ES - 210 - Handouts Cbu PDF

__ Spirit Level
I
--.J__ _
; Cut J.---'-i •
I Lines I I
----r- -- -1_. I I' 1
0-
I I .t-""-'--r=--r:::~-d THICK FIX A cemenl-based powder adhesive lor Ilxing wall and
{ I.'"
I I _- Setting out rom Iloor tiles including Ihlckbed applications
-J_/
'..____ r- --._~
dne corner
..............
, i ,---
.•~ __ ~ I I
!.- -~ ;i~si-;~w--:-- -- L
I
.• ti es I I
I I
-- --;-.-- I
I "/
" bond strength Hexibility and
A laylex additive to iniprove
I BOND water proolness when added to cement-based adhesive
and routs
M A latex additive or primer for smooth surfaces. Use
U KEYCOAT as a slurry coal in a 1:2 ratio with cement
., Skirting Temporary or cement-based adhesive)
L-----------_
..
_.-._--_._-
Batten
---.---------=~---' fi!
'I
rr~~LtND
Astandard
range 01 cement-based coloureo groulS lor all
WALL TILING: I'm' GROUT Viall and 1I00r liIe joints
With a spirit level establish a horizontal line on all walls QUARRY

GROUT
A range of cement-based
~;r~~e~~~neg,
eoloured grouts to give
non-era.eking lIoor grout joinl$up to
•
to be tiled one tile high above the highest point of floor.
EPOXY A range 01 coloured epoxy grouls where chemical
• Nail a temporary straight-edged cleat on this line • GROUT resistance or hygeinic conditions are recuneo
starting with the wall opposite the doorway.
Draw a vertical line, one tile away from the corner to
form a perfect right angle. ~r~~ING
F I A
Acontarnrnauon
lIuid, or more concentrated
lrom tiles
gel 10 clean epoxy
Start tiling horizontally from this corner, working Detail A M WOOD A special sealanl~ere\lent timber absorbing moisture
upwards, one square metre at a time applying the U SEAL Cornpatibre with RII adhesives
adhesive.
Tile markers on the horizontal line will show where the
" II
odd tile needs to be cut. usually in corner behinde door
ADHESIVE REfERHICE SURfACE PREPARATION
side. EXISTING
• Use the selected spacers to obtain equal joints, clean WALL POWDER PRIMER
SURfACE PREPARATION REOUIREO
up and after 24 hours fill the joints with the selected ExlfriQrJ\oVel
colour grout. Thereafter wipe clean with a damp

Detail B THICK FIX Must be clean. d/li (jnd ar leasl ~ weeks
sponge & BOND aid
f------+---l--------- ____ • M_\
Must be Clean.ar), and atIeasi a weexs i

THICK fiX old. For POWDER ADHESIVES prime ...c.,cc,.,1- !
&80NO witn a Slurry 01 cement and
REI>\OVE Onrp ihotougnly. Must be clean. dr, ana ' I~ ,.:~;:

atleast 4 weeks old. Prime WIth .
EXISTING
fLOOR POWDER
SURfACE PRIMER I
InleriorlOry REaUIP~
FLOORTILING ceecere
• New screeds must cure and dry-out for at leats 4 weeks before tiling 01
Smtd
THICK FIX
"ON'_J
commences: Floor should be level, smooth and clean.
• Alter laying tiles, avoid walking on for at least 24 hours. SmOOlh
C~~le
Shoot a chalk line down the centre of the room then another line across
Remo ve all polish. MuSI be clean and
in the centre of this line. Check by squaring with a builders square. Tomtltr dust free. Seal Iron!. back and sides WOuDS&\.:.
with .
• Start tiling from the centre point as illustrated above to the desired Prime wllh a Slurry 01 cement and ...
pattern. Spread the adhesive approximately one square metre at a time V"" Remove all polish. Must be clean and I
and complete tiling. "
cal~:~~ItS
oust tree and firmly in place. Prime 'mln
a slufry of cement anc.. .. i
I ,(:'fco~r
• The dry tiles should be pressed firmly into the wet adhesive with a slight
twisting action. Use tile spacers to ensure equal joints .'
• Cutting of tiles is limited to the borders only Clean off surplus glue and
01d8Ullmen
Ai:lhSSIVl! I 'NOAI
after 24 hours start grouting the joints. Thereafter wipe floor with a ReIer U•• M oI~;"!:o~I~!e !flS(,r.jf ~ .• t'sce
MOSAIC
damp sponge. •••.aer me 111,. or I\tY.Ir (l~r'! .::..ti,~
SC6.QS_f
I\
Sectional details showing the many weaving techniques and manufacture processes involved in carpet making. Not I
:many know the difference or quality when selecting and buying a carpet except for the colour required. These
I illustrations should give a good insight what to look for and where best used_. .. .. . ._J
~1>lfl11lll1m rrrn rrm
=:I j
LOOP PILE GUT PILE

Loops are of equal height but can also Loop tops are cut to stand upright. Yarn
be varied at different heights using fine is twisted and heat treated to set
or coarse yarns permanently
I
I,,
J CUT LOOP PILE

By this method patterns are created with
cut and loop piles at the same height
SCULPTURED PILE
Loop and cut piles at different
creating a deep pattern
heiglits
~. '" '----PI~ETUFTS' ,
..... .. ..
.'
'
" L
. . .. .
. .
GRIPPER AXMINSTER
SHAGGY PILE HARD-TWIST PILE
25mm and longer piles presenting a The yarns are twisted and heat set in
luxurious feeling and look position r- NEEDLEPUNCHTUFTS
I-
I GRADE
CARPET GRADING
LOCATION
I-~-~~~T DOMES~~--- Domestic rooms subject to light traffic. eg bedrooms, guest rooms
JUTE BACKING LATEX
I----S -c- -Domestic rooms subject to ligllt traffi~ eg Lounges, dining r-;~~,
2 MEDIUM DOME TI hotel bedrooms
1 3 HEAVY DOMESTIC Domestic rooms and corridors suolect to heavy traffic. eg: playrooms
LIGHT CONTRACT and TV rooms I Offices subject to light traffic •
t
--....
1
4 MEDIUM CONTRACT
--------.-.--
5 ~~~~;:Y C ONTR AC T
Offices, S.hOPS,hotel' bars and lounges subject to heavy traffic'
..----- ---------------.---------r--.--.---- ...
---
Areas sublect 10 very heavy Iraffic and frequent cleaning eg: public buildings.
theatres, hotel and shop entrances, hospital corridors, trains.
FOAM RUBBER
BONDED
' PRE-WOVENBACKING
I
I
J'
~EAVY UIt'l<a- for heavy contract applications, but it has a longer life expec~a_nc-,-Y
_----'
'--------'-<:-- ----_ ...-----~ ..---
r------~--- ...
------- ..---'-------
NOTES:- TESTING
Carpels that bear the "Wool Mark" symbol, have Bend a carpet back and take note of the'pile denSity.
passed their stringent tests and graded Pull a few tufts to see if the fibre is securely fixed to the backing.
I accordingly.
Determine how tufts are fixed to the backing.
Poor wool is somelimes blended with 20%
synlhelic fibres only 10 reduce the cost. Plain cut pieces are subject to shading which is a natural
occurance.
Wilton and Axminster weaving the pile is woven
similtanuosly with the backing. Tracking IS shoe imprints on a carpel which disappear when IETRON BONO
vacuumed .
. The tutting method, yarn is stitched into the JUTE
'pre-woven backing, glued Ihen a second backing FELT
is applied MANUFACTURING
DIRECTION
Wool carpels are choosen for their luxurious CARPET
COTTON
looks, exotic colours, textures and designs.
comlort and thermal insulalion.
Under floor and carpet heating systems are safe,
clean and comfortable and thermostaically
'WASTE
10 ""0 ",OHO J
SANDWICH
controlled.
', .. • ..1 FUSION BONDING
l
'.. . . 'CEILINGS
NOTE: GREY SIDE FOR PLASTERING.
CONVENTIONAL CEILINGS CREAM SIDE FOR COVER STRiPS.
Repeal.
-rJ 38 x 38mm
BRANDE RING
450mm
. ..
1 Repeal ...
··-1----·------ ..__
.'.-_.._._.
E' ~~~~I===J~-f -t-. ~~~~J===!/=3i
1 k·~:'-'IT:""""'--rr---'"-jrr-~~'
900mm WIDE CEiliNG BOARD
I===J~~
--- ..•
• CEILING
'-----.38
BOARD
l' x 38mm
BRANDERS
I
t1==;;'I==~~~-/-
H.....;<----"~4L~~j22i.::4j;kJ=~'==;!J~.--
(iSj
I
COVER STRIPS 1 200mm WIDE CEILING BOARD
~~
{~.,~·r;:lJ!k"';i~::l ~
METAL TEE
HALF ROUND
38 x 38mm
BRANDERS
l
65 x 16mm
KNOTTY
Pln~g~e~E h---rr--l'jL-'---t,~'"--' 2103mm
/- BOARDING GLASS STONE
SKIM COAT
L--- TIE BEAMS
~ 150, 80mm MOCK BEAMS

KNOTTY PINE CEILING BOARD PLASTERED CEILING
FIBROUS PLASTER CEILING SUSPENDED CEILINGS

38 x 38mm BRANDE RING COFFERED PANELS
BEADING
<.
NOTE:
GREY FACE OF GYPSUM CEILING BOARD IS
FOR GLASTONE SKIMCOAT.
"
PANELS
ALUMINIUM LINEAR CEILINGS
~.
CONCEALED SYSTEM
SECTION
2.
EXPOSED SYSTEM
3. PANEL FORMATS
...
16!-.' _
EXPOSED
l. ·c",
SYSTEM
····/~o
iw... -=-t- N
n
.W
I"Y',.:;J
600x600mm
625 x 625mm .
600 x 1200mm
~
'··~1 ;
I
<,.'U',.;·.;. 625 x 1250mm
4.
~~
"". EXPOSED SYSTEM'·:·
AVAILABLE IN MANY SHAPES AND
PRE,PAINTED COLOURS. NOTE: PANEL SELECTION IS UNLIMITED.
1-8
Granular or through-colour interlocking cement roof tile ,--- -'-- ~ Trusses spaced between 700
(Average size 332 x 420 mm, with minimum pitch of 17,5'). to 760 centres maximum.
38 x 114 common
Roof plastic membrane under tiles for low pitched rools. ------,. /ralter
38 x 38 mm battens spaced at 38 x 114 struts

approximately 380 centres. -----~--_,. or bracing
38 x 114 wall plate. --..,.----------,. Punched metal nail

plate connector or
Hoop iron straps or galvanized bolts & nails.
wire anchors.
e---_ 38 x 114 tie

Beam filling. -------- beam
50 x 38 tilting batten. -- _---_38x38
brandering
100 x 100
gutter . .....,._----' '------ Cove cornice
200 x 15 asbestos '------- Insulation

fascia -'''=-' --------' 63mm wide scrim over
joints for plastering
\
Sprocket -------- 6,4 thick ceiling
Open eave ---,,-------' board
Pre-cast concrete lintel --------

6mm Gypsum plaster
Pelmet --------------.../ skim coat
Reveal ----------------
Standard metal window frame

with side hung sashes -----..,.....-'----- One or two coat
plaster
6mm clear float glass ------------
,;1-0-------- Steel or wood
Putty on both sides of glass door frame
)
, "i Hardwood internal sill ------------

--------- Architrave
Segmental concrete cement sill -----,
Skirting
Damp-proof course (D.P.C.) -----------<-
--------- Quadrant
Standard stock brick internal walls -----,--
Ctay face brick with recessed joints ------<0-

Ceramic floor
Damp proof course (D.P,C.) ------, tiles
l~ Naturat ground level jIII-----
___
Floor screed
Concrete
bed
surface
lr Damp-proof membrane
under concrete slab
l''t
Compacted
hardcore filling
1 Insecticide (Aldrin I
i
1 Chlordane or simitar
products)
Remove topsoil and

Trench other vegetable
NQTES : matter includjng
1. Information regarding the mix proportions of concrete, tree roots etc.
mortar and plaster can be found in the section
'Concrete, Mortar & Plaster'.
2. The section' Foundation Soils' will provide important
information with regard to soil types and their
properties. '
NOTE: construction from the excavated trench such by to days trends and technology.
A cut-away section of a house showing the upwards to the roof finish and finally the Items are replaced or improved with various
many essential building materials and how completed project. Most components' are alternatives and building methods to suit a
they fit in forming an integral function in the considered as standard and accepted as particular project.
- - There ~~e many c4fferexlt,types of~It :
smooth or textured' mmeiaf'fibre~•.. sm(t0 f
gjas-s-reinforced'plasti2and_~a~ryli~;(a ,- '>0<
material used,for--iUummated;.cenm
-are' installed -above.:the- {~~~~J!¥q,I$~f
concealed framework ceiling -\yhe~~_
- , of the following: ,-,' "- n'
(a) A 'framework .of-g~l'5~~,fl
at intervals of )200,~:,:~~ ,
similar manner. ,t,9"aR,~xp\jls
_ (bY Galvanisedsteel 'A'-~~w.-OJ)
_,correspond to tl}.~'JY14-W¥,of;
- --6g0mm). r~~_,~~;~~s~tiQns
~eans of steel 'Yit~5~~~
- _(c) Panelsjwhich ~.~i~l~£f~··
.used -for ,~xP9~lrd -
-runnil}g~l()ng}h.-~.,
into the bottom il;mg(!s~~ _
steel 'spine' is ;slippe.Q:~jf~;
Strip c,eilings
Frame and strip ceilin -
frame and paneleeilin
:, system where -tht com
(a) A .senes 'of panel-
-, ,,'" inverted ehannetl§!_
suspended from the.
hangers. The hange
frame and pane "€(jj
are profiled to re~ .
usually of betwee
intervals of be
(b) Panels which al',-
aluminium ot..
and 180.mm.d
slide-in the -pr
are usually I?~
stove enamelk
.. }
'~. ~-,<>;:.....
l£.·' ~":
"
·1
';'
Fig;S.26·;Joihtless ceiliii€jS'~·· .",.

