9:
An Independent Samples t-test Results on Delinquency

Family Type N M SD t Df Sig

Juvenile Delinquency Single parent 115 26.97 4.54 16.097 179. .000

Two parent 115 19.16 2.55

These results suggest that there is a significant deference in exhibiting delinquency

between the adolescents in the single parent family type and those in the two parent family type.
 65

Scores for adolescents in the single parent family type were (M = 26.97, SD = 4.54) and scores

for adolescents in the two parent family type were, (M = 19.16, SD = 2.55); t (179.) = 16.097, p =

.001; p < 0.05. The findings especially mean that adolescents in the single parent family type

exhibit more delinquent behavior as compared to their counterparts in the two parent family type.

According to the results in Table 9, the null hypothesis “there is no significant difference

in exhibiting delinquent behaviour between adolescents in single parent families and those in

two parent families.” was rejected, and the alternative hypothesis was adopted. ‘There is a

significant difference in exhibiting delinquent behaviour between adolescents in single parent

families and those in two parent families.” The findings specifically suggest that when

adolescents live in a single parent family, they exhibit higher levels of delinquency. This means

that these results are statistically significant. The results obtained from the study therefore are not

by chance but due to the influence of the family type on juvenile delinquency among adolescents

in Kampala district.

Hypothesis Three
The third hypothesis in this study states that; there is no significant relationship between

juvenile delinquency and academic achievement among adolescents in Kampala district. Since

academic achievement in this study was characterized by having high perceived academic

achievement, being proficient in the English language and in Mathematics, the following Pearson

® product moment correlations were run;

A Pearson ® product moment correlation between; juvenile delinquency and perceived

academic achievement English; juvenile delinquency and the proficiency test results from

mathematics; juvenile delinquency and the proficiency test results in English; and juvenile

delinquency and the test results from both mathematics and English put together – were
 66

conducted to determine if there is a relationship between juvenile delinquency and academic

achievement of adolescents in Kampala. The findings are given in table 10 below;

Table 10:

Correlation results between juvenile delinquency and perceived academic achievement

N Perceived Academic Math Proficiency English Both Math and

Achievement Test Proficiency English
Test

Juvenile 230 -594** -542** -308** -550**

delinquency

**Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

From table 10, it can be noted that there was a significant negative relationship between

juvenile delinquency and perceived academic achievement, r (230) = -.594**, p< 0.01. This

means that as adolescent exhibits higher levels of delinquency, they exhibit lower levels of

perceived academic achievement hence lower academic achievement.

It can also be noted that juvenile delinquency and proficiency in mathematics were

negatively correlated; r (230) = -542, P<0.01. This indicates a significant negative relationship

between juvenile delinquency and proficiency in mathematics. This means that as the

adolescents exhibit higher levels of delinquency, they exhibit lower levels of proficiency in

mathematics hence lower levels of academic achievement.

From table 11, it can be noted that juvenile delinquency and proficiency in mathematics

were negatively correlated, r (230) = -.542**, p< 0.01. This indicates a significant negative

relationship between juvenile delinquency and proficiency in mathematics. This means that as
 67

the adolescents exhibit higher levels of delinquency, they exhibit lower levels of proficiency in

Mathematics hence lower levels of academic achievement.

The findings in table 10 still reveal that there was a moderate negative relationship

between juvenile delinquency and proficiency in English r (230) = -308, P< 0.01. This means

that as adolescents exhibit higher levels of delinquency, they exhibit moderately lower levels of

proficiency in English hence moderately lower levels of academic achievement.

From the same table (10), it can be noted that juvenile delinquency and th scores from the

two proficiency tests were negatively correlated r (230) = -550, P< 0.01. This indicates a

significant negative relationship between juvenile delinquency and proficiency in both English

and Mathematics. This means that as adolescents exhibit higher levels of delinquency, they

exhibit lower levels of proficiency in both English and Mathematics hence lower academic

achievement.

According to the results as revealed in tables 10, the null hypothesis “There is no

significant relationship between juvenile delinquency and academic achievement.” was rejected,

and the alternative hypothesis was adopted. “There is a significant relationship between juvenile

delinquency and academic achievement.” This means that these results are statistically

significant.

Summary of Study Findings

As reported in chapter four of this dissertation, the findings generally revealed that a

significant difference in academic achievement between adolescents in a two parent family type

and their counterparts in the single parent family type in Kampala district exists. Results from an

independent t-test on perceived academic achievement indicate a significant difference in

 68

perceived academic achievement. Adolescents in a two parent family exhibited higher perceived

academic achievement (M = 49.23, SD = 4.69) than those in a single parent family type (M =

39.37, SD =3.92); t (228) = -17.30, p = .001; p < .05 hence adolescents in a two parent family

perform better academically.

Results on the independent t-tests from the proficiency tests too show a significant

difference in family type and academic achievement. Adolescents’ proficiency in Mathematics

was significantly different. Results from an independent t-test on the Mathematics proficiency

test for adolescents in the single parent family type were (M = 19.5, SD = 1.50) and those from

the adolescents in a two parent family type were (M = 44.5, SD = .73); t (164) – 14.80, P = .001;

< . 50. These results suggest that adolescents in the two parent family type out performed their

counterparts in the single parent family type on the proficiency test in Mathematics hence

demonstrating better academic achievement.(M=54.5, SD = 1.39) and scores from adolescents

in the two parent family type were (M =69.5, SD = 150;t (228) = -6.91, P = , .05.) These results

suggest that adolescents in the two parent family type demonstrated better proficiency in English

than the adolescents in the single parent family type hence indicating better academic

performance.

Results from both the proficiency test results were summed and an independent t test

was conducted. Still adolescents in the two parent family type demonstrated better academic

achievement (M =70.39, SD =.524) than those in the single parent family type (M =40.42, SD =

2.181); t (228) = -14.171, p = .001; p < .05.) These findings therefore suggested rejection of the

null hypothesis of the study and adopting the alternative hypothesis. “ there is a significant

difference in academic achievement between adolescents in the single parent family type and
 69

those in a two parent family type” adolescents raised in a two parent family type achieve better

academically than those raised in a single parent family type.

The study also revealed a significant difference in exhibiting delinquent behaviour

between adolescents in the single parent family type and those in the two parent family type.

Scores on an independent t-test on the questionnaire measuring juvenile delinquency revealed

that adolescents in the single parent family type exhibited more delinquent behaviour (M =

26.97, SD = 4.54) than those in the two parent family type, (M=19.16, SD = 2.55); t (179) =

16.09, p = .001; p < 0.05.) These findings therefore suggested rejection of the null hypothesis of

the study and adopting the alternative hypothesis. “There is a significant difference in exhibiting

delinquent behavior between adolescents in the single parent family type and those in a two

parent family type”

The results from the study also revealed a significant negative relationship between

juvenile delinquency and academic achievement, r (230) = -.550 **, p < 0.01. The null hypothesis

was therefore rejected, and the alternative hypothesis was adopted; “there is a relationship

between juvenile delinquency and academic achievement” as adolescents exhibit higher levels of

delinquency, their academic performance declines.