(a) ·Plasterboard·:on.si.Jspended .
. metet frame .
(b) Acc~ss)o $,U.sPeTlC/ed
plasterBi5ald'c~iJlriii . ',.:'
(e) ExiYa'ridea meta(JathiTl'g:: .
(or SUf;''pended plaster-ceiling" .
.... ;'. '. -
. ~.~
-' .. ,
, ....
Concealing services
In small buildings with Hm
between the. joists above $'e
housing electric cables ~d
Fig. 5.24 Lighting and etc.).' - ,
suspended ceilings
(a) Downlighters
In larger buildings, Wlll
(i) Recessed downligh(er floor structures, a suspeIia~
(ii) Partially recessed.downlighter the space formed betw~~'
(b) Diffussers"incorporated in be.utilised for accoi ';
ceiling
Sometimes .ligh :
Ole) . t:.igNt,tr{Jcklncorporeted in
pelling . . .suspended ceiling. T, ",
'(d) Lighting above. open ceiling methods:" ~i·:de.;f.
(b)
Fluorescent
tube
Plaster Sprayed Jointless Frame Frame 0pen
on concrete material and and
or expanded on concrete panel strip
metal
"IN SITU CEILINGS>
(b)
r-
Fig 5.22 continued
(b)
Drawer unit
suspended
from frame·
of screen.
and worktop.
MATCHING DESIGNS FOR FANLIGHTS
SQUARE SCROLL DIAMOND

J,--[ PLAIN
NOTE: All windows can be supplied fitted with burglar bars in the factory.
SIDE HUNG SASH OPENINGS
881 882 883 884 885 886 887 88B
889 8810 8811 8812 8813 8814 8815 8816
,
,
T
8817 8818 8819 8820 8821 8822 8823 8824
. I-
8825 8826 8827 8828 8829 8830 8831 8832
I
1.-+-- \I.
!
!
I
!
tj
8833 8834 8835 8836 8837 8838 8839 8840
1
I
)
...
." - M'As-I-S-R
... .....,
-5 ~ -c:__
--~ES ?-10:COLD AND HOT WATER
SUPPLY
..,.
.:. .,..
COLD AND HOT WATER SUPPLY
• An adequate supply of water is a basic

requirement for buildings intended for human
habitation for reasons of personal hygiene or
for activities such as cooking and
manufacturing purposes.
• In most areas a piped supply of water is
available from a public water board or a utility
company like Nkana Water and Sewerage.
COLD AND HOT WATER SUPPLY COLD AND HOT WATER SUPPLY
• Rural
• COLD WATER SUPPLY • Streams and rivers
• SOURCES • Lakes/dams
• Boreholes
• Urban • Springs
• Wells
• Local council water supply • Rainwater
• Utility company • Water should:
• Have a pleasant taste.
• Boreholes • Be colourless.
• Be free from bacteria.
• Be free from suspended matter.
• Temporary hardness of water can be • Sterilisation

removed by boiling in order to get soft water. • All water used for human consumption must
As for permanent . hardness a Base be free from harmful bacteria. Chlorination:
Exchange process has to be applied in order This is the addition of chlorine to water
to get soft water. (Read Hall, vol 1page 3). meant for supply to the public for
consumption.
• The amount of chlorine added to the water
should kill bacteria but should also maintain
a reasonable taste.
F.MULEYA, OCTOBER 2008 1

..
-+
-"
ES;.z10: COLD AND HOT WATER
StJPPLY
• DIRECT COLD WATER SYSTEM • Advantages

• Drinking water is available from several outlet points.
• This is supplied from the mains i.e. Supply
• Disadvantages
from the local authority or utility company.
• Lack of a reservoir could result in being cut off
This water must be of reasonable pressure. should the main supply be cut off.
• All sanitary fittings are connected directly to • There is a risk of contamination from sanitary fittings
the supply from the mains (without any by back siphonage. This the backflow of water into
the drinking water supply. This backflow is caused:
storage in between)
• When ball valves in cisterns are fitted below • Taps and valves
the overflow pipe. The ball valve must • The above terms refer to fittings required to
therefore be fitted above the overflow pipe. control the flow of fluids either along or at
• When low level inlets e.g. bidets are the end of a pipeline.
supplied from the rnain supply. Such fittings • Valves are usually used to control the flow
should be supplied with cold water from a along a pipeline while taps are usually used
storage cistern and never from the main at the end of a pipeline for draw purposes.
water supply.
- Globe valves: Used on high pressure systems. • Ball valves: These are used to supply water
- Gate valves: Used for the control of flow of to storage and flushing cisterns and to
fluids in low pressure systems such as on
automatically shut off the supply when the
correct water level has been reached.
distribution pipework from storage cistems.
- Drain valves: These are used to drain boilers.
cylinders and sections of pipework. • The valve is operated by a float which allows
the valve to be fully open when it is in its
- Safety valve: These are used to relieve excess lower position and as the water rises it
pressure on boilers, tanks and pipework. gradually closes the valve and huts off the
water supply.

ES 210: COLD AND HOT WATER
SLJPPLY
• Materials for pipes • Mild steel

• Lead and Lead alloy
• Mild steel may be obtained galvanised or
• Lead is resistant to corrosion by atmospheric gases
or acid soils but is affected with mortar or concrete ungalvanised. Galvanised mild steel pipes
are use for both hot and cold water
• Copper installations and ungalvanised for heating
• Copper pipes are used for hot and cold water, installations.
heating, gas and drainage installations. Should there
be a danger of corrosion say from acid soils, they • They can withstand high pressures and resist
may be obtained with plastic covering mechanical damage as compared to other
pipes
• Plastic • INDIRECT COLD WATER SUPPLY

• PVC (Polyvinyl Chloride) is used for cold water SYSTEM
service and distributing pipes, water mains and
drainage pipe systems. They are not suitable for hot
• All sanitary fitting with exception of drinking
water pipes. water are supplied indirectly. Pressure in the
• Fixing of pipes
system is reduced.
• Pipes are fixed to walls and brickwork, on timber • If water from the mains is cut off you can still
surfaces have supply from the tank positioned at a
• Other fittings associated with piping work are tees, higher level usually in the ceiling to allow
elbows, nipples, sockets, etc. water to fall by gravitational force.
• HOT WATER SYSTEM • Advantages

• The supply of hot water to sanitary fittings is • It is a cheaper system
usually taken from a hot water tank or • Water heats quickly
cylinder in form an electric geyser. In Europe 11 • Disadvantages
the geysers are fired by gas or oil). • One disadvantage is that the heater may corrode.
• When a quantity of hot water is drawn from • It is not suitable for supplying a central heating circuit
the storage tank it is immediately replaced by or hard water because pipes and cylinders may
cold water from the cold water storage become furred with lime deposits.
cistern or main supply in some cases.

e,
ES ,?10: COLD AND HOT WATER

Sl:JPPLY
• INDIRECT HOT WATER SYSTEM • Water levels in the cisterns should be equal so that
• The main difference with the direct hot water system equal pressure acts on the indirect cylinder.
is that the cylinder design becomes a heat
exchanger. The cylinder contains coil which is • Advantages
connected to the flow and return pipes from the • There is no direct heating of the water.
boiler.
• It is ideal in places such as hospital as a safety
• A transfer of heat takes place within the cylinder and
after the initial precipitation of lime within the primary measure
circuit and boiler, there is no further furring of lime as • It is ideal where there in hard water
there is no fresh cold water being constantly
introduced into the boiler circuit • One disadvantage is that it is expensive.
• ONLINE HEATING SYSTEM • REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING

• This is a system where water enters a small • 1. Chudley.R (1987) Construction
unit with a heating element and comes out Technology, volume 1. Longman group
hot on the other side instantly. Limited.
• This saves on power consumption because • Hall.F (1987) Building Services and
you only heat the amount of water that you equipment, vol 1, 2nd edition, Longman
need to use at that particular time hence group UK. Pages 1 to 22.
savings in both water and electricity bills.

'-"'n--:"~:5""Z::.'~-:::='__:"',:.::~-:'.~.-=.~:.
_., -U..."':""
.. 1":
j.Q
W~~ / \
v 7
+-- Square top fork.ey
Screw thread Spindle I
·.•.
,If,''('
Packing gland ••
.,:!.I',
Fibre composition
washer'
..
{
Fig. 1:22 Plug, cock Fig. 1.23 Globe valve Big. 1.24 Stop valve
..'~ ,:r!:'
I Stem
Pressure- Bronze
adjusting dome r==l &1 ~
-
~ "cap'-
Pac~il)g gland .JI

~ •••••• ~1sp'~ing Bronze, t,
.-Cast-iron. ,,,.¥;I~
weights
[] Pbrt~'(1".
~Fib::~::~er"~.""., .•...
VI Hose connection
Fluted nut'i'- ,.,- ····0
;)'"
A
ul J ' ~
(a) Spring type (b) Deadweight type
Fig. 1.25 Gate valve Fig.. 1.26 Drain valve Fig, 1.27 Safety valves
I. Rubber washer
~ Nylon nozzle
1:':.... 1"2f\ D 0 I; ,.J:". .•..•h .•..

".rt"TT'I h".lI ,,')h,.::.
L-------Rubber washer Valves
Valves used to control the flow along a pipeline are known as the globe or gate
types. Both types close slowly and therefore do not usually give rise to problems
. Fig. 1.31 Equilibrium ball valve- Portsmouth type <I' of water hammer.
Globe valves
These are used on high-pressure systems. Figure 1.23 shows a section of one type
of globe valve; the metal-to-metal seating type is often used for heating
Capstan head ~
systemsand the composition valve for very high-pressure systems where a com-·
Cup washer M t'N:J plete shut off is required. Figure 1.24 shows a section of a stopvalve used for
domestic water installations. When the valve is used on cold water service pipe-
Spindle' :l work the jumper should be loose which tends to act as a non-return valve and
Equal pressures Ji prevent backflow into the main. '
\ Easy
Packing I J;4 dean
gland'
cover Gate valves (see Fig. L25)
These are used for the 'control of fluids in low-pressure systems, such as on
~ 'k .Jurnper distribution pipework from storage cisterns, or on low-pressure heating systems.
-Bib They offer much less resistance to the now' of fluids than the 'globe varve.
Drain valves (see Fig. 1.26)

These are used to drain boilers, cylinders and sections of pipework.
l' Safety valves

\
These are used to relieve excess pressure on boilers, tanks and pipework. Figure
1.27A, B shows spring and deadweight types of safety valves.
I" Fixed shank
Ballualues
'( ..... ,-,". c· .,', .' :
Colour tab ~ Colour tab Tl,l!!~~are ,u,se4!'~?,~~HP.~1~ w~t~r ,~o)")~~R.r~g~"an~t:I,M~h,~pg
cisterns, and to auto-
indicator ---ltsl
,.Packing
indicator rnatically shu(.o(fJh,e.,sllPP.ly when.the correct wat~r level has been reached. The
Fixed stem gland valve is oper~~~,?:kx~AP:g~(;w,h~ch allow.s the valve 'to be fu~y open. when 'it is in
the lower position-As the water- level rises, the float also rises which gradually
closes die vaive andshuts off the supply of water. '
Jumper
) Capstan
Seating , lugs
I VVasher and Types: There are four types, namely; (1) Portsmouth, (2) Croydon, (3)
jumper
Fluted
Diaphragm, (4) Equilibrium.
anti-splash Portsmouth ~ng Croydon are similar in construction except in the form,er,.~p.e
bush "---'---;.--- Nozzle
the plunger mov.es horizontally and in the latter the plunger moves vertically.
J
. ~~'mrflt
..'\ Figure 1.~8 shows the Portsmouth type, which complies with BS 12U; and Fig .
~".29showsthe (;;roydon type. The diameter of the orifice is a very important
,?
, "I factor, and. governs the type of valve; for example, whether high, medium or low
11,
Fig. U4 'Supatap' bib tap Fig; 1.35 " ar t~p
(~., ~ --.f'~' r..·, . 'I ~ .. !>'
. p'ressure.",~n', orificeofsmaller diameter allow.s the valve to close at a higher
i '
,~,' < '~
·•...~.~·.....:,7
16
i..;: ..•ilr'c,~t1 Expansion and feed cistern
r
'~f:
1 vent pipe 'Ii!
Basin
Bath
vent ·1 ·_,i;, .• :I;~,,,"'·.;lt~:,~,,~
il,;, j: 'I i.e. c.. ..I . I
secondary cold
feed pipe 1
3'kW electric immersion hot water
heater (if required) I. 1 I 1 supply pipe
:.<
Drain valve ~
:L£j\y-~~j
In'!illl"ted cyliooer
Indirect 'cY,i'nder or calofifier ~:

•.....•... \t:
I
~l. '; ~'~
••..
'"'\; Si'lk'e- .:r.heiiT1oStatically

primary flow and return pipes 1---------- corurolled boiler
:,
Safety valve X Safety,yalye, '.", :.'.',.'" '-/'"'~ Or-ain"vallie'"
~ Drain valve "~
F;ig. 2.1 'Direct' system of.'not water supply Fig. 2.2 'Indirect' system of hot.;w<l:t~~supply
19 mm diameter vent ----------,

Hot-water supply , I ' ~
I' arid vent pipe
Immersion heater boss r
A. !?jlth
Note; Distance A should be 450 mm
I 1=.-:1 Air lock
m'iniin4m to prevent one-pipe
-. circulation and consequent heat
H
losses in the vent pipe

l~j Level of primary
"~ . ,-, .wat~fi.lo '.J \ -ti~
;.1
'Prirnatic' cylinder well insulated '" 1 1
~ Primary flow
1
Air lock ~ _- _~f Water inlet holes
.primary flow and return
Sink
/sj::1 Heat exchanger I Boiler

Safety valve I X
~ Drain valve
'-,
&lid feed ~_-=-=-~ :~2~?7064 Primary return
1<'0 'J'1
,
Separatevent
I pipes
Vent 1 1
»
Cold feed .1 Basin
_,JI[
I I I C~dfued
Thermostat I' .I 1
Lagging I
rf-H---I"LU Hot water
draw-offs
2 500 watt heater on

foot switch control
-u. I i Sink
19mm diameter cold feed---------'----'---------~
Fig. 2.10 Two-in-one pressure type heater Fig. 2.11 Pressure heater for a house Fig. 2:12 Pressure heaters for a multi-storey building
---~---Lid
I h
l~~~
Silencer Cistern heater at high level I'
. Overflow pipe-
Vent pipe
Steel casing
ic&1lc.~~"'"'"
--_. ,----
.iI
Overflow pipe----,
stove enamelled ',~,--- I Cold feed pipe
Hot water outlet pipe I ':1 II 'II: '1 Cold feed pipe
" k I. Cistern heater

at pigh level
r-
II 1.11':.1 Thermostat Cold water direct from main I .I
I , I I M I Drain valve
Heating element I '.'1 Ir· I r1W Isolating valve
Sink ••.. 1
,./ I 1'.11' " Baffle ,,,
t7.\ ,.
-. I Hot water dr.aw-offs
.. ' . <:11'::\ '.,~
Fig, 2.13 Cistern type water heater Fig. 2.14 Cistern heater-for a house Fig. 2.15 Cistern heater:for a multi-storey building
19
."e
• v~
,
...f\!r..'
---
.,,-:
.a; ~
......
-
~
.
,
;' .«(~h; ~ q=-"'l
No. 1080 No. 108LK No. 541 No. KRI.IO No. 545
-----
Sallcock = Lockshield hose bibtap Tank locking cock Drinking fountain Kettle cock
----
RS, F x F -I J:'
2
}. I'
4 RS J:. },.
2 4 RB
,
J:. %'
2
.,
J:'
2 CP J:'
2
MISCE~LANEOUS
'.
FITTINGS
..
(CIST~RN--AND PILLARTAP CONNECTION)
. ."
No. 2321350
Angle regulating valve
,
No. IXGICP·300
Compression [oint
NOTE:
There are two ranges of copper tube fittings available from Cobra.
The compression type range is available insizes of 15 mm to 54 mm
and is sold undenthe trade name "Conex".
The Capillary type range is available in sizes trsrn 15 mm to 108 mm

and is sold under the trade name "Copcal".
CP J:. --~-----.----~
CP 10 mm
2
GATE VALVES "
No. 10021125 No. 10031125 No. 10011125 No. 1022 No 1050

------_._._ .._-----_._-+- -------------- ._------_ _---
RB, F x F RB, C x C RB, F x F RB, Check valve RB (In-line strainer)
----- -----------+-----.,---- .-~-...,-----.---------
--_._------------
~' %' I' 1~' 1~' 2' 2~' 3' 4' 15,22.28.35.42.54 mm ~,%,~. %' r 1~' 1~' 2' ~'%' I' 1~' 1~" 2' ~. %' 1"
CONTROL VALVES
No. 1025 No. K81.342 No. P81.10 No. PA5.!

.-----f-----------I----.-.------- .------- .. - .. -----------
Automatic closing check valve Expansion relief valve Vacuum breaker Master box (400 kPa)
._---- .._--_._._-. --..------.--- ----._---------- _._------.- ------ -----"1'-----------.--- -..----
..- ------ .-----....
-.------
RB ~. %' r 1~' 1~' 2" RB %' RB i %' ! %. r
Outlet
pressure
400 kPa
,'~-a:':'~c1
~
- - -
>- .:
. '
.; ---_ .. -
" ..--'-'=
I •
No. PA]' 132 No. PA 1. 1 No. PM. 132 No. PA5.532