 70

Chapter Five

Discussion, Conclusion, and Recommendations

Introduction

This chapter presents the discussion, conclusion and recommendations from the study

findings on family type, juvenile delinquency and academic achievement among adolescents in

Kampala district. The results of this study that have been analyzed in chapter four and yet to be

discussed in this chapter are to reveal the implications from the findings and put forth the

recommendations.

Discussions;

There is no significant difference in academic achievement between adolescents in single

parent families and the two parent families.

 71

Results obtained in testing the Null hypothesis one; in Tables 3 5, 6, and 7 revealed that

there is a significant difference in academic achievement between adolescents in the single

parent type and those in the two parent family type in Kampala district with adolescents in the

two parent family type out performing their counterparts in the single parent family type on the

proficiency tests- both in English, and Mathematics, and in perceived academic achievement.

This implied that adolescents in a two parent family type exhibited better academic achievement

as compared to their counterparts in the single parent family type. The findings from this study

corroborated the findings of other researchers such as Barajas, (2011); Huang, (2000); Biblarz &

Raftery, (1999); Zill, (1996); Cooksey & Fondell, (1993); Bain, et al, (1983); Balcom, (1998) ;

Biller, (1970); Daniels, (1986); Downey, et al (1998) ; Fry & Scher, (1984); Mandara & Murray,

(2006); Milne, Rosenthal, & Ginsburg, (1986); and Mc Lanahan, (2004) who found that children

in single parent families scored lower on tests of cognitive functioning, and standardized tests.

They also reported that children in single parent families had lower GPAs than children in two

parent families. In the same effort Barajas, (2011) highlighted the importance of a two parent

family type in relation to a child’s academic success, and asserts that at least one third of children

experiencing a parental separation demonstrated a significant decline in academic performance

persistently at least for three years.

Many researchers have found that the crucial reason for the lower academic achievement

of adolescents in the single parent family type as revealed in this study could be the poor

economic resources that usually accompany this type of families. (Entwisle and Alexander,

1995, 1996; Kristina et al, 2010; Mc Lanahan and Sandefur, 1994; National Survey of America’s

Families, 2002; Nelson et al, 2001; Seth, 2014). Particularly Seth, 2014; Mc Lanahan and

Sandefur, (1994) found that economic conditions explained 50% of the variation of academic
 72

achievement scores between adolescents in intact and single parent families. They offered as the

explanation that owing to lack of economic resources, children from single parent families have

fewer accesses to books and other brain stimulating activities that would help them develop their

cognitive ability, and intelligence. This proposition is supported by Olson and Stone, (2005); and

Nelson et al, (2001). In Taiwan, Huang et al, (2000) found that single parent families had fewer

economic resources. I would also think that such families spend less on children’s education, and

so such children’s academic performance is always left wanting.

Another vital reason that researchers have found useful in explaining the disparity in

academic achievement between adolescents in single parent families and those in the two parent

families is the fact that single parent families score lower on parental supervision and

involvement in children’s academic work (Ho & Wilms, 1996; Valerie et al, 2012). Many

researchers have found that regarding children’s academic achievement, effects of parental

supervision and involvement in children’s educational achievement are independent of those of

socioeconomic status (Anstone & Mc Lanahan, (1991); Babirye, (2006) ; Ho & Wilms, (1996);

Lee, (1993).

Nyamusana, (2010) emphasized the role of parents in academic achievement and said

that parents are meant to ensure that children’s discipline is checked, they should monitor

performance at school and provide school materials for their children so that the children can

achieve academic success. Often times the single parent lacks adequate supervision since the

single parent has to work hard to provide for the family. If parents get involved in children’s

learning in many ways, such as the home-based involvement of monitoring after school

activities, monitoring school studies, and advising on study strategies or the school- based

involvement of directly intervening in school administration by changing classes, tracking or

 73

talking to teachers on behalf of the child, these actions are generally found to benefit children’s

learning and improve academic achievement (Annie, 2012; Anstone & Mc Lanahan, 1991;

Crouter & Mac Dermid, 1990; David, et al, 2010; Fehrmann, et al, 1987; Ho & Wilms, 1996;

Muller & Kerbow, 1993; Stevenson & Backer 1987). As a general fact, this study revealed that

single parent families tend to provide less supportive parental practices for children’s schooling

in comparison to the two parent families as revealed in Table 2. Majority of the adolescents in

the single parent families revealed that their parents do not help them with their home work and

school assignments and or projects. Marloes, et al, (2013); Cooksey and Fondell, (1993);

Thomson, et al. (1992); and Lee, (1993) like many other researchers said that less or no parental

involvement in the children’s education leads to less academic excellence. In the same vein,

Epstein, (2007); Simpkin et al, (2006); and Schader, (2008) firmly assert that single parent

family types always breed a situation where the single parent can not have enough time to

emphasize the value of education and I too believe that the value parents place on education can

mean the difference in whether the adolescents perform well in school or not.

Some researchers have a divergent view. Their attention is shifted from family type to

personality factors to explain the disparity in the academic performance of adolescents (Asghar,

et al, 2012; Samuel, 2008). These researchers proposed personality factors that may include how

the learner handles feelings that are evoked during the learning process, what kind of motivation

the learner brings to the learning process; this may also include whether the learner prefers to

work alone, in groups, and the kind of relationship the leaner prefers to have with the teacher and

other learners. Personality factors can also include among others laziness or being industrious,

emotional competence or the reverse, enthusiasm to learn or lack of it, as well as, personal
 74

values. Learners whose personality factors are positive will have academic success and the

reverse is also true.

However, Carl (2010) and Remez (1992) still believe that family type is responsible for

the differences in the personality factors that can promote or hinder academic success. They

explain that children living with a never married mother are more likely to have negative

personality traits and are more likely to have been treated for emotional problems. The two assert

that adolescents that are reared in a divorced or a never married mother family type are less

corporative and score lower on intelligence than children reared in intact families.

According to the findings of this study, it can also be unanimously agreed that

adolescents in the single parent family type exhibit more negative personality factors than their

counterparts in the two parent family type, a situation that predisposes them to lower academic

success. According to the findings, as revealed in table 2, more adolescents in the single parent

family type than the two parent family type reported that; they did not complete their home

work; their teachers did not like them and that they did not feel emotionally safe while in class. It

should however be understood that students learn and perform more successfully when they feel

secure, emotionally safe and happy (Boekaerts, 1993; Concordia University- Portland, 2017;

Otatly & Nundy, 1996; Sara, 2010). In addition, emotions such as sadness and anxiety, which are

synonymous with adolescents in single parent families, have the potential to distract students’

learning efforts by interfering with their ability to attend to tasks at hand. Emotional insecurity as

reported by the majority of adolescents from the single parent family type in this study (see table

2), can limit the capacity to balance emotional issues with class work; it can also create anxiety

especially about school work, and trigger negative emotional responses to classroom events. This
 75

makes the adolescents unable to perform well (Concordia University- Portland, 2017; Ellis, et al,

1997a, 1997b; Sara, 2010).