---- .----1~-------.-----.------------
Masterflow 1 (400 kPa) Kwikflow (400 kPa) Masterflow II (400 kPa) Master Box II (400 kPa)
-R-S--- --%'-----+-R-S---.---%-· ----I-- - - %' ----------------T"%:;-·--·---· ..-----
RS
W ~
~~~~~Kr~r~~r~l~!eCh
TEL (011) 955·4451, FAX: (011) 955·4047
BRANCHES:
Cape Town
TEL: (021) 61-7160
Port Elizabeth
TEL: (041) 43-2480
Durban
TEL: (031) 701·4897
Bloemfontein
TEL: (051)'447-5542145
147
L
r ;
HANDLE STyLES STANDARD MARKINGS

CRUTCH STAR CARINA AQUILA NOVA Red mark Blue mark The colour markings as
- (RS) (CP) (CP) (ACRYLIC) (CP) indicates Indicates shown are internationally
hot water cold water recognised The hot water tap
is always situated on the left
hand side while Ihe cold water
lap on the riqhl.
){ ~.. ~
.{~/ C!J;~"
~.
. . LEFT
The recommended working
pressure is 400 kPa (4 bar) lor
taps and mixers except where
otherwise stated.
HAND
ABBREVIATIONS . CO~Y.E~S'ONS aALANCED PRESSURE

BSP . British Standard Pipe Thread BSP thread size
C . Copper 1f4" It is highly recommended that installers make every effort to
C XC· Copper x Copper 3/8" attain a balanced hot and cold working pressure to ensure Ihe
CP . Chromium Pia led 1/2" optimum operation of mixer fillings. This will ensure user
No .. Number 518" satisfaction and comfort. Refer to Ihe page litIed 'Hot Water
0· Diameter 314" System' for an illustration of the layout of a balanced water
PB . Polished Brass 718" pressure system.
PVC . Poly Vinyl Chloride 1"
RB . Rough Brass 1 11~"
kPa· Kilopascal 1 1/2" NOTE: Do not use any oils when installing fittings since it will
mm . Millimetre 2" contaminate the water supply for many years. Sometimes a
'C . Degrees Celcius 2112"
FxF. Female x Female
distinct odour can be smelt when operating a contaminated
3" system.
Mx F. Male x Female 4"
-'·1···~
, 1
f
\
t No. 113 . No. 214 =tr: __ ...:.N..:,:O:.:..

. .:.:llccl_+--.:--=:----'-'N""O. 114
~@®~~~ Jh@> x---- X

---_._- ..--·---·-----r---
CP CP ~' %" CP CP ~' %' CP ~,
2 CP ~. %'
BIBTAPS • Wash trouqhs; sinks; VJ'~shingmachlnes and. dish washers
Extension piece
~. i ~1fi' 0 Ring with sliding flange
r- __ N:,::o.:..:.
2:..:0""O__
~1
-+--.--;;--;:---,--N:.::o:...:. 2:..:0::=:6=:-_-+_--.:..N:.:::;o:,..:. 2:.::0:::...8 +-~N-:00;.:...:::.:20:.:.7.::.EC:::..-.-__
I ~ No. 080 No. 059
= X Jh @>(!J = X Hose union coupler
f-----,---:-----:----·-l-.:..-"-'=---"1i'---"=----:-_If-----.-----1~~-___,r__--_II-----r----+_----·-- ..---,-----1
RB ~. %' CP ~' %' r CP %' RB ~" %' %' r CP
No. 121 No. 126 No. 128 No. 138 No. 139 No. 221
= I 1 1.
RB,FxF I '2' '4" CP, F x F CP, F x F ~"%' CP,CxC 15&22mm
.W "-
~?o~~~Kr~r~!~1~!eCh
TEL (011) 955-4451, FAX: (011) 955-4047
BRANCHES:
Cape Town
TEL: (021) 61·7160
Port Elizabeth
TEL; (041) 43·2480
Durban
TEL: (031) 701-4897
Bloemfontein
TEL (051) 447·5542/45
I·
SINK MIXERS \'
,
~,
No. 266/04 1 10. Nn. I 71 ;041 ...::2.:::.33"--

NO::.:. 1
X~€H~r- ------X&@---·--- '-F-it-~-p'-co-nnectors (A and B)
cr Tf----·---- '-C-p---I~·---~-c-p---- %.
---Ci
.~~
',------.
No. 1661041 "!.9.:._92_0 N_o_.JJ._O _+_ No. 297 No. 296

-~~~~~.~-- . Focus Sink waste £ €H:!J--"'--- -X ~@ 0 -.---
CP x-2 CP X'2 CP
-l~~-----·----C-p-- ~. - - -cp---- --r)';,-
SHOWER MIXER TAPS AND FITTINGS
No. 027 No. 028 No. 029 No. 064 No. 186
f----'---'-----J-----------t-----.:..:..::..-'-=-=----- ---- -------_._-------
O/H Shower arm O/H Shower arm
__ ._----
O/H Shower arm O/H Shower arm X& €H!J
CP
---- ..------.-- ..
CP, Cast Brass· ~.
-
CP X-2
---c;-----r ~ =:':': --- i ~-
~ Shower set
{J • I
~ID
----.-.----
Focus
No. 905
..----- ..-- ..----
No. 433
-'''---'--C---C-~=-
X£€H!J X~€H!r--
No. 431
.
, .~jj:~l
~
tl
Jj1""
No. AP3.40
Shower attachment
"i ._--+-
No. 003
Hand shower attachment
CP
~ .: --.---- - CP I ~. CP ~. CP %.
Ball jOint
No. 068 ADJ No. 068 BJ No. AP2.30 No. 373 No 323
-------.----.~.--." ... -.--"-.-.-. -- .--.-.----.-.-----.-----
----_._ .._ ..... shower
Adjustable
_-,-_._ rose
.._.- ._-_.. . -... - ..
Shower rose
-_._---. __ ._--------
Adj ustable shower rose Shower P·trap
----·--·-··1'-------'---··--
Shower waste
---_.--------:-------
CP ~ ~. CP X'
2 CP I ~- CP I 1~- CP i 1~'
BRANCHES:
Cape Town Port Elizabeth Durban Btoemfontein
TEL: (021) 61-7160 TEL: (041) 43-2480 TEL: (031) 701-4897 TEL (051) 447-5542/45·
145
J
9ATH MIXERS FITTINGS AND AtTAcHMENTS
j
~.
No_148 No. 147 No.0675 No_060

------------l-;;:--:;----::---:::~=_-·-----+--------- \--------_ .._ ..---------
X£<@[!J
--~-F------X£€}(!J
cr -----·~I-------.~--- --------r----·· -..
---....
----
cp 4 %' cp %' CP %"
X~~~~·4~2-5--------+---------NO---06~~~~-E------~---------NO--~0~6~O~S--.------~
cp %" cr %"
No.150 (Excludes hand shower set) No. 149 (Excludes handshower set) No.249 (Excludes handshower set) No.250 (Excludes hand shower set)
£@>[!J &<@(!J X£<@(!J X~<@(!J

·---t----'-C-'p-""-'-----T r..------
cp Cp Cp 4
No. 186 No.320 No.316 No.370

--------t------------ ._-+----------------------j
X£<@}[!J ...--::----. ---j---------- -------1
Cp I %" Cp CP CP 1~'
No.004 Se/ecla No.28315 No.012 No.AP8.330

---\--------------r-----
Handshower Attachment Handshower (Adjustable rose) Handshower (Adjustable rose) Handshower (Integral rose)
CP %" CP I Acrylic ~' White plastic I Acrylic

~.--- --pJ;-s~-..--Tk--2 .-----
~ cobrawatertech BRANCHES:
&.' ~ PO Box 1096, Krugersdorp, 1740 Cape Town Port Elizabeth Durban Bloemfontein
'.' ••• ''OJ -fl¥' (011) 95~H047 TEL: (021) 61-7160 TEL: (041) 43-2400 TEL: (031) 701-4897 TEL: (051) 447-5542/45_./
Splash back l Vanity top with
a single basin. 600
o
Bowl 19
o
<D
• --f-"'-ll
o
r-,
CleatJ.
N
19
-f'-+---,3::.::0Q~~-~_~-=j9~_.~=- o
c»
CONSTRUCTIO
1066
_++~~__
.
._~J_O
Glazed wall
~ .
lile
_-+-~ -£
-- -
Support
wall
Door __ ----~-_4-4_~
CAST-IN-SITU CONCRETE SLAB

.. ~:-
It's cheaper and more exciting making
Mirrors your own cabinet and vanity to suit your
needs.
Recess
Step Double bar doors

" on bomber hinges
143
LOW LEVEL WASH DOWN W.C. PAN CLOSE COUPLE W.C. PAN
490
9 litre
235 vitreous
china
'" cistern
~- ~
~ 370
0 470 S 360
~
t. Manulactured with P or S
trap. Ie It or right turn traps
2. SUitable lor general use e.g.
~ublic conveniences &
1. Manufaclured wilh 90'
short spigol pan.
2. SAB.S. approved.
1. Manufactured
a P-Trap.
. optional).
2. Vitreous china in
white or cotour.
with
(S-Trap
3. Suitable for domestic

. 12
~
U ~
• •
"'
'"
domestic use Low cost 3. Suitable for low cost

housing. use. ---------- •..
housing.
CLOSE COUPLE SYPHONIC W.C. PAN "SQUARE LOOK" CLOSE COUPLE WASHDOWN SACK TO WALL 'A~C. PAN
490 w.e. PAN
390 Suilable tor hospitals
& public buildings.
1!rr9'---,'+-+- 3
If'c#++-'"
1. Manulactured with 1. Manufactured with 90'

P- Trap only. short outlet. R HIGH OR LOW
2. Vitreous china 2. Vitreous china in colour.
LEVEL WASH
3. Large homes. hotels & DOWN W.C.
3. Belter class homes. lawn houses. PAN
"SQUARE LOOK" BIDET 730

WALL HUNG WASH DOWN w.e. PAN
480
Manufactured 10 malch
the WC pan used.
. Manufactured
P·trap.
with
2. Coloured vitreous china.

3. Suitable for hotels,
domestic & public
high rise buildings.
~1' • ~
M"",,,,",,, wilh an
S, P. or turned P-trap.
2 White vitreous china
3. Suitable for compounds
or sports change rooms.
SQUAT TYPE WASH DOWN

STANDARD BIDET W.C. PAN LARGE WALL HUNG URINAL
550 1. Seperate P-trap

for turning In any
direction
2. Vitreous china."
Manufactured with hot

& cold water ascending
spray & pop-up waste
Coloured vitreous china.
Suitable for domestic
& private hospitals.
CORNER WALL
HUNG BOWL
URINAL
139
,
..
:~'f':~:'5, .'
'F~~';
..: .I~~ I~'
" .,
SINKS 'TROUGHS & BOWLS'
<'
.' ,}
... : ... ,
~ , I
.- SINKS TO FIT KITCHEN UNITS WASH BASINS
~ - STAINLESS ENAMEL OR ENAMEL OR CONCRETE OR

STAINLESS
STAINLESS STAINLESS ENAMEL TERRAZZO
.- STEEL STEEL
STEEL STEEL
,- +-545+
~-rcJ1
-~-llkdJj
~I
--_rI
..
SECTION
NOTES:
Sizes of units may differ between rnanutacturers, therefore check before
specifying. Sit-on denotes sinks that fits on a c~binet;3hdthe top surface is
flush with Ihe working top; Drop-in sinks fit in a cui-outsecuon.ct the I-------:~-:-:-:::-::-'=-:-::-~:-:-=-=::-:-:--:-:-=-
~w
'working top. ..., . PREPARATION BOWLS
Stainless steeL grade 430 (17/0) is sLJitablefOralldorfrtstl(f~inks
troughs. Stainless steel grade 304 (1$18) is' t1seaiof~6nditl~n'Sof
and wash
mila -,
rr
l_~-+
corrosion, e.g. hospitals, laboratories and coastal ilrea$., $t?irjlesssteel
grade 316 where severet'orrosive conditions exisiie:~,l~bo.rat.ories,
photographic processes and seagoing vessels .. Seami~$s pYesseo 'bowls
~
c»
~ ~~
n
V '"
~ r:\
~
<:)
~@
f::\
\!V
C) .
are 1,2 mm thick. .::;

Don't use steel wool or other abrasives for ~Iea~i;?;
.....:,.;::.;; •.;,;:;,;.;
of surface stains or rust marks, us only a'gentl'e f.~M:Mlb

>;
1'8 th'e event
,\i;'~;~~\
soap
-- ~ c> ';2
. ~ +- ~ .
_.
I
250 _ _.
and water to clean. . " ,.•.
Sinks are make of
a ;;~riety of materials,J"g:' SECTION
metal, acrylic ,ana/or fibreglass ilnd porcelain.
colours that matchWith your kitchen. .
Skirt or tiling key

SINK DETAIL ~ to wall side
~ra~ i
460,
1200
t 64() ,
t-
t- .1)
535
!I
715 460
2400
60 460 715
~0-1J
\[tim JI1--l- I;:: . ,
',j . 40 , xr
r
ti
.o wast
r:~~ C')
en co
-e- ~-. --
; Waste trap <:) C')
C)
(J)
I
\
-==============::::::..... >J --Apron
~ 7~" --- -1 J L Outlet
Kitchen unit L. Flutes Bowl.J. Swage ..:,
~
" l _ --_._._--_ .... _---- ---_._ .. _._.
.. ..
L
~-k22__
10 ~ F.F.L
..
I
I
f
: 195 i SEB (Obtainable in right hand al 0 .) ,.; . ": _.'~r· ~t1':' : '~"'.
240 T Use type 430 Sound
(17/0) deadening
-+ --I STANDARD SINK / ~-- SECTION SIT-ON TYPE SINK DeB bas
Stainless steel
. ,
/'
.,~{.'.:.:'
~•.."'x\...
SANITARY FITTINGS .
-'
_ _
VANITY TOPS, VITREOUS CHINA HAND WASH BASINS & ACCESSORIES

! 600! 900 t t- 1200 --+ -t- 1500 +
V900
,------o------,1
V1200
{I----Ci)---l V1500
Ratten Moulds T.
& G. -jl'r=============9
TYPICAL VANITY CABINET

I i ALTERNATIVE
PATTERNS
DOOR
4+-'-+---~C)_+--=--= C)_~+~+
1800
VANITY TOPS CAN BE MARBLE. HIGH PRESSURE
LAMINATES OR ACRYLIC MOULDED IN ONE.
V 1800
'"
-t--~-~---+-1-
~1fE)~J __ 50Q
t __+__
I--(D+- ~ c:;;J1~
230 ~T~ ~ -er -e-
1 lap hole
5Bs
No overflow or tap holes
----
150 U')
-~ - 620
2 lap holes
1~~ '"
~
SQUARE-LOOK WASH
MEDICAL WHo BASIN
a~~
~-~ 150~~r5!'Yi t~t~SJ
HAND BASIN ON WALL HANGERS LARGE OVAL W.H.B. --'-----'--
~I
I
!~~
U~~I-
~~f~430
CKETS
~
525 or 585
LARGE OVAL SHAPE W.H. BASIN
I ~
.
LARGE VANITY
ASIN
SMALL VANITY
- --
BASIN
ONgi ~f~520--:t ~~,

-r==
1m J!
1 210~ _ . ~I(-~- : MO~!::~" L"9' "~cd
a-S¢9
rinse -- ~t---550---t- wall hangers
140
Small hand rinse
;t6l~ f~j'"t('l-HALF ~~:~CO,""W.H.b"i"
~ PEDESTAL
\J~ __-H184
-t 460 ~ l1t
P e d esta I OR WASTE '1,2 Narrow W.H. basin for small
or 3 tap ho es mounted
TRAP COVER on pedestal or wa]] hangers cloakroom mounted on wall hanger
t--ll-'.' --EJI
lfto ~tIJ[B~ro ~l-'- O!
l
.,
. I f-!~~-+ optional -L~~~-~-
\
Recess _+_]_~O_J, , I 300 I
-t---' -.~.---t' -/i
X
• ~\l "
FOOT REST TOILET PAPER HOLDER SINGLE SOAP DISH DOUBLE SOAP DISH ;'l'
at
<D I
'"'! RUBBER P WASTE TRAPS RUBBER S
'-------'0- t . WASTE TRAP'S:
ACRYLIC SHOWER BASE
§izes : 32 X 32 mm (0 , 32 X 40 mm (0 , 40 X 40 mm (0 Sizes' 32 X 32 mm (0 , 32 x 40 mm (0 , 40 x 40 mm (0
1 M\
·/
,
--1.-
I
!._.- - --L - -j - - L ----
P':H':el~n cast .rpn I'breg!ass tubs
I ava.table In various jenglh~ .vldlhs
32mm
weeping hole
---.~~.-.----+--
\
STANDARD BATH BUILT AGAINST WALL BATH WITH A FLOWER BOX
-+--+--T-h-,s-+,p-e\l;-~~tai~~
-t-_--"-+W_'\h_O+-~t-lh-e
I~-
~~r1~I~d
accommodate fOil & dra n oioes
~~:_~Ih 9_____
~,,-+-
I
_ __
I
25
700
,... ~--'-----=~::":';:'..::::l.~~
. - 1,,1- -1 -_.
-++-'+----~~?.--____Pt~ ...•
--
STANDARD BATH WITH STEP BATH AWAY FROM WALL
STANDARD BATH WITH HANDLES

IN AN IMAGINATIVE SETTING
The bath surroundings can be made more

attractive by adding a step, shelves, recesses
and platforms with plenty of mirrors and
down lighters.
TYPICAL CONSTRUCTION
1. Fix 38 x 50mm wood cleats to wall and
level the bath on the top edge while
resting on supports at the bottom
2. Build up two courses brick-an-edge

then pour 6: 1 sand I cement mix to
steady the bath. Couple waste pipe.
3. Comptete the brickwork, plaster and

tiling together with the plumbing.
4'- Access opening to waste pipe is better

through air bricks in outer wall than
inside tiled cover.
5. Edge the bath.
1L\?
ES 210: SPECIFICATION WRITING
and COST AWARENESS
THE C'OPPERBEl T UNIVERSITY

SCI;IOOl OF Bta!l1j ENVIRONMENT
ES 210
SPECIFICATION WRITING
INTRODUCTION TO
SPECIFICATION WRITING and • Specifications
COST AW RENESS. • This is a document prepared by an
architect/engineer and team of consultants to
specify the expected quality of materials and
workmanship and protection to the work.
• By reading the document, a contractor would
get a good idea of standards expected by the
architect or client and would determine the
rate for each job depending on the degree of
supervision ..
1
.,"~-~
f
SPECIFICATION WRITING
•• Specifications are either included in a bill in the bills • Bidding documents are used to
of quantities or written as a separate document each
of which is read in conjunction with the bills and describe the documents furnished to
other contract documents. bidders
• 3 types of documents used • Bidding requirements
• 1. Bidding and contract documents.
• 2. Drawings: Graphic presentations.
• Drawings and specifications
• 3. Specifications .. • Bills of quantities
I
SPECIFICATION WRITING SPECIFICATION WRITING
.;
.
••...................
','
• CONTRACT DOCUMENTS • Drawings present a series of pictures of a
project or parts of a project to be constructed
• Agreement between owner and contractor.
and they should contain the following:
• Conditions of contract.
• Location.
• Drawings. • Identification of components.
• Specifications: Written descriptions of the • Dimensions of components.
wok to be performed by contractor. • Connections and interfaces and connections
"
F.MULEYA, OCTOBER, 2008 ·1

and COST AWARENESS
• Specifications should describe the following: Applicable regulatory requirements including codes and
• Type and quality of every product in the work e.g. ;l~~g~;g;

~~~~~~ ~~8erformance of the works e.g. BS
200mm thick engineering brick wall laid in English Overall component and dimensional requirements for
bond in cement: mortar ratio 1:3 with brick force specified materials.
every third course. Specific descriptions and procedures for allowances and unit
prices in the contract.
• Quality of workmanship including quality during Specific descriptions and procedures for product alternatives
manufacture, fabrication, application, installation and and options e.g. MK type socket outlet or equal and
approved.
finishing.
Specific requirements for administration of the contract for
• Requirements for fabrication, erection, application, construction
installation and finishing.
• Specifications should cover all • Window and door frames including iron
sections of the building including: mongery.
• Excavation and earthworks. • Plumbing, mechanical and engineering
works.
• Concrete work. • Electrical installations.
• Roofing. • Floor wall and ceiling finishes.
• Carpentry and joinery. • Gazing.
• Metal work. • Extemal works, etc.
SPECIFICATION WRITING COST AWARENESS
• Other considerations to be considered: • Costing is an important part of the construction

process. This helps in determining estimates or
- Price and payment procedures.
arriving at a figure that the building will cost before
- Temporary facilities construction commences. This assists the developer
- Execution requirements. or client in budgeting. This also assists the
contractor in the financial and resource planning of
the work.
• Choice of materials, methods of construction,
location and nature of work all have different impacts
to the cost of any construction project.
F.MULEYA, OCTOBER, 2008

and COST AWARENESS
COST AWARENESS COST AWARENESS
• The cost basically consists of three elements • Example: Costs involved in the production of
concrete units (60m3) such as a wall, slab, column,
• 1. Material. etc. You first need to calculate the unit rate cost of
• 2. Labour (unskilled or general workers, concrete per cubic meter before calculating the total
cost.
semi skilled and skilled or artisans)
• The profit is then added to the cost in order to come
• 3. Plant and equipment. up with the price. The contractor needs to establish
the cost in order to calculate he profit while the price
• Professional labour is also considered but is is for the client. However this should not be mixed up
calculated separately. as all
• expenses and payments towards the work , • In summary cost + profit = Price
are made by the owner of the project who is
the client. It is therefore important to have all
the conditions of contract clearly stated in
order to avoid disputes and conflicts. At the
end of the day the client pays for both the
cost and the profit = price of the delivered
product.
• Concrete work (60m3) • Labour (Charged per hour)

• Material (charged per unit e.g. pocket, or m3, or
tonne) • Foreman
• Cement
• Shutter hand
• Sand (Fine aggregate.
• Stone course aggregate. • Concreter
• Water. • General workers
• Reinforcement deformed bars or fabric mesh such
as conforce 257 .. • Steel fixers
F.MULEYA, OCTOBER, 2008

and COST AWARENESS
• Plant and equipment (Charged per hour) • Small plant

• Shovels
• Concrete mixer
• Wheel barrows
• Batch plant • Grinders
• Dumper • There are other costs that need to be considered on
each project. These are referred to as preliminaries
• Concrete mixer truck and general items (P and Gs). These are contained
• Vibrator in a separate bill usually the first one. Below are
some of the P and Gs.
• Welfare, first aid and safety provisions.