It could also be safe to say that adolescents in the two parent family type achieve better

academically because they experience positive parent- child interactions that give the adolescents

a sense of emotional security, while those in the single parent family type achieve less parent –

child interactions due to the load of responsibilities that the single parent has to juggle.

Emotional security is significantly related to emotional competence hence promoting high levels

of positive expressiveness which result to high academic performance. It should be noted that an

emotionally insecure child feels anxious or detached in relationships with others, and their

behaviour is either over- activated or de-activated, which puts constraints on their exploration of

their learning environment. This inhibited exploration of the learning environment negatively

impacts on the development of crystallized intelligence hence low academic achievement.

From the findings in this study and other research findings that corroborate the findings

of this study as highlighted above, it can be argued that adolescents in single parent families

achieve lower academic success than their counterparts in the two parent families.

There is no significant difference exhibiting delinquent behaviour between adolescents in

single parent families and their counterparts in two parent families.

The results obtained from testing the null hypothesis two of this study concerns

comparing delinquent behavior between adolescents in the single parent family type and their

counterparts in the two parent family type. The results in Table 8 reveal that there is a significant

difference in exhibiting delinquent behaviour between adolescents in single parent families and

those in two parent families. These findings are in agreement with Alisa, (2013); Goldstein,
 76

(2011); Maginnis (1997); Amato & Keith, (1991); Terry, (1995); Amato, (2006); Brown, et al,

(1996); Brody, (2001); Doyle, (2000); Hertzman, (2000) and many others who say that children

in single parent families are more prone than children in two parent families to use drugs, abuse

alcohol, engage in negative sexual behavior, be violent, be gang members, be expelled from

school, be committed to reform institutions, and become juvenile murderers.

Many researchers give explanations for delinquency among adolescents in single parent

families and argue that single parenthood inevitably reduces the amount of time a child has in

interaction with a parent who must be attentive to the child’s needs, including provision of moral

guidance and discipline, parental supervision or monitoring (Amato, 2006; Doyle & Moretti,

2000; Feinberg & Kan, 2008; Marianne, 2014;). Feinberg and Kan (2008) further suggest that

adolescents who grow up in a two parent family type enjoy the benefit of co-parenting. Co-

parenting is the support that parents provide one another in jointly raising a child. Undermining

the other parent’s role in raising the child, and disconnection by one parent places adolescents at

risk for behavioral problems like depression and delinquency (Edward, 2013).

In a study of family roles and the social behaviour of children in Uganda, it was found

out that high amounts of positive communication between parents and the adolescents through

quality parent-child interaction reduces delinquency. It is however true that the single parent

families engage in the least amounts of interaction and communication with their children, a

situation which predisposes the adolescents to delinquent tendencies (Nagadya, 2011). The less

amount of communication through less parent- child interaction the family provides, the more

likely the child will engage in delinquent activities.

Edward and Rankin (1991) argued that single parent families lead to delinquency among

adolescents because in most instances juveniles do not know how to deal with reasons that led to
 77

the separation of their parents. This could lead to negative emotions that the adolescents have to

deal with. In support of this argument is Robert and Emery (2018) and Laumann and Emery

(2000). Basing off this, I would also suggest that the adolescents from single parent families

would therefore deal with their frustration through engaging in criminal activities so as to release

built up frustration.

According to the Social Control Theory as advanced by Hirschi (1969), adolescents in a

single parent family type exhibit more delinquent tendencies than their counterparts in the two

parent family type because they lack parental connectedness to form a strong bond of

attachment. Hirschi (1969) states that attachment to parents is an effective bond through which

children internalize conventional norms of society, and delinquency will be low in families with

strong affective ties because juveniles who are strongly attached to their parents are more likely

to care about the normative expectations of their parents, which protects against delinquent

impulses. The quality of attachment functions as an indirect parental control: conventional

behaviour of a child is achieved as a byproduct of strong child-parent attachments. Delinquent

behaviour, however, will increase if the bond to the parent is weak (Hirschi, 1969).

Doyle (2000) added his voice to the above and explained that teenagers who have not

developed secure attachment behaviour are more prone to depression or anxiety and are more

likely to get involved in drug abuse, destructive behaviour, antisocial behaviour, aggression, or

engagement in risky sexual behavior. Hertzman, (2000) explained further and said that securely

attached adolescents are less likely to engage in risk behaviour, in fact healthy transition to

autonomy and adulthood is facilitated by secure attachment and emotional connectedness with

parents.
 78

According to the findings in this study and all other research findings that are in

agreement with the findings in this study as indicated above, it can be affirmed that adolescents

in single parent families in Kampala district exhibit more delinquent behaviour than their

counterparts in the single parent families.

There is no relationship between juvenile delinquency and academic achievement among

adolescents in Kampala district

The findings in tables 10 of this study reveal that there is a significant negative

relationship between juvenile delinquency and academic achievement. This means that as the

adolescent exhibits higher levels of delinquency, they exhibit lower levels of academic

achievement.

These findings were in agreement with Elliot (1978) who said that there is clear evidence

that poor school performance, truancy, and leaving school at a young age are all connected to

juvenile delinquency. In the same vein Koolhar et al (2007) assert that students with low

academic achievement levels are strongly associated with delinquency. In the same vein,

Nsubuga, (2002) said that involvement in delinquent activities would deprive a student of time to

concentrate on academics and would destroy their teacher-pupil relationship hence affect their

academic achievement.

Eric (2018) and Robert, (2001) said that the explanation for the significant negative

relationship between juvenile delinquency and academic achievement is the fact that juvenile

delinquents have little school involvement, low attachment to school, poor relations with

teachers, low educational, and or occupational goals. Brier (1995) and Susan, (2014) added their

voice and said that juvenile delinquents have difficulties in focusing attention. They are easily

distracted and are often restless. They cannot sit through the entire class period without attracting
 79

attention so they will probably demonstrate poor achievement. Elliot (1989) affirmed that

scientific research has examined the relationship between poor school performance and

delinquency and it has been unanimously agreed that early aggressive behaviour may lead to

difficulties in the classroom. It is also possible that delinquent traits in a child may result in a

child receiving unfavorable evaluations from teachers or even peers. These in turn result in

school failure and delinquency.

Conclusions

As highlighted in the background of this study, single parent families continue to be a

reality and almost 50% of children born today will spend significant time living with only one

parent. The findings in this study and a large body of research from other scholars as reviewed in

this study have identified the disadvantages of children raised in single parent families relative to

children raised in two parent families. Lower academic achievement, and risk for juvenile

delinquency are only some of the negative outcomes associated with growing up in a single

parent family type as indicated in this study, but there could be more disadvantages that come as

a result of raising a child in a single parent family type. The study has also found out that there is

a negative relationship between juvenile delinquency and academic achievement. This simply

implies that as adolescents exhibit higher levels of delinquency, their academic achievement

becomes lower.

It should be clear that the adolescents’ bond with both parents plays a key role in later

social emotional and cognitive development. It sets the stage for later learning, intelligence and

academic achievement because, based on the quality and quantity of parent-child interaction, the

adolescent develops an internal representation of themselves, others and the environment that

guides their response to others and the environment. Consequently, the adolescent feels
 80

competent in relationship with others and then explores their environment, this boosts academic

achievement. Basing off this study’s findings, it is safe to emphasize that spending quality time

with a child is more meaningful than having two parents who are never there. The research has

revealed that some adolescents in the two parent family type exhibit delinquent behaviour, and

weak academic achievement- just like adolescents in the single parent family type. This means

that some parents in the two parent family type, just like the single parent family type do not

engage themselves in positive interactions with their children and they even hardly engage

themselves in quality activities, such as; monitoring school homework, reading, school follow

ups, watching television together, and others. These parents then create the same dilemma for

their children that many adolescents in the single parent family type face.

In general, it can be concluded that adolescence can be a very confusing and puzzling

time for both the parent and the adolescent. Just when the adolescents are trying to learn who

they are and where they belong in the word, their bodies begin the profound physical changes of

puberty. Children take on the out ward appearance of adults but they lack adult experience,

wisdom, and responsibility. They continue to mature emotionally and socially, but there are

periods of confusion and inconsistency as they try to understand and cope with the changes in

their bodies and the accompanying social changes that lead toward adult relationships. Parents

should not therefore mistakenly attribute the adult characteristics to adolescents being adults.

They may act as adults but they are largely children. Because they are children, they therefore

need time, attention, positive interactions with their parents, emotional support, parental

supervision and a secure and predictable environment to fully manage the changes that

adolescence presents to them. With these in place the adolescents can be emotionally stable.

They will exhibit socially acceptable behaviour and achieve higher academic success. The two
 81

parent family type is therefore the ideal family setting for raising adolescents because on

average, the adolescent in this family setting will feel supported in all these areas mentioned

above.

Recommendations

The following recommendations arise from the conclusions and discussions of this study:

To the parents;
There is a need to know that one of the determining factors in academic success is

parental involvement and parental motivation of a child to achieve success in any aspect of life.

Parents whether in single or two parent families need to get actively involved in their children’s

educational process. Parents should emphasize the value of education, foster positive

achievement beliefs in their children; help the children understand abilities, options, and

opportunities for their future; provide resources such as buying books; participate in a consistent

positive dialogue with the teachers about their children’s academic work, and many other ways.

This involvement can eventually transform into academic excellence.

Parents also need to know that whether in a single or a two parent family type, no matter

how busy any parent is, it is crucial to make time in the schedule to interact with the children to

have positive parent-child interactions. This makes a huge difference in raising a well adjusted

child.

To the single parents in particular; one professional recommendation is that children need

to have an adult role model of both sexes while developing. This is the only one major area

where the two parent family type beats the single parent family type. While this may be true, it

does not mean that this role model must be a parent. A single parent should look for a positive
 82

role model of the opposite sex who can be trusted and consistently involved in the child’s life.

When such an interaction exists, children tend to be emotionally secure and well- adjusted.

Parents need to keep lines of communication open. Communication is the key to helping

a child develop into an emotionally healthy adult. Keeping lines of adult-child communication

open will help the child to discuss issues they may be facing, some of the issues may be hurtful

or challenging, for example, if they involve asking about the cause of separation in case of single

parent families, or if it is a sensitive issue that makes a parent feel embarrassed. It however

makes more sense to calmly talk about such issues other than leaving the child to look for

answers themselves.

To the schools;
It is important to know that schools have constant and intimate contact with all the

children. The school therefore occupies a strategic position in the prevention of juvenile

delinquency, and boosting academic achievement. Schools ought to play the leading role in a

direct frontal attack on juvenile delinquency through developing a complete school program

which makes less likely any tendency on the part of the students to form undesirable patterns of

behaviour. Schools ought to accept responsibility of dealing with delinquent behavior patterns

when they occur other than disowning those adolescents through school suspensions.

Schools should have caring supportive environments as these can change their academic

attitudes and motivate learners to engage in goal setting activities. Schools need to build a caring

school culture through ensuring that the quality of students’ relationships with each other and

with the schools’ staff is healthy, hence promote a caring school climate. The school also ought

to encourage parental involvement in school activities, and also set clear rules and consequences

in the school. Learners must also be motivated to achieve. When students find their school
 83

environment to be supportive and caring, they are less likely to become involved in delinquent

behaviour, and are more likely to develop positive attitudes towards themselves and pro-social

attitudes and behaviour towards others because they develop a sense of connectedness and

belonging. This boosts their academic success and reduces delinquency.

Schools can also promote healthy school programs as these have a positive effect on

educational outcomes, as well as, behaviour. Programs that are designed to improve academic

achievement, such as physical education, are important innervations. They can promote not only

cognitive, but also social and physical development.

Teachers need to identify adolescents with low academic achievement (regardless of their

family type) and motivate them to have positive self-conceit. This helps them to unfold from the

cocoons of fear, feelings of unworthiness, to blossoming with enthusiasm to learn and to set high

goals in their lives. This can turn their lives into a positive direction of achievers.

To the scholars;

Scholars can help influence public policy by explaining factors which are associated with

family type, academic achievement and juvenile delinquency, and promoting training, education

and advocacy programs which support single parents and their children.

To the counseling Psychologists; as a discipline - counseling psychology has been on the

forefront regarding issues of diversity and inclusion. Expanding our understanding of proper

parenting practices in the different family types and extending counseling services to

adolescents, parents and also the teachers that handle the adolescents from the different family

back grounds could be of much benefit than anybody can ever imagine.
 84

The educational Psychologists need to promote and reinforce good social skills in schools

through direct and indirect instruction. These are critical to successful functioning in life. These

skills shall enable adolescents to make good choices, and guide them on how to behave in

diverse situations. The extent to which adolescents possess good social skills can influence their

academic performance, and behaviour.

To the Government;

 Government should educate and or enlighten parents on the effects of un met needs like

food, parental care, and affection for their children.

Areas for Further Research

In an effort to improve the academic achievement of adolescents and to reduce juvenile

delinquency among adolescents who are at risk, further research should include;

 Finding out if the academic achievement of adolescents in single parent families

improves when the single parents get married or remarry.

 Another area of research should be finding out the relationship between quality time a

parent spends with a juvenile delinquent and reduced delinquency.