• Site staff
• Final clearance and hand over
• Cleaning of the site.
• Transport of worker to site.
• Site transport facilities • Risks
Mechanical plant left out previously in the rates. Abnormal overtime.
• General Manager's visit 10 site.
• Scaffolding
• Head office charges such as fuels, phones, rentals, salaries,
• Site accommodation etc.
• Temporary services such as water, sewer lines, • On smaller projects some of Ihese items may be left out
especially if the contractor has other big jobs running at the
electricity, etc. same time.
F,MULEYA, OCTOBER, 2008 4

i
v
ES 210: ELECTRICITY IN SIMPLE

. BUILDI GS
THE COPPERBEL UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF BUILT ENVIRONMENT 'i+p,4 ELECTRICITY IN SIMPLE BUILDINGS
ES 210
• Electricity may be defined as a form of
lIT IN SIMPLE BUILDINGS energy due to free movement of tiny particles
called electrons.
• Materials such as most metals and water

which allow an electric current to flow readily
are called conductors and are said to have
low resistance
ELECTRICITY IN SIMPLE BUILDINGS ELECTRICITY IN SIMPLE BUILDINGS
• Most materials which resist the flow of an • The rate at which the current flows is measured in
electric current such as rubber, glass and amperes and the resistance offered by the circuit to
passage of electrons is measured in ohms. If a wire
mas plastics are called insulators.
of the correct resistance is chosen it will become
very hot and this heating effect is used in appliances
• The pressure which forces or pushes the such as cookers and pressing irons.
current around the circuit is called voltage. • The conductor in a filament bulb is very thin and of
high resistance. It therefore becomes white hot thus
giving out light as well s heat.
• For a fluorescent lamp is a tubular discharge • Most domestic premises receive a single phase
supply of electricity from an area electricity company
internally coated with a powder that such as ZESCO at a rating of 240volts and a
fluoresces under the action of an electrical frequency of 50 hertz.
discharge, producing a white or coloured • The area board's cable from which the domestic
light. supply is taken consists of four lines, three line
carrying 240 volts each and the fourth is the
• The tubes are fitted to a single or double common return or neutral which is connected to the
fluorescent fitting in sizes of 2 feet (O.6m), 4 earth at the transformer or substation as a safety
precaution should a fault occur on an electrical
feet (1.2m), 5feet (1.5m) or 8 feet (2.4m) appliance
long.
5 6
F.MULEYA, SEPTEMBER 2008 1

-
BUILDINGS
ELECTRICITY IN SI PLE BUILDINGS ELECTRICITY IN SIMPLE BUILDINGS

.@.
• Each line or phase' tum together with the • RING CIRCUITS

neutral to provide e single phase 240v
supply. Electricity i generated and supplied
4, • circuits
Domestic buildings are wired using ring
as opposed to the older method of
as an alternatinq current which means that having a separate fused sub circuit to each
current first ,'/s one way and then the socket outlet. (See attachment).
other.
• The direction change is so rapid that it is
• Lighting circuits are carried out using the
hardly seen in such fittings as light. The cycle
loop in method.
of this reversal is what is called frequency.
7 8
• A!y!jcaI dofresbc tnSIaliationwould have the following araJits

from the CllflSUIEI' unit
• 1. 5 arro or 10afTl' Hoorlighting up to 10 fittings or total toad
of 5 amps. (For lafTl'S)
• 2. 5 or 1oarro afTl>first floor of additionat tighting on ground
floor as above.( For lamps)
• 3. 30 amp cooker circuit (For cooker)
• These breakers act as protection against • 4. 15 or 30 amp ring circuit 1(For socket outlets)
excess current or overload of the circuit. • 5. 15 or 30 amp ring crcuit 2 (For socket outlets)
These are housed in a box called the • 6. 15 amp immersion heater (For Geyser)
• 7. 60 amps for the mains
distribution board.
9
• For a ring circuit for socket outlets, a twin

The complete installation is earthed by 2.5mm2 earthed cable is used starting from
connecting the metal consumer unit casing to and retuming to the customer unit.
the sheath of the supply cable or by
connection to a separate earth electrode.
• The cables are looped into the outlet box.
Socket outlets can be switched controlled
For lighting circuits, a cable should be and of single or double outlet. The double
1.0mm2 and therefore a tin cable is used with outlet is preferred as it discourages use of
earth wire. multiple adaptors.
12

.
...,
"
• ,w
\. __
" ,,"rc

_ BUILDINGS
ELECTRICITY IN SIMPLE BUILDINGS I ELECTRICITY IN SIMPLE BUILDINGS
• Movable appliances should have fused • Minimum number of socket outlet per
plugs for connection to the switched room:
socket outlet. • Kitchen: 3 plus cooker control unit with one
socket out let.
~. • Living room: 5
ji • Appliances with not more than 700 watts • Dining room: 2
il should be protected by a 3amp fuse while • Bedrooms rooms: 2
. :! appliances over this rating up to 3000 • Halls: 1
watts should have a 13 amp fused plug. • Landing: 1
13 14
• The maximum number of outlets depends on • Two way switch control

the requirement of the room. • A single pole change over switch. When connected
in pairs, the switches control a lamp from two
• One ring circuit is required per 100m2 floor positions. These must be installed in bedrooms,
area. landings and corridors .
• One way switch control • Intermediate switch contl'ol
• Single pole switch connected with wiring to • This provides control of a lamp from three or more
control a lamp. Several lamps may also be positions. This is applicable in long corridors and
large halls ..
controlled from one switch.
• CONDUIT INSTALLATION • It is generally to chase the walls of the

building to accommodate the conduit pipes,
• Condit installation consist of metal or socket outlet boxes, and switch boxes below
plastic tubing together with various the wall finish level.
boxes for forming junctions and
• Surface conducting is normally secured to
• Housing switches which gives a the backing by using screwed shaped clips
protected rewirable system. called saddles. All chased areas along the all
must be made good at the end of the works.
17
F.MULEYA, SEPTEMBER 2008 '3

"
J
,. ., "
.'

,BUILDINGS
ELECTRICITY IN SIMPLE BUILDINGS
• REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING

• 1, Chudley.R (1987) Construction
Technology, volume 2. Longman group
Limited. Pages 227 to 233
• Hall.F (1987) Building Services and

equipment, vol 2, 2nd edition, Longman
group UK. Pages 13 to 26.).
19

~-
. . ::1;. i~j:'
1192, 1969. Graphical Symbols for Elec-trical
Emergency supplies, ;;,;i;''''''''\fI''
In buildings such as thcatrcs.c.i*~aS}~hd dance halls, where public assembly is
involved, emergency lighting. is "req~in~d'!in case of failure of the normal lighting
supplied from the electric mains; -nllere;should be bantry-operated lights in the
public spaces and exit corridorsjof 1'ufficienr power LO enable people to see their
way out, and there should be exir signs over each of the exit doors, also illnmin-
ared by lamps supplied from [he batteries. The batteries are kept charged from
the mains supply and [here should be sufficient reserve power in the batteries to
o enable the emergency lighting to give light for 3 h after a mains failure.
There are three basic kinds of emergency lighting installations;
Filament lamp o 1.
2.
A system in which the bartery-Ied
The emergency
supplied
lights are on wherever
from the transformer
lights come on only after a mains failure.
the building
in (he battery-charging
is occupied and are
plant. In the event of
a mains failure, the: lights automatically change over [Q the: ba ncries.
3. The 'floating battery' system in which the lights are fed from the battery
and remain on, The battery receives a charge from the mains slightly in excess
of the load taken by the lights and [his ensures that the battery is always fully
Pull or pendant switch v charged. The size of the battery installation
by the emergency
depends
lamps and while small buildings
upon the load required
may require a metal
battery cabinet. large buildings may require a special battery room.
Wall lamp
Lead/acid batteries are often used for emergency supplies. but nickel/alkali
batteries have a longer life and do not give rise to corrosion problems as do leadl
acid types. The delivery and storage of acid and distilled water must be
remembered when designing the installation.
Diesel generators
Fuse
For large buildings such as hospiralr.and departmental stores, stand-by diesel-
f electric generators have [0 be provided for emergency electrical supplies. The
~
,\ Neutral link generator is automatically brought into operation on failure of the mains supply.
f'
i:
I
I ;!) j J Bach and shower rooms
I
~/ Special precautions arc required in bathrooms and similar rooms [0 avoid danger
from the electrical installations. Lighting fittings should enclose the lamp com-
pletely and there should be no exposed metalwork on die fittings. Switches
inside bathrooms should be of the pull-cord type, mounted on the ceiling or high
on the wall. Ordinary switches or orher means of control (e.g. the immersion
\1 heater switch) should be situated sc as to be normally inaccessible [0 a person
using 3 fixed bath or shower. An electric shaver point must comply with the
I
i
appropriate
room containing
with elements
as 3052 and be provided with an effective earthing terminal. In any
a fixed bath or shower, there must be no stationary
char can be touched by a person in a fixed bath or shower, nor
appliance
must there be an)' socket outlet for connecting a portable appliance. Double-
ii, pole switches should be used for stationary

and the metalwork of the appliances
appliances
should be effectively
(e.g. an electric (Owe! rail)
earthed.
!.I
l'
)1
1
I'
!:II
f
'I
'1
;1;
I
Ii
d,
Iw I I
I.
Sink
---,---------- Lamp Washing machine -;-¥-':;;..;g...,

Cooker point -..:.-.;
Serving hatch _
Window
,
'---iIt---- Worktop
Fig.3.28 Intermediate switch control --i--- Cloakroom
Bvih-in electric fire