 Further inquiry is needed to determine if single parent families that occur due to

bereavement of one of the parents have more negative effects on the adolescent’s
 85

academic achievement than those that occur due to separation, divorce or a never

married parent.

 Causes of deviant and delinquent behaviour among students.

 Parenting styles and self-concept on emotional adjustment of students.

 Impact of other personal characteristics in the promotion of delinquent behaviour leading

to low academic performance.

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Appendices

Appendix A:

Self Report Questionnaire on Family Type and Perceived Academic achievement

This questionnaire contains a number of questions. The questions are not meant to pass or fail you. They are about a study on Family

type, juvenile delinquency and academic performance. Results from the study will be confidentially treated and used for research purposes only.

Please answer all the questions as accurately as you can.

SECTION A: Back Ground Information

Tick what suits you.

1 What is your sex? Male Female

2. How old are you? 15yrs 16yrs 17yrs 18yrs

3. What family type do you come from? single parent Two parents

4. If it is a single parent family, with whom do you stay? Mother Father

SECTION B: Information about Perceived Academic Achievement

Tick what suits you Strongly Agree Disag Strongly
agree ree disagree
1. I always want to learn
2. I participate regularly in class
3. I often need extra help with class work
4. I often find it easy to pay attention in class
5. I feel emotionally safe in my class
6. Most of my teachers like me
7. I don’t skip classes, I attend regularly
8. I have never felt like dropping out of school
9. School is very interesting
10 My performance in math is very good
11 My performance in English is very good
12 I always complete home work assignments
13 I love reading my books during my free time
14 I always pass with a first grade
15 My parents always help me with my home work
Appendix B:

Self Report Questionnaire on Family Type and Juvenile Delinquency

This questionnaire contains a number of questions. The questions are not meant to pass or fail you. They are about a study on Family

type, juvenile delinquency and academic performance. Results from the study will be confidentially treated and used for research purposes only.

Please answer all the questions as accurately as you can. Do not try to look good or bad. Your name is not required.

SECTION A: Back Ground Information

Tick what suits you.

1 What is your sex? Male Female

2. How old are you? 15yrs 16yrs 17yrs 18yrs

 111

3. What family type do you come from? single parent Two parents

4. If it is a single parent family, with whom do you stay? Mother Father

SECTION B; Information about Your Behavior to Determine Delinquency

For each question, indicate how often you did the described behaviour in the last six months. Please tick an option that honestly
describes your behaviour.
How many times in the last one year have you? Never 1---2 3---4 More than-4-
times times times
1. Stolen any property
2. Stolen money worth more than 125,000 Ugandan shillings
3. Knowingly kept or bought stolen property
4. Voluntarily had sexual relations with some one
5. Attacked someone with the idea of hurting them
6. Sold drugs like marijuana, cocaine, kuba
7. Taken/ used drugs like marijuana, cocaine, kuba
8. Used or taken alcoholic beverages like beer, waragi, etc
9. Hit or threatened to hit an adult
10. Hit or threatened to hit fellow students
11. Tried to have sexual relations with someone forcefully
12. Used force to get money or other things from other people
13 Been involved in a physical fight
14 Used vulgar language
15 Been paid for having sexual relations with some one
16 Destroyed school property on purpose

END

Thank you for participating.

Appendix C

The English Proficiency Test

This test is not for purposes of classroom assessment but to aid in the study of Family type, juvenile delinquency and

academic achievement of adolescents. This English test as a way of evaluating the proficiency of English language learners has

been based on the Standard English vocabulary and English grammar that any English learner would find in any English

language learning material, this proficiency test can measure your command of the English language regardless of your English

language learning background. So if you've been learning English, see how well you do!

You may find that your score on this English test is not consistent with other tests you have taken. The researcher is solely

responsible for the test content.

Your participation in this study through taking this test will provide research findings which will be useful for the researcher’s

academic endeavors and also in improving the academic achievement for adolescents in Uganda in general.

Please answer the questions to the best of your ability.

Instructions:
 112

1. Write your name on the test paper and fill in your sex; that is either male or female; your age, and the type of family that you

come from; that is, either single parent type or two parent type and if you come from a single parent family, indicate the parent

you stay with of the two., that is either mother or father.

2. Answer all questions by putting a ring around the correct answer.

Time; 25 minutes

Name……………………………

School …………………………..

Sex……………………………….

Age………………………………

Family type……………………

If single parent family, name the parent with whom you stay …………………………

Part I: English Grammar

Select the best answer

1. The movie was __________ the book.

A. as
B. as good
C. so good as
D. as good as
2. Mukasa’s hobbies include jogging, swimming, and __________.
A. to climb mountains
B. climbs mountains
C. to climb mountains
D. climbing mountains

3. Mr. Kikomeko requests that someone _________ the data by fax immediately.
A. sent
B. sends
C. send
D. to send

4. Who is ____________, Marina or Sarah?

A. tallest
B. tall
C. taller
D. the tallest
 113

5. The concert will begin ________ fifteen minutes.

A. in
B. on
C. with
D. about

6. The company will upgrade _________ computer information systems next month.
A. there
B. their
C. it's
D. its

7. You were ____________ the New York office before 2 p.m.

A. suppose call
B. supposed to call
C. supposed calling
D. supposed call

8. When I graduate from college next June, I _____________ a student here for five years.
A. will have been
B. have been
C. has been
D. will have

Part II: English Grammar

Select the one underlined word or phrase that is incorrect.

9. The majority to the news is about violence or scandal.

A. The
B. to
C. news
D. violence

10. When our vacation, we plan to spend three days scuba diving.
A. When
B. plan
C. days
D. diving

11. Yvette and Ronaldo send e-mail messages to other often.

A. and
B. send
 114

C. other
D. often

12. Each day after school, Jerome run five miles.

A. Each
B. after
C. run
D. miles

13. I told the salesman that I was not interesting in buying the latest model.
A. told
B. that
C. interesting
D. buying

14. Frederick used work for a multinational corporation when he lived in Malaysia.
A. used work
B. multinational
C. when
D. lived in

Part III. English Vocabulary

Select the best answer.

15. The rate of ___________ has been fluctuating wildly this week.
A. money
B. bills
C. coins
D. exchange

16. Ann Kansime, the popular Ugandan comedienne, has her audience ___________.
A. putting too many irons in the fire
B. keeping their noses out of someone's business
C. rolling in the aisles
D. going to bat for someone

17. The critics had to admit that the ballet ______________ was superb.
A. procrastinate
 115

B. performance
C. pathology
D. psychosomatic

18. We were __________ friends in that strange but magical country.

A. upon
B. among
C. towards
D. in addition to

19. The hailstorm caused ____________ damage to the city.

A. extend
B. extended
C. extensive
D. extension

20. Many cultures have special ceremonies to celebrate a person's _________ of passage into adulthood.
A.right
B. rite
C.writ
D.write

Part IV. English Reading Comprehension

Select the best answer.

Directions to Erik's house

Leave Interstate 25 at exit 7S. Follow that road (Elm Street) for two miles. After one mile, you will pass a small shopping center
on your left. At the next set of traffic lights, turn right onto Maple Drive. Erik's house is the third house on your left. It's number
33, and it's white with green trim.
21. What is Erik's address?
A. Interstate 25
B. 2 Elm Street
C. 13 Erika Street
D. 33 Maple Drive

22. Which is closest to Erik's house?

A. the traffic lights
B. the shopping center
 116

C. exit 7S
D. a greenhouse

Date: May 16, 1998

To: Megan Fallerman
From: Steven Roberts
Subject: Staff Meeting

Please be prepared to give your presentation on the monthly sales figures at our upcoming staff meeting. In addition to the
accurate accounting of expenditures for the monthly sales, be ready to discuss possible reasons for fluctuations as well as possible
trends in future customer spending. Thank you.

23. The main focus of the presentation will be ______________.

A. monthly expenditures
B. monthly salary figures
C. monthly sales figures
D. staff meeting presentations

24. Who will give the presentation?

A. the company president
B. Megan Fallerman
C. Steven Roberts
D. future customers

The B&B Tour

Spend ten romantic days enjoying the lush countryside of southern England. The counties of Devon, Dorset, Hampshire, and
Essex invite you to enjoy their castles and coastline, their charming bed and breakfast inns, their museums and their cathedrals.
Spend lazy days watching the clouds drift by or spend active days hiking the glorious hills. These fields were home to Thomas
Hardy, and the ports launched ships that shaped world history. Bed and breakfasts abound, ranging from quiet farmhouses to
lofty castles. Our tour begins August 15. Call or fax us today for more information 1-800-222-XXXX. Enrollment is limited, so
please call soon.

25. What can we infer about this area of southern England?

A. The region has lots of vegetation.
B. The coast often has harsh weather.
C. The sun is hot and the air is dry.
D. The land is flat.

END
Thank you for participating.
 117

Appendix: D

The Mathematics Proficiency Test

This test is not for purposes of classroom assessment but to aid in the study of Family type, juvenile delinquency and

academic achievement of adolescents. You may find that your score on this Mathematics test is not consistent with other tests

you have taken. The researcher is solely responsible for the test content. Your participation in this study through taking this test

will provide research findings which will be useful for the researcher’s academic endeavors and also in improving the academic

achievement for adolescents in Uganda in general. Please answer the questions to the best of your ability.

Instructions:

1. Write your name on the test paper and fill in your sex; that is either male or female; your age, and the type of family that you

come from; that is, either single parent type or two parent type and if you come from a single parent family, indicate the parent

you stay with of the two., that is either mother or father.

2. Answer all questions by putting a ring around the correct answer.

Time; 30 minutes
 118

Name……………………………

School …………………………..

Sex……………………………….

Age………………………………Family type……………………

If single parent family, name the parent with whom you stay …………………………

1. Which of the following has two end points?

A. Point
B. Line
C. Line segment
D. Ray
E. Angle

2. A bag contains four balls numbered 3, 5, 7, and 8, two balls are drawn at random. What is the probability that the
sum of the two balls is an odd number?
A. 1/6 D.4/6
B. 2/6 E. 5/6
C. 3/6

3. Mark and Jose have a combined weight of 270 pounds. Mark weighs 30 pounds less than twice Jose’s weight.
How much does each of the boys weigh respectively?

A. Mark weighs 170 pounds and Jose weighs 100 pounds

B. Mark weighs 165 pounds and Jose weighs105 pounds
C. Mark weighs 145 pounds and Jose weihs125 pounds
D. Mark weighs 135 pounds and Jose weighs 135 pounds
E. Mark weighs 120 pounds and Jose weighs 150 pounds

4. The length of the side of a regular hexagon is 5 centimeters. What is the perimeter of the hexagon?
A. 15cm
B. 20cm
C. 25cm
D. 30cm
E. 35cm

5. Which measurement is closest to the circumference of a circle whose radius is 5 inches?

A.10 inches
 119

B. 15 inches
C. 20 inches
D. 25 inches
E. 30 inches

6. A machine seals 30 boxes in 2 minutes. How many minutes would it take to seal 101 boxes?
A. 3.5 minutes
B. 7 minutes
C.22.5 minutes
D. 37.5 minutes
E. 60 minutes

7. Alma’s exam scores for History are listed below. What is her average score for the test? Test one. 85, Test two.
75, Test three. 77
A.80
B.79
C.78
D. 77
E. 75

8. If you wanted to show the percentages of Ugandan shillings spent by the government on different services, which
graph would you choose to best represent the data?
A. Bar graph
B. Pictograph
C. Histogram
D. Line graph
E. Circle graph

9. It was 41degrees Fahr at 8:00 am and 69 degrees Fahr at 4:00 pm if the temperature rose at a constant rate, what was
the temperature at 1:00p.m?

A. 55.5 degrees Fahr

B.57.0 degrees Fahr
C. 58.5 degrees Fahr
D. 59.0 degrees Fahr
E. 61.5 degrees Fahr

10. Ted poured 198 cubic centimeters of sand to fill a cylinder with a radius of 3 inches. How much sand is needed to
fill a cone of the same height and with a base of the same radius?
 120

A. 50 cubic centimeters
B. 66 cubic centimeters
C. 99 cubic centimeters
D. 132 cubic cent meters
E. 198 cubic centimeters

11. Which letter below has a vertical line of symmetry?

A. B
B. C
C. E
D. M
E. N

END

Thank you for taking this test.

Appendix: E

The Scoring Method, Answers for the English and Mathematics Proficiency Test and the

Grading Method.

English

There were 25 items and each correct answer was scored 4. The scoring method was rights only.

1 D, 2 D, 3 C, 4 B, 5 A, 6 D, 7 B, 8 B, 9 B, 10 A, 11 C, 12 C, 13 C, 14 A, 15 D, 16 C, 17 B, 18

B, 19 C, 20 B, 21 D, 22 A, 23 C, 24 B, 25 A.

Mathematics
 121

There were 11 items. The scoring method was rights only. Each item was awarded one mark.

The total scores were divided by 11 and multiplied by 100.

1. E, 2.E, 3.C, 4.A, 5.D, 6.E, 7.B, 8.B, 9.E, 10.B, 11.E,

Grading

According to this study scores below 40% implied lack of proficiency in either

Mathematics or English; scores between 40%-49% meant very weak proficiency; scores between

50%-59% meant weak proficiency; scores between 60%-69% meant average proficiency; scores

between 70%-79% meant slightly above average proficiency, and scores from 80% and above

meant high proficiency in either Mathematics or English.