(stationary appliance)
~~==~W---- Spur fuse box

Two-way landing switch --_'-
Perch ----------
__ -1
....J
;-Aing
,,
,---,-----+-/-I---spur
__ J
~~~~~--~~~ Bedroom
2 Bedroom'
Two-way pull switch
,, )
Landing --t------'--+-
He~erSWitch
I
------+11 , ,
I
'"3~~-=!------' ,
[--Earth
t •
--,.--1-,----" ~-_--_---- J
••-- •••
---I.~"'''''''''''31-.;;;;~--J Shaving point
MTTT"TT1c1l t
'"
r;foll})')
~ Two-way switch
Neutral Two-way hall switch -- --'
bus-bar - One-way switch
<Pull switcn
,;. oCeiling lighting points
-"T------- Distributton board with
l>-
Switch socket outlets
. mIniature CIrculi breakers o Distribution board

I Fig.J.29 Ring circuit '------ Incoming supply
Pig.3.3tJ Lighting uud socket cutters for u SIIl:11I house
I'
'I
;. ; . '.~.
[J
PI! joints are electrically
the conductors
sound and the conduit
where they
is earthed.
loop into the terminals
It ispermissibte
of the socket
[0 cue
ou tlcrs,
and, since these were nor standardised, a move from one house to
that [he new owner often had to completely change the plugs for
another meant
the appliances
!I providing that the joints-are electrically sound (Fig. 3.29 shows a wiring diagram brought from the old house. There are still very many homes with the round-pin
of a ring circuit). socket outlets, but the ring circuit with its sranda rdised socket outlets is now
used for new installations.
'Spurs'
A saving in cable used can sometimes be made by using 'spurs' instead of taking Lighting and socket outlets for houses
the ring to remote socket outlets. The total number of spurs must not exceed In ·order 10 avoid long runs of flexible cables and multi-point adaprofs, the
the total number of socket outlets and stationary appliances connected directly number of socket outlets must be adequate for the consumer's needs. The
in the ring and there must not be more than tWO socket outlets p.er spur. location of the items of furniture and electrical equipment should be considered
when positioning socket outlets, lighting points and switches. Figure 3.3.0 shows
Fused plugs . the layout of socket outlets and lighting points fOJ a small house. Table 3.5 gives
I: The socket outlets on the ring are provided

be either 13 A or 3 A to: suit me
apparatus
with fused plugs and the fusing can
connected to the plug, thus per·
the desirable number of socket outlets for small house. a
I, mitting the maximum
of th~ apparatus.
use of the sacker outlets and flexibility in rhe movement Table 3.5 Number of socket outlets (from Parker
Desirable
Morris report)
number of socket outlets

I'
;:
Table 3.4 Fuse ratings
il Dining room
,I
,
f 13.A 3A Living room
Dou ble bedroom
Washing machine Reading lamp Single bedroom
II
II
Kettle
Iron
Toaster
Record player
Small mixer
Coffee percolator
Kitchen (working
Hall
Landing
area)
II Vacuum cleaner
Fire
Blanket
Television
Garage
Freezer
,I Large mixer Table 3.6 gives the graphical symbols used for electrical installations.
·1 Spin dryer
: Table 3.6 British Standard 1192: 1969. Graphical Symbols for Elec n-ical
.! Wacer heater
Insrullntions
Number of socket outlets Cooker control point

fn domestic premises. a ring circuit may serve an unlimited number of socket
outlets, provided that there is at least one ring circuit for each 100,m"l of floor
area. If there arc two or more ring circuits the outlet points shall be reasonably Distribution board
distributed between the separate circuits.
For non-domestic buildings, the number of socket outlets shall be deter-
mined from the diversity factor, and the maximum loading of the apparatus shall Meter
not exceed that of the fuse or circuit-breaker protecting the circuit.
Switches Main control

Althoui"h the Regulations do not require socket curlers to have a switch control,
it is usually desirable for a switch to be fitted and the majority of 13 A socket
outlets are now fined with a single-pole switch. Power point
Round-pin soc:ket oiutet»

In older installations each socket ou tle r was served by an individual circuit from Switch seeker outlet
15 the distribution board. The plugs were round-pin for ratings of 2, 5 and 1S A Table 3.6 cQntillueq (m p. 26
of 6 m the use of ~xpansion is recommended. Smaller diameter -. 'j
1<-"
':tit
,bent cold by mear.s of a be,nding spring and larger-diameter tube Pfefa~.f.jcated wiring systems'" iT : ~,...,~.".
flg and inserring a Special rubber COre. As plastic tends ro 'spring
cessary for the initial bend ro be more acu re than is finally requirt!d Essentially, the systems ena .. ~!:icaj insrallacion ior u house lu be! pre-
'8uit secured as SOOn as possible afterwards. It is recommended that fabricated in a factory and ar1.fp.~~JS:$i?lrliikit form for delivery to th~ site. The
If should be 1I:;~d in temperarures between 70 0c and -]0 "C. systems reduce sire labour, a~llaJsin£e ffhe· kits are factory assembled to the:
hi~hcs( standards [he installa[io'n is:aiiJomatically of a high srandard.
laced shearhed cables (FLb. 3.2 J)
Ihcat hed cable is generally manuf'Clured with one, two or three copper
ucrors insulated with PVC; the earth wire may be either insulated' or un-
Distribution systems
lated. The cables are flexible and are t!asiiy installed either on the surface or Lighting circuits
ncealed Within the srrucru re They can be secured by cinned brass buckle clips
0,. polyvinyl dip:;;. When rbe cablcc an.: run in rhc roof space or bc:nc:ulh •• limber Every sub-circllit which originates from the lighting distribution fuse board is
floor, they should be secured at the sides of the Joists. When running cables generally limited co a total load of 1000 Wand requires 5 A fuses and Switches.
across floor joists, they should be passed through holes preferably drilled in the In large: buildings 15 A fuses and wiring are sometimes used, due to the higher
neutral axis, but not less than 50 mm (rom [he cop of the joists (see Fig. 3.22). coral load on the circuit. Wiring to lighting points should be carried our on what
is known as the 'looping-in' method shown in Fig_ 3.24.
As with PYC conduit the (able is generally unaffected by water, acids, oils and
most soils. If the cable is buried in the plastC'r a metal channel should be used ro One-'way switcb COntrol
prorecr the cable'<lnd allow for rewiring (see Fig. 3.23).
Toqgh rubber sbCotbed cable (TRS) A singl<'pole switch is connected with wiring to control a lamp, as shown in Fig.
3.25_ If required. several lamps may be controlled
the figure.
from one swircn, as shown in
The cable is generally manufacrured with one, two or three copper condUCtors
;nsulated wlrh rubber and covered with a rubber sheath, the earth wire may be
eirher insulated or uninsulared. They are installed in the same manner as the TWo-way switch control
eve sheathed cables. The cables do not resist direct sunlight, oil or chemical The rwo-way switch is, in principle, a Single-pole changeover switch. When con-
arrack ro the same' exrenr as PVC sheuhed cables and unlike the latter cables nected in pairs, the Switches provide control of a lamp from. rwo positions and
they cannot be obtained in a wide range of colours. The cables are nor as may therefore be installed in bedrooms, landings and corridors. Figure 3.26
popular as PVC shearhed cables, bur are often used for extension leads. shows rhe generally accepted method of wiring two-way Switches.
. Accessories
Intermediate switch control
Accessories such as Switches, ceiling roses and joint boxes used in conjunction
with ail-insulated Sheathed cables are usually· made from incombustible plastic An intermediate switch or switches used in ,conjunction wirh two, two-way
and, like the cables, are all-insulated. The only metal parts are those required to Switches, provide conrrol of a lamp from three or more positlons, Long corridors
carryfitting.
[he currell( and are nor exposed; rhe cable sheath should extend well illside with .sevcral doors, long halls and multi-flight staircases, require intermediate
the switch conrrot for reasons of both safety and convenience, so chat every access
Identification poinr is provided with its Own lighting contro!. Figures 3.27 and 3.28 show the
wiring for inte'rmediate switch control.
Colour ldemificaeion of the cares 8f all-insulated sheathed cables is given in the Earthing ~
. Regulations of rhe lEE. The Regularions also specify the colours of rhe cores of
the ncx-ible cables (see Table 3.3).
The 15th edition of the lEE Regulations require char every switch (unless the
switch is fixed inside an earthed meral box, in which rhe switch plate is in elec-
Table 3.3. Colour iclencificaticn of bare conductors and cable Cores
trical COntact with the box) shall be connecred CO an eanh'continuity cnnduc m-,
F"Qnc.tion
Colour of COre of non-flexible., To comply with the Regulations every ceiling rose must also be connected
l co an
Colour of Core of flexible, all- eanh·continuity conductor_
alHnsufaced cables
insulated' cables
Eanhing
Grun and ye-llow
Live Green and yel/ow
Red (Or yellow or blue t ) Single-phase power circuits
Neutral, Black Brown
Blue The ring circuit
• The term 'non·ncxiblc' is misft'ading, it relates [0 the main electrical installation, while the A ring circuit is a final sub-circuit consisting of two current-carrying conducrois
rerm 'flexible' relates [0 leads [0 appli~nccs.
r AS:&Iil altcm3eiv( to red, if uCliirnJ for largt" Inst311.uioIlS. and an earth wire looped from One socket ovrler to another, both ends of the
circuir being connected to a 30 A miniarure: l·ircui{-br~aker or a fuse. If a metal
conduit sysrem is used the earth wire is unnecessary, providing that [he: conduit
---ii,"J.,;;-,---;i",. -.....".•-,i---~ __
~~cd~~t~~bber insulatIon -------~. I .

PVC or rubber sheath --.------- __ ._. __.
Buckle clip
FigJ.lI All-insulated cables
One-wsv switch
Live
Fig.3.25 One-way switch control
Not less than 50 mm Neutral

L... Neutral axis
Fig.3.n Protection or all-insulated
Fig. 3. 22 .Method of drilling timber joist sheathed cables
Live
To next lighting circuit
Alternative posntcos -..,.--,
of contacts
1 r-- Two-way SWi1Ch --- •..• ~
Lt.Oi.\------------T-O
\I..,j,..j---o-----,_
n--+.;------
Lamp
Switch
@
Theoretical two-wev switch
Fig.J.26 Two-way switch control
---- 5 A miniature
--- circuit breaker Neutral
1~~~~~H~~iJ::~======== Two-pole switch

Meter
Live
Alternative positions
Lamp
of contacts
'----,-- ,, t-I-----_-=--_-_-.~::.= ~~~Iral
Distribution board
I
with miniature I
Cifcuil breakers ~Fuse ------Link
:
Eanh link
---~---- ~-------- Service cable
2l
Fig,.J.24 Loop-in method or wiring Fig. 3. 27 lnierrnediare switch control
"
s.amp
fuse - ground floor lighting circuit,
I
main
sWitch r- 5 amp fuse - upper floor lighting circuit
line
l I
I [15 amp fuse - immersion heater
I i 115 amp fuse + soere ,
neutral
~, i
! Iii . I
r- 30 amp fuse - cooker
I . i . I r-- 30 amp fuse - ring circuit 1
earth
i r 30 amp fuse - ring circuit 2
supplv
cable
'Loop-in' method of wiring using sheathed cable

i ,,II J
line
socket outlets
neutral
line
earth neutral
light earth
earth terminal -
cable colour
green/yellow 1 socket
outlet
.rBS 1363
~Plug
cap ~otl ~:lJIIM4---cartridge

screw~~;g rl'J ! fuse - 3 amp for up to 720 watt ratinq
13 amp for up to 3000 watt rating
F:l~:i- line terminal - cable

cable h "" •••• co lour brown
grip
Single COrecable looped from switch to switch neutral terminal - cable
colour blue
Fig. V!1.17 Typical lighting circuits

Fig. VII.18 Ring circuits and plug wiring
~
.::... 231
::::£it
.ij:"'£,,';;",!
. •••~ vllU VI lne works.
COLOUR CODING OF CABLES.
Function Main electrical .installation Appliances (Core flexible

(Non flexible cable) cable)
Earthing Green and yellow Green and yellow

- ---- ._- - -.~--_.
Live Red (or yellow or blue) Brown
f--
Neutral Black BliJe
I
_ ....------ -----_.--'
See attached drawings for references

f
I
requirements, bending, fabricating and placing are deal. vvit
the section on reinforced concrete.
Reinforced cantilever walls have an economic height rang '/: / •• ' .1' /.: •• }'/'
6.000 m, walls in excess of this height have been economically . main bars at 300 clc
using prestressing techniques. Any durable facing material mar;'
to the surface to improve the appearance of the wall bu t it nrij~ ,,\:0017
remembered that such finishes are decorative and add noth-mgL At·U'OO
:'. '-0
structural strength of the wall.

<1?
"'i<'
..' ,
C'0?7r-
.DC09
hardcore or
rubble as filtering
material to
Counterfort retaining walls I,~00f' weep holes

1
These walls can be constructed of re °OoD
or prestressed concrete
4.500 m. The counterforts
and are considered suitable if the height i~
are triangular beams placed at suitable~e
behind the stem and above the base to enable the stem and base t
lOo'~ \
slabs spanning horizontally over or under the counterforts. Fig. II.4f I

a typical section and pattern of reinforcement for a counterfort reta \
wall.
If the counterforts are placed on the face of the stem they are terIi1.
buttresses and the whole arrangement is called a buttress retaining wallj
both formats the design and construction principles are similar.
'r .'
Precast concrete retaining walls
stem
reinforce
. __.__
d as cantileve~_
-' -
--\.\.' ' .·.t.
.. '.
:\/. . IY
'O.a'~·
..
. 0
. .
Manufactured from high grade precast fixed at base .r : '.U:O ...,;-.
concrete on the cantilever principle usually to a 600 mm wide module (se :.·OCr
Fi~: 1'1.5). They can be erected on a foundation as a permanent retaining
".
@O'i;JO
:A .. '
. l!¥i!U. qr be free standing to act as a dividing wall between heaped materials '\}Uf{
. '~""~
.~s aggr,egates for concrete. In the latter situation they can increase by .it?c2V,
'.' I~Wly three times the storage volume for any given ar~a. Other shrinkage cracking "\'.:~:QD'
's are a reduction in time by eliminating the curing period which control steel ----- ..----
.... "0
d.for in situ walls and eliminating the need for costly formwork ·'·O'U/)
ith the time required to erect and dismantle the temporary
base reinforced as cantilever ':dBJ
. ;." .
fixed at stem
. iF~ are reinforced on both faces to meet all forms of stem
'res are provided which can be utilised as strap fixing
,ecial units to form internal angles, external angles.
~all~are also available to provide flexible layout
binders -
ecast concrete crib retaining walls

. -alls are designed on the principle of a
~.,. fig. 11.3 Typical R.C. cantilever ,re,tQ,\ 'I~"
.mass retaining w '3;:J;I1eworkor crib of precast 41
",""-
?!i~ )[
~:r:"'~
..:
v,
\.
,.,
~
-.
T}%Y~f.:'t:~~·tlf-';'"./I~··~'-i·':tJ\rl",'4!·'~F-?:
)
'; .- ryi;>ble coping bedded
,iq,~~ment mor::ar
t,~:e.
':~ein the same manner as solid brick walls
m~of moisture and rain, it will fiherefore be
" ,
:¢,ca:utionsin the form of damp-proof Courses

~e'Bu;ldjng Regulations. •
rone and' rubble walling are shown in Figs. II,4,
, bon,der qr
throuqh stone
1 per m2
BRICKWORK) ,
The history of the art of brickmaking and the

.g',canbe Vij.ceq back to before 6~.QOB,.C. It,started in
. 'ead eastwards arid was fn:tr6dtt.ced into #Us 6.6untry
c-e use of brickwork ,fl!!);ur,ish~.d.
dHl!'ii;'J.g;~the1i1!hif.d
and
~ft\!,rwhich the craft s~ffelr'eOi'a:ra:pid@.edi~e u'nt.iJits
,gill Flanders towards the-end of the fourte~nthe,entury:
~~"
Ii, ~,bD~" "".. -:.,.:
been firmly established arid remains as one of the ma.j'0r
Uncoursed Random Rubble Wall
s.
'Cedin BS 3921 Part 2 as a walling unit not exceeding
":; 225 mm in width or 112',5 mm in height. This . weathered stone coping
':'1' ~r,;·,@e9dedin.cernent.rnor tar
'deals with bricks made of fired brickearth, clay or, ,
QS dear with those made of calcium silicate or concrete.
'.by theiJf'ormat size, that is the actuai:sj?,leplus a
ceto three faces. Therefore the standlai:ci,biick of
0[215 x L02·{~(.:~'P::mm.
. '~j,,~Gtua,l,(!jimensions
:a~dbrickwork are shown in Figs. ~~\l?:11~~.9
It .
foundatlon of. 'inass

• >.. ~;, i.
concrete or lar.ge stones
Cdursedf'RaridGm Rflhble Wall
,F,i,g. 11;6 Typical rubble walls t: ~ .1 ;j
-, ~
,41
STANDARD BRICK SIZES
'~/'-~' •.-,J'
1
73 ' ' 73: oJ
t ' ,." 10." t. : •..
'0;' '11'1
" '
06'.... AC'
/ ~~~
I- '06 '1'11 '06 • '06 • '::/:
STOCK BRICK RIBBED BRICK FOR FACE BRICK ROCKFACE BRICK PATTERNED BRICK
PLASTERING
7J'~:~ 73 '
1 ....
<~~ WIDE STOCK

i
'10 '"'
WIDE FACE
"se
BRICK BRICK
1
r
•..
, --
--- ____
~I
106
~~" " ,r:
;73
+,
48 "
~:"6
... ~:~: .
.. ,',"
-: i·
~ 15 ,
f
, !i<~ <
73
73
0' ',"S3r :~~

,
• - /'
'-.
17
. "
.-/
----/'
7)"-
-06 ?J "", '). '06' '(/6
BULLNOSE BULLNOSE BEVELLED BEVELLED BULLNOSE

ON, EDGE SILL HEADER SILL ON·EDGE SILL HEADER SILL STRETCHER
----~
STANDARD BRICK WALLS
ti'p- '
Wa"
lies
,,'
. "':...: " .....,...;:$
. ,.:..•...
-"-f -
(")'
..
1'-;
~'l~
r-:
t0'- <" 1 ';::
+ ,-"'---~ t,
iO
10 73, 10 10 90 10' 106 10 140 10+ 106 Of' !O~ T : Of • 0,8, : .t,
•• t. t'- tt
83 100 tt 116 ' 150 '2:32 ' '290
t -" + -+- '.-..- - - --- t
NON,LOAD INTERNAL OR EXTERNAL LOAD BEARING WALLS EXTERNAL DOUBLE WALL EXTER"A!. CAvoY, WAc'.
BEARING WALL 34 Bricks! m2 51 Bricks i m1 51 Bricks I m' i02 m'
Bricks I 102 Buck s . m-
36 Bricks I m2
NAMES OF BRICK COURSES
,';
OJ'.
t 106 • "
~'D
§ ¥ .: ~ 'I - H~ad~r
<',-c'-,j
'.... .j 222
..-..i
Flush join! V Jo.nt
, Streicher
I
I
I
I
Recessed jornt
ij <1':' J
Porrueo Ic'nl
(pornunq)
+---,--t-
Stretcher-an-side On-f:oJge On,Edge i!IJo, COI"('l1l'lyl

I
I 1
~--
I,
_ .._---------_ .._------------- /"

....... ..,..
"
.-i .
STACK BONO STACK BOND with every HEADER BOND HEADER BOND with every
second brick projecting 40mm second brick projecting 40mm
and staggered in each course. and above It. every second
course.
SOLDIER BOND SOLDIER BOND with every TWO SOLDIER COURSES Every second brick projecting
brick projecting 40mm to BETWEEN STRETCHER 30mm and staggered wilh
every second course. COURSES. every course above
~} '" '/C-
.~.t-
.• "~,h!k~~!I!!P~
'. 'i,\ '\
~ ~ ~:::]
.'
~',: " ~ ~I
/.~:' 'j'.['~'.' ~:,"
K I
I I I
I
I
,
I
/
,
;
'~
"
,~
BRICK-aN-EDGE BRICK-aN-EDGE with vertical BRICK-aN-EDGE with every BRtCK-ON-EDGE Wi h

piers created by projecting second brick projecting soldier course corbelled 10
about 106mm to every third 40mm and repeated in Ihe project 50mm wilt·, each
brick or more depending on the second course above. horizontal course
required effecl.
Two panels showing some creative brickwork used in Two panels showing decorative walls often adopted on the
boundary walls as well as the outer,leaf of a double external outside leaf of a double wall in front 01 a sliding Window. For
wall. security, this method IS desired. NOTE' Increase Window ,I
size by :)0% to compensate lor light lOSS due to the reduced
light penetration I,
I
i"
---------_._- .. _----_._------- ~
, ~, ,
;.f
.)
CREATIVE BRICK & STONE WALLS
, .
BRICK ON-EDGE BRICK ON-EDGE WITH EVERY

SECOND BRICK PROJECTING
20mm.
111111111·
IIIII
III II
III I
SOLDIER EVERY SECOND BRICK PROJECTING
LEAN-OVER
BRICKWORK
PATTERNS CAN BE CREATED
COURSES 20mm AND STAGGERED WITH THE

COURSE ABOVE.
REGULAR COURSED RUBBLE STONE STOCK BRICK KOPPIE STONE WITH RAKED OUT STOCK BRICK
BACKING JOINTS BACKING
WALL WALL
DRESSED SANDSTONE (SNECKED RUBBLE) BUILT RANDOM RUBBLE ROUND FLAT RIVER STONE
AS A SOLID WALL OR WITH BRICK BACKING, FOR THE TAKING AT FOR THE COLLECTING AND
SLATE QUARRIES. SORTING.
1AA
..••.,- (
_ ;r- ••• ,
tI
, BRICK BONDS
STRETCHER BOND ENGLISH .BOND

Stretcher bond lor 280mm cavity walls and single walls. One stretcher course lollowed by one header course, and repeal
FLEMISH BOND DOUBLE FLEMISH BOND

A course consists 01 one stretcher loll owed by one header which is repeated. This is the same as the Flemish bond except a header course rouows eva-y
The next course has the same sequence, but is staggered over the previous second stretcher.
bond.
COMMON BOND
Start with a stretcher course then the next course has a header between This is a stretcher bond throughout but with a header course every sixth
each stretcher. This sequence is Ihen repeated course.
ECONOMY BOND
Soldier. stretcher and header courses. (Brick-on-edge courses) uses stretcher bond brick on-edge lor paril'>' cavity
walls.
)
~----------~----------------------------------------------------------------~
189
: -.
."l'
RETAINING "WALLS
100mm diameter
1---- Boundary -- Bouncarv
steel pipe
Cap Neighbour's
side Top 5011 and
lilling
Diamond mesh Possibility 01 sliding
fence ground and water
accumulating behind t OOmrn
wall thereby pushing diameter
the wall over. weep
o
o
o
N Natural
ground tevel Natural
ground
level
r------..~~~
Get permission
to encroach - ~._(1QiL-t-__.. Channel
DIAMOND MESH UNSTABLE BOUNDARY WALL
(Not recommended) SUGGESTED METHOD
GENERALNOTES:
Cutting stable earth to near verticalwill in time NOTE The retaining wall is
collapse. Therefore support is required in the
surcharged by the pressure of higher
form of a designed retaining or basement wall.
ground and possibly the adjOining Adjoining
Cutting is necessary to obtain a level area.
building in close proximity. building
Once the earth is disturbed, it has to be
retained. Retaining walls rely on their own mass
to resist the thrust of surcharge.
Retaining walls on a boundary line of a

neighbour can be tricky when agreemenl is
required to encroach. See gUide lines on
NOTE: Earth will find its own
angle of repose. (For dry sand, Ihe
boundary walls for further reference.
angle of repose is 35")
Boundary
Filling to be
Topsoil & earth Iilling Concrete in-situ or supported
plastered brick
buttress wall
SECTIONAL DIAGRAM
Natural ground level.
Porous matenal Flower box and plants 10

for free drainage solten the stark brick wa!1
Mass concrete poured

in behind the brick wall
Walerprooi
Open drain pipes to weep holes New ground membrane
Wa!erproof
membrane
Top soil &
filling
t;l 330
~.I".i"'I---t-
0undar.y·.
.~" I I
Walerploof F ace
plastic sheeting I brick
between bnck I ~ wa;l
and concrete -*'Irl~~ ~ i ,-.J
<D
ln-situ concrete
Mass concrete.
poured behind
--1-:-
1
I
Wall 01
1
~_._----- o
~ RECOMMENDED brick wall. ~~t+'--
ties --1i32~Z5 ;21
~I
----
700
. ---
RETAINING WALL , \
I Face brick wall Reinlorcing \
steel bars to
Porous' Reinlorcing steel NOTE:
material ~I~~~· bars to engineer's 1. It is advisable to build this
engineers
design.
design type of wail correctly at first,
Drain rather than fixing toppled walls
pipe -~-1.l.~~#;::~b
and removing washed down soil
Stock
brick wall
l~H~~~~~~~~
--~~~~~~n-- later.
Reinforced
concrete --..:m;J<
2. Check
structural
your designs
engineer.
with a
-t-.
loundation ~~1i~~~tfj ~~"";"':'''';':'''~;;;;,;.,,;.I-+-
ALTERNATIVE REINFORCED WALL CONCRETE WALL WITH A BRICK FACING
190
. (~ ..:~, .
e
" ,
\ .'f;' \;
"
SHUTTERING • BEAMS & COLUMNS
Shutler board with
cleats . 300
----+---- - - _.•... _...
Plastic
chamler
\I-::/~_~50 x 38
rail
~_-L.75x5
bearers 300
Sleel prop
100 x 50 t.
bearers
Q.
Q.
BEAM SHUTTERING WITH <f) .

TYPICAL SECTION BEAM
CONCRETE COLUMN & SLAB SHUTTERING
75 x 50 bearer
100 x 50 bearer
I Beam head prop ~-- .••
Adjustable column
I
clamps wilh steel
wedge & chain.
Shutter SECTION BEAM
board.
SHUTTERING
100
. t...l
.,- --, -1
i
II f-~- 50 x 50
650' soldiers
600 --;:::
I 0
~
ca .
n
500:
400,
:
0,
01
r-; ,
<,,>,
i,
i
i
;
350;
I
30°1 ~
Adjustable props
I 250:
;
,
~.
I AdluSlable column I
TIMBER
COLUMN
SHUTTERING
300 +
~ I
ROUND COLUMN MOULD
Two hall .ound
STEEL PANEL
COLUMN
FORMWORK
panels bolted
~Iamps with Wedge-r-----
chain
.... --- -- --
~ I
log ether. ..Jrf- .. ;.; 60
-- -- ~
! ~
•. 300
----.
--.--
~-
,,;
,
.'•
z;!i' o
) ~~~Ietl~
~---
.
60 :
-,
_ _ __ ~=====+,
.1, o
M
<>
g
I
CORNER
- - - fol STIFFENER
ENLARGED
II PLAN PLAN PLAN
)
8C40GS -'1 193
. .
. '. LINTELS & SOFFIT BEAMS
WELDEO MESH OVERLAPPING

TWO BRICKS EITHER SIDE OF EXPANDED METAL REINFORCING
OPENING AND ANOTHER BETWEEN COURSES AND TWO
TWO COURSES HIGHER. COURSES ABOVE.
PRESSED METAL ANGLE IRON
ALTERNATIVES
-1------.-.
, 222--- t
-..------ -+-
F ace brick
0 I n t recessed
JWith _
D PC
N
N N.
--'t'- N N
N I'--
",I ;:?
0
I
-- -t
........ "'::
PRECAST CONCRETE BRICK·ON-EDGE BRICK-ON-END WITH REINFORCED CONCRETE

SOFFIT BEAM WITH REINFORCING CAST IN-SITU CONCRETE BEAM CAST IN-SITU FOR
STEEL BARS BEAM CAVITY WALL HEAVY LOADS
280 . 222
-1'--- --. ----.- -----r- -"t"---------- .•..
Steel dowl
i1
~~:~ .. -:.--t-
.', lJ")
106 106 .
,.
SINGLE PRECAST DOUBLE PRECAST METHOD OF FORMING A METHOD OF SUPPORTING

CONCRETE LINTEL LINTELS SOFFIT FOR A CAVITY WALL A PRE-CAST CONCRETE
MOULDINGS
I
·1
J
. , 7
-----------"--/
199
- -- -------
. ''. '" ~ " ., L'.' " ~. . ,., ~. ~., , •. ~

v" •.
, '\
.~r.
~
' : STONE -MASONRY - ,
Brick-an-
edge
~.I~Piij
~t!J.X~~A~I=1- framed
opening
L-~~~~~~~
Shaped stone and stacked In River pebbles, round and Koppie (mountain) stone on a backing wall. Joints to be
courses. Volcanic stone with fiat of even colour bedded In shaped with a cloth and smoothed with a brush.
narrow raked out joints is also mortar on a stock brick
acceptable, backing wall.
Regular coursed rubble Regular coursed rubble Cut quarry slate With Quality quarry slate that does
showing stone with a rough showing stone with a recessed joints, polished or not flake should be used.
and uneven face with smooth face and bevelled varnished, is quite Various cotours are obtainable
edges, attractive. Thickness varies Thickness to be more than
trimmed edges.
between 25mm to 80mm. 20mm & to be bedded in mortar
with the joints grouted
.~
Random rubble built to courses. Stone is selected and Square rubble wall built with stone blocks with a smooth
dressed on site with a natural face. The edges may be surface and square edges with recessed joints. Stone sizes
squared or bevelled. are determined at the quarry.
Square rubble stones are Snecked rubble is stone Ashlar : plain or furrow Ashlar Finely furrowed