Appendix: F

TABLE FOR DETERMINING SAMPLE SIZE FROM A GIVEN POPULATION

N S N S N S N S N S
10 10 100 80 280 162 800 260 2800 338
15 14 110 86 290 165 850 265 3000 341
20 19 120 92 300 169 900 269 3500 246
25 24 130 97 320 175 950 274 4000 351
30 28 140 103 340 181 1000 278 4500 351
35 32 150 108 360 186 1100 285 5000 357
40 36 160 113 380 181 1200 291 6000 361
45 40 180 118 400 196 1300 297 7000 364
50 44 190 123 420 201 1400 302 8000 367
55 48 200 127 440 205 1500 306 9000 368
60 52 210 132 460 210 1600 310 10000 373
65 56 220 136 480 214 1700 313 15000 375
70 59 230 140 500 217 1800 317 20000 377
75 63 240 144 550 225 1900 320 30000 379
80 66 250 148 600 234 2000 322 40000 380
85 70 260 152 650 242 2200 327 50000 381
90 73 270 155 700 248 2400 331 75000 382
 122

95 76 270 159 750 256 2600 335 10000 384

Note:
(N) is population size
(S) is sample size.

Source

Krejcie, Robert V., Morgan, Daryle W., “Determining Sample Size for Research Activities”,
Educational and Psychological Measurement, 1970.

Appendix: G
Reliability Statistics for the Questionnaire Measuring Juvenile Delinquency (Pilot study)

Cronbach's Alpha .693 Number of Items 16

Item- Total statistics

Scale Mean if Item Scale Variance if Corrected Item-Total Cronbach's Alpha if Item
Item Deleted Item Deleted Correlation Deleted

Stolen some thing worth more than 50$ 22.46 28.940 .288 .681

Purposely kept stolen property 23.03 30.908 .316 .677

Purposely bought stolen property 22.72 30.282 .217 .689

Thrown objects such as rocks at cars or people 23.05 29.548 .434 .664

Sold marijuana, or hashish 23.03 30.798 .258 .682

Taken drugs like marijuana, cocaine, kuba 23.14 30.088 .364 .671

Taken or used alcoholic beverages 23.06 28.468 .482 .655

 123

Cronbach's Alpha .693 Number of Items 16

Hit or threatened to hit a teacher or other adult 22.77 28.484 .329 .675

Hit or threatened to hit a fellow student 23.40 32.677 .242 .688

Tried to have sexual relations with someone 22.96 30.863 .173 .695
against their will.

Used force to get money or other things from 23.43 33.521 .026 .697
other people

Been involved in a fight 23.30 31.792 .258 .684

Used vulgar language 22.70 30.822 .157 .698

Been paid for having sexual relations with 22.63 27.989 .382 .666
some one

Destroyed school or some one's property on 23.13 29.822 .349 .672

purpose

22.97 28.493 .438 .660

The reliability results in (appendix G) above were obtained when the questionnaire was administered to the participants in the pilot

study. These participants were 20 and they were randomly selected from four day secondary schools in Mukono district. The reliability results

above were obtained when the questionnaire was administered to the participants in the pilot study. Clarity of the question items and the number

of participants could have affected the reliability as seen above. It is also true that failing to use all the 23 items of this scale must have also

affected the reliability further. However, the items were modified to make them clearer to the participants, and below is the Alpha of this study.

Appendix: H
Reliability Statistics for the Questionnaire Measuring Juvenile Delinquency (This study)

Cronbach’s Alpha .848

No. of Items 16

Item- Total statistics

Item Scale mean if Deleted Scale variance if Corrected item

item Deleted correlation Cronbach’s Alpha if
item Deleted

Stolen money worth more than 24.43 45.278 .690 .739

125,000 Ugandan shillings

Knowingly kept stolen property 24.20 45.029 .633 .767

Knowingly bought stolen 23.93 47.352 .520 .783

property
 124

Attacked someone with the idea 24.07 46.638 .654 .767

of hurting them

Sold drugs like marijuana, 23.40 47.114 .551 .779

cocaine, kuba

Taken drugs like marijuana, 23.60 51.257 .389 .799

cocaine, kuba

Taken or used alcoholic 23.27 50.027 .635 .768

beverages like beer, waragi, etc

Hit or threatened to hit an adult 25.12 25.048 .605 .799

adult

Hit or threatened to hit a fellow 25.79 23.275 .369 .806

student

Tried to have sexual relations 25.66 24.652 .426 .822

with someone forcefully.

Used force to get money or other 24.47 50.695 .372 .802

things from other people

Been involved in a fight 24.20 56.457 .328 .813

Used vulgar language 24.83 47.518 .607 .780

Been paid for having sexual 25.62 22.920 .510 .787

relations with some one

Destroyed school or some one's 25.12 23.984 .520 .795

property on purpose

Destroyed school or some one's 25.44 24.081 .475 .792

property on purpose

Appendix I
Reliability Statistics for the Questionnaire Measuring Perceived Academic Achievement (Pilot study)
Cronbach's Alpha .695 N of Items 16

Item-Total Statistics

Items Scale Mean if Item Scale Variance if Corrected Item-Total

Deleted Item Deleted Correlation Cronbach's Alpha if Item Deleted

I always want to learn 43.53 44.399 .376 .673

I participate regularly in 44.09 44.185 .323 .678

class

I often need extra help 43.60 46.162 .189 .692

with class work

I often find it easy to 43.83 44.497 .341 .676

pay attention in class
 125

Cronbach's Alpha .695 N of Items 16

I feel emotionally safe 43.89 43.760 .368 .673

in my class

Most of my teachers like 43.74 43.547 .402 .669

me

I do not skip classes. I 43.77 42.923 .411 .667

attend regularly

I have never felt like 43.40 44.791 .416 .672

dropping out of school

School is very 43.34 45.082 .398 .674

interesting

My performance in math 44.74 46.822 .164 .694

is very good

My performance in 43.31 47.404 .196 .691

English is very good

I always complete my 43.74 46.008 .223 .689

home work assignments

I always perform well 43.85 39.178 .198 .734

on class room tests

I love reading my books 43.93 45.274 .272 .684

during my free time

I always pass with a first 43.87 44.923 .307 .680

grade

My parent always help 44.13 42.606 .514 .658

me with my home work

As seen above, the 13th item was deleted to improve the reliability for the final study. The new Alpha for the study is reflected below;

Appendix J
Reliability Statistics for the Questionnaire Measuring Perceived Academic Achievement (This study)

Cronbach's Alpha .734 N of Items 15

Item-Total Statistics

1tem Scale Mean if Item

Deleted Scale Variance if Item Cronbach's Alpha if
Deleted Corrected Item-Total Correlation Item Deleted

I always want to learn 40.66 34.541 .373 .716

I participate regularly in 41.22 33.979 .350 .718

class
 126

Cronbach's Alpha .734 N of Items 15

I often need extra help with 40.73 35.927 .385 .704

class work

I often find it easy to pay 40.97 34.374 .361 .717

attention in class

I feel emotionally safe in 41.02 34.104 .352 .718

my class

Most of my teachers like 40.87 33.773 .399 .713

me

I do not skip classes. I 40.90 33.273 .403 .712

attend regularly

I have never felt like 41.20 34.580 .434 .725

dropping out of school

School is very interesting 40.53 34.818 .423 .718

My performance in math is 40.47 35.176 .393 .716

very good

My performance in English 41.87 36.210 .206 .733

is very good

I always complete my home 40.44 37.322 .179 .733

work assignments

I love reading my books 41.06 34.682 .327 .721

during my free time

I always pass with a first 41.00 34.546 .347 .719

grade

My parents always help 41.27 33.148 .493 .703

me with my home work

Item# Key* Upper Lower Difficulty Discrimination

Group# Group# (RL) (p-value) (D)
(RU)
1 D 81 45 0.54 0.31
2 D 96 52 0.64 0.38
3 C 102 48 0.65 0.46
Appendix K
4 B 78 36 0.49 0.36 Test Item Analysis
5 A 115 59 0.75 0.48
6 D 86 23 0.47 0.54
7 B 77 26 0.44 0.44 The English Proficiency Test
8 B 93 34 0.55 0.51
9 B 109 41 0.65 0.59 Item Discrimination formula was;
10 A 115 72 0.81 0.37 D = RU -RL
11 C 66 24 0.39 0.36 N/2
12 C 79 27 0.46 0.45
Item Difficulty formula was;
13 C 107 51 0.68 0.48
14 A 85 29 0.49 0.48 P = RU +RL
15 D 106 58 0.71 0.41 N
16 C 110 26 0.59 0.73
17 B 97 12 0.47 0.73
18 B 113 39 0.66 0.64
19 C 69 09 0.33 0.52
20 B 97 13 0.47 0.73
21 D 74 17 0.39 0.49
22 A 78 42 0.52 0.31
23 C 109 28 0.59 0.70
24 B 96 14 0.47 0.71
25 A 64 07 0.30 0.45
 127

N = 230

Where;

N- is the number of test takers

RU - is the number of test takers in the upper group who got the item correct.

RL – is the number of test takers in the lower group who got the item correct

Key* = Correct answer

The Mathematics Proficiency

Item# Key* Upper Lower Difficulty Discrimination
Group# Group# (RL) (p-value) (D)
(RU)
1 E 72 16 0.38 0.48
2 E 65 10 0.32 0.47
3 C 81 24 0.45 0.49
4 A 98 09 0.46 0.77
5 D 89 22 0.48 0.58
6 E 63 07 0.30 0.48
7 B 62 10 0.31 0.45
8 B 93 07 0.43 0.74
9 E 75 09 0.36 0.57
10 C 63 21 0.36 0.36
11 B 66 08 0.32 0.50

Appendix L
Test retest reliability

English Proficiency Test retest reliability

 128

English Tests second

English Test first administration administration

English Test first administration Pearson Correlation 1 .860**

Sig. (2-tailed) .000

N 230 230

English Tests second Pearson Correlation .860** 1

administration
Sig. (2-tailed) .000

N 230 230

**. Initial and second administration all significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

Mathematics Proficiency Test retest reliability

Mathematics Tests second

Mathematics Test first administration administration

Mathematics Test first Pearson Correlation 1 .710**

administration
Sig. (2-tailed) .000

N 230 230

Mathematics Tests second Pearson Correlation .710** 1

administration
Sig. (2-tailed) .000

N 230 230

**. Initial and second administration all significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

Appendix: M
Consent to your son’s/daughter’s Participation in a Research Study

Dear Parent/Guardian,
 129

You are being requested to allow your son/daughter to participate in a research study that
will be conducted by Nanyonjo Mabel – a graduate student of Educational Psychology at
Makerere University. The purpose of the study is to compare adolescents living in the single
parent family with those living in the two parent family on academic achievement and delinquent
behavior.

While participating in this research, you or your child may not gain anything from it, but
your son/daughter’s participation will give insights about family type, juvenile delinquency and
academic achievement among adolescents in Kampala. Such information will be of great value
to all parents, and stake holders in education who can work towards a common goal of making
academic achievement a reality to all adolescents.

During the study, your son/daughter will be asked to complete two questionnaires that
have two separate sections. One of the sections will be about their demographic information; like
age, family type, and sex. The other section will be about their perceived academic achievement
and involvement in delinquent behavior. Your son/daughter will also be asked to take two
proficiency tests; in English and in Mathematics. The results from the tests will not be used for
their school assessment or evaluation, but for this study. Participation in this study is strictly
voluntary and you have every right not to allow your son/daughter to participate and they can
withdraw from the study if they so wished.

If you allow your son/daughter to participate in this study, please sign on this paper in the
area provided below, and let your son/daughter bring back this letter to their school. However,
should you have any questions or concerns, please contact Nanyonjo Mabel by mail at
mabelmaribell@yahoo.com or Tel.0782916936 or contact the school administration before you
consent. While the researcher appreciates all your questions or concerns, only questions and
concerns related to this study will be addressed.

Thank you for your valuable time and consideration to allow your child to participate in
the study. By signing below, it indicates that you have voluntarily allowed your son/daughter to
participate in this study.

I…………………………parent/guardian to………………………….have allowed my

son/daughter to participate in the study mentioned in this letter.

___________________________________ _____________________________
Name and Signature Date
Appendix: N
Letter of Invitation to the Participant

Dear Student,
 130

I am currently involved in a research study exploring family type, juvenile delinquency

and academic achievement. Your participation in this study will provide useful information and
enhanced understanding of this topic. If you participate in this study, you will be asked to
complete two questionnaires which will require you to give information about your perceived
academic achievement and your possible involvement in delinquent behavior. You will also take
two proficiency tests; one in English and the other in Mathematics.

Participation in this study is strictly voluntary. You may withdraw from the study at any
point without penalty. Participation in this study is not associated with your class grade. All data
from the study will be confidential and will only be used for this study’s purpose. Your name
will not be necessary however, your family type, age and sex are very important for this study.
You therefore kindly requested to indicate them on the questionnaires and test papers.

Although I appreciate all students that are willing to participate, only those whose
parents/guardians have allowed them to take part in the study will be accepted. Please take a
consent letter to your parent/guardian to seek their consent. If your parent/guardian signs the
letter, bring it back to school and give it to your class teacher, who will hand it over to the
researcher. If you have questions at any time; before and during your participation, please
contact the researcher on 0782916936. If you have any concerns about this study, please feel free
to decline participation.

Thank you for choosing to participate in this study.

Sincerely,
Nanyonjo Mabel

Appendix: O
A Map of Kampala
The adolescents that took part in this study were selected from ten Day Secondary Schools in
Kampala. Inset is a Map of Uganda showing the location of Kampala on the map of Uganda
131