roughly square and built up to from quarries which is dressed. Joints are thin dressed s shaped stojne
courses to avoid long vertical easily squared. and mason's putty mixture blocks ot 300 - 500mm in
joints. is used. height. 20mm bevel. •
. ,
-~.----.---.-.-...-.------.-------------------------------- -~-.-------
201
1
• Functional requirements
I
• Roofs are required to protect a building from
damaging effects of:
• Weather
• Rain and snow,
• Wind
• Heat.
0"-:
"
,
.{ \
• The roof material must be impermeable and • Provi<1le GlOOd appearance ,r~· '''"<,
have the following characteristics: • This is,impqftpr\t"because the ri;;6f part of the
• Structural Stability building is very visible to the eye, '
• Provide thermakinsulation ", ,
• This refers to the stability of the support for
the roof covering, This includes timber • Heat can be lost rrorn the hiuildirig to
extended surface area, Flexible materials,
trusses or structural steel members, etc,
gla:,;s fibr~, polystyrene boarSs~tc are used
as Insulating material. ", '}$f'
t.,:r ~
:~~,
V'"
,,~
t~~""
'r
~.
". ~
• Sound insulation • Types of Roofs.

• Means of drainage • Flat Roof
• The roof facilitates rain water to be easily • Mono pitched Roof (Single Pitched)
drained from roof as follows: Roof - gutter -, • Ridged Roof (Double pitched)
rain water down pipe - surface drain/dish • Hipped Roof
drain/spoon drain - local authority drain, • Dome Roof
• Conical Roof (Common in thatched roofs)
1
F.MULEYA,2008 1
•• <
,
ES 210
• PITCHED ROOF • Roof structural members

• Rain water easily collects in a gutter or • These take the load of the roof and its
spoon drain off a pitched roof. coverings down to the foundation via the
• FLAT ROOF walls. Refer to attached sketches for
• This roof is designed and built to slope individual structural members in the
slightly in one direction. This small slope is structural roof.
referred to as the fall of the roof.
:, ROOFING
• ROOF COVERING MATERIALS .4. Corrugated Iron sheets

.Th ese come in various forms and sizes. E.g. 3.60m x
• 1. Tiles
0.88. G.I roofing sheets are fixed to the structural
• 2. Clay tiles roof by nailing, hook bolting or screwing.
• 3. Concrete tiles .5. Asbestos cement roofing sheets
• Tiles are laid on battens of 50 x 25mm .6 Asbestos fibre roofing sheets
.7 Aluminium roofing sheets
• Special tiles are also made for ridges,
verges, valley, hips, etc Concrete roofs
• MATERIALS FOR STRUCTURAL ROOFS

.SPID ER TRUSS
• Th is is truss made of mild steel round bars. This type • Softwood Treated timber truss members
of truss is simple in construction and light in weigh!. • 150x75/50mm rafters/ties/struts
The spider truss must be embedded in concrete
where it joins the wall. The main bars are 16mm • 100x50mm wall plate
diameter and 4mm diameter for the smaller bars.
.G .I Flashing • 75 x 50mm purlins
• Fo r parapet walls, it is very important to introduce • 225 x 38mm fascia and barge boards .
lead flashing to avoid leakages in the roof. See
attached illustrations. • 50 x 50mm brandering.
F.MULEYA,2008 2
6S 210
• MATERIALS FOR STRUCTURAL ROOFS

• Rolled Structural Steel truss members
• Channels
• Equal and unequal angles
• Flat bars
• Beams
• Gusset plates
F.MULEYA,2008 3
Function requirements of roofs
Sound Fire
insulation resistance
Weather
Structural
protection
stability
Means
Thermal of
insulation drainage
(b)(i)
79
- --- ----
Fig. 3.6 Roof drainage Alterninlvt!ly;"'Hieedge of the roof could be raised, which
(a) Pitched roof, gutter and in effect forms a gutter. "In this case, the downpipe is installed
downpipe inside the' building (Fig! :3.6(d»).
(b) Detail of gully
(c) Flat roof with external
Whilst it is usual to calculate-the sizes of gutters and
downpipe downpipes for roofs of'Iargebjiildiags, a typical domestic
(d) Flat roof with internal pitched roof would usually require 100 nun diameter gutters
downpipe and 62 mm diameter downpipes.
(a) (b)
Gully
connection
to drain
Downpipe
•
Trapped water
in gully
-,(c)
Junctions with walls Figures 3. 13(c) and (d) illustrate two
different treatments of asphalt roof junctions with walls. In
Fig. 3. 13(c) the roof structure is of timber. The asphalt is
applied over a timber kerb which is separated from the wall
by an air space. This provides:
.,e1 ventilation of the roof space between the decking and
ceiling;
e' allows for any movement between the timber structure all',
asphalt which might result from temperature changes. A
metal cover flashing protects the air space from water
penetration.
In Fig. 3.13(d) the asphalt is laid on a concrete roof
structure. The asphalt is applied vertically to the surface of t;
wall in two coats to a total thickness of 13 mm. The mortar
joints in the wall are 'raked out' to enable the asphalt to key
to the wall surface. The top mortar joint and part of the top.
brick is raked out to form a 25 x 25 mm 'chase' into which
the asphalt is applied.
Pitched roofs
Two of the essential differences between flat and pitched rool

are that:
• whilst flat roofs are usually built to falls of 1 and less,
0
pitched roofs are built at angles of 10 and more;

0
• whereas materials used for flat roof finishes may also be

used for pitched roofs, roof finishes consisting of small unj
such as tiles or slates may only be used on pitched roofs.
Pitched roof structures

For small-seale and domestic buildings, timber is the
predominantly .used material for pitched roof construction.
larger-and framed buildings, steel and concrete may be use,
Monopuched roofs The monopitched roof is the simplest fon

of pitched roof construction and resembles a timber flat roof
structure, in that the structural timbers span from wall to
wall. However, whilst flat roof joists are laid horizontally
and bear on the horizontal top surface of the wall, pitched
roof joists (known as 'rafters') are sloped and therefore
could have a tendency to slide down off the wall. In order
to reduce this tendency, the rafters are jointed over the wall
plate with a 'birdsmouth' joint (Fig. 3.14(a)). This joint
,provides an area of horizontal bearing surface on the wall
plate.
Monopitched roofs may be designed to overhang the wall
to form a projecting eaves (Fig. 3.1(a)), where the eaves det .
will consist of a fascia and soffit board, and a gutter fixed to
the fascia '(see Fig. 3.23(c)). Alternatively, the walls could be
built up above the level of the rafter feet, to form a parapet
wall (Fig. 3.14(b)). A gutter is formed behind the parapet w
by fixing a horizontal board to brackets attached to the rafter
feet. The gutter would be covered in sheet metal, such as zim
or lead with an outlet at one end discharging into an internal
down-pipe.
Ridge roofs
Couple roof Figure 3.15 shows the principal components of a.. ,

simple ridge roof, known as a 'couple roof where:
• the end walls of the building are built up above eaves level
to form triangles, known as 'gables'; .
• 'ridge board' is installed between the apexes of the gables
and wall plates are fitted along the side walls;
Fig. 3.15 Couple roof
(a) Gable • pairs of rafters span between the wall plates and ridge '"
(b) Gable and wall plates board. These pairs of rafters are known as 'couples', hence.'.
• (q.) Gable, wall,plates and rafters the term 'couple roof'. it '
(a) (c)
Close-couple roof There is a tendency in couple roofs for the ,-

ridge to push downwards under the weight of the roof, thus
pushing the rafters- out over the walls (Fig 3. 16(a)).
In a 'close-couple roof', horizontal timbers are attached
between the feet of opposite rafters, which resist the rendencv
- - ,. ~r
Wall
plate
of the rafters to Q
known as 'ties' tr
them) 'ceiling ji/
of
If the ties a:
ies with.
considerable sp
them.
additional suppo
en the
This may be
,. eir span
-ridge piece and)
ah joist, it
(Fig. 3. 16(c)). Rat
is usual to fix a 'biB ch runs
; ched from the
..parallel to the ridge pi
r. fourth joist.
ridge to the binder at int
Typical dimensions of a close-couple roof structure
ber,..' .
. S:p.lln 4m
Ridge size 175 x 38
Rafter size 100 x 50 at 400 mm centres
Tie size 100 x 50
As the span of a close-couple roof is increased, so the size;
rafters requires to be greater, otherwise deflection will oce
the rafters. Roof spans of above 6 m will rule out the use 0
close-couple roof construction, since the cross-sectional siz
the rafters would require to be uneconomically large. In su
circumstances it is likely that a 'purlin roof' will be used.
Purlin roofs A 'purlin' is a beam, usually of timber, which.

breaks the span of the rafters. In a ridge roof, the purlins .
be built into the gables (Fig. 3.17(a».
The suitable size of a purlin will depend on:
Fig. 3.17 Purfin roof
• the weight of roofing it has to support;
(a) Timbers • the distance it has to span (for example from gable to ga:
(b) Purfins supported by struts • its spacing (the distance between the purlin and ridge OF-'
(c) Pur/in beams between the purlinand wall plate).
(a) Ridge
piece
Ceiling joists
or ties
• T'"
It is likely. that the distance between the gable walls of.;:'
b¥iJ4iI!~:w9u1d be too great for a purlin to span without
,.l'!.l:,9vidirigit with additional support, otherwise the purlin w,
, ,I,! ,.:j!.e~p·~o be of excessive cross-sectional size.
k~7;~~' The usual method of supporting purlins is by means of
l :"
",'struts'. Struts are pieces of timber which transfer some of t ;
,/' . weight of the purIin to another structural support (typically"
/ internal wall). It is usual for struts to be arranged in pairs ~o
from each purlin), with their feet bearing against each other
(Fig. 3.17(b».
A typical purlin size for a domestic roof where the span-
spacing are in the order of 2.5 m might be 50 x 225 mm or
X 200mm.
If the span of the ceiling joists is excessive, hangers may
attached from the purlins to a binder, which runs parallel to
purIin and is fixed to the top of the ceiling joists (Fig. 3,17(b)>.
If the distance between the gable walls of a building is tOO
great for an unsupported purlin (purlin without struts), and ns
internal walls are available from which the purlin might be
supported, then alternatives which may be considered include,
purlin beams, roof trusses and trussed rafters.
. . Purlin beams (Fig. 3.17(c»

't
Purlin beams a~.edeep beams
consisting of timber top and bottom members (known as
'flanges') separated bya plywood 'web'. The rafters are
birdsmouthed over the top flange of the beam. The bottom
flange of the beam usually lies on top of the ceiling joists, in
which case the span of the ceiling joists may be split by
nailing them to the flange of the purlin beam. An alternative
type of purlin beam is the corrugated plywood web beam,
similar to that illustrated in Fig. 3.7(g).
Purlin beams are often used for buildings employing 'cross
wall construction' (a form of construction in which the loads of
the building' are carried principally on the internal walls, which
ate built at right angles to the length of the building).
Roof trusses A roof truss is a supporting framework of

structural members. A truss supporting a ridge roof is
triangular in shape, following the lines of.a pair of rafters and
the ceiling joist. Within this triangle, a series of 'struts'
(members resisting compression) and 'ties' (members resisting
tension) divide the triangular space into a series of smaller '
triangles (Fig. 3.18(a». The, tvi~gl~ is a useful structural
shape since it resists deformatienewhereas a square structural
t"
shape could deform into a,p'l!:I,'~!~gra,m shape. The trusses,
which in a domestic buildihg'fflrght be placed at 2 m
intervals, provide support for ..the.purlins.
joints.in truss construction may be fixed by either glue, n -'
or bolts and timber connectors. Figure 3.18(b) shows a typical
connector known as a 'toothed plate connector'. The connector
is placed between the pieces of timber to be joined, and as the
bolt (which passes through the centre of the connector) is .
tightened, the connector teeth become embedded in the timber. ,"
The junction between the ties and rafter feet is made with
'gussets' (pieces of timber which bridge, and connect together,
the adjoining timber members).
Many forms of truss design are possible, some of which are
shown in Fig. 3.18(c). The apexes (or 'nodes') of triangles .
within the truss should occur at load bearing positions such as at .
junctions with purIins.
Trussed rafters In a trussed rafter roof, each pair of rafters and

linking ceiling joist is triangulated with struts and ties, to
form a 'trussed rafter' (Fig. 3.19(a». Trussed rafters are, iI1
effect, self-supporting lightweight trusses, and their use
Fig. 3.19 'Trussed rafters eliminates the need for purIins, ridge pieces or loadbearing
(a) Trussed rafters for small roof supporting walls. Trussed rafters have become very
(b) Truss plate widespread for domestic and small-span roofs.
. . (a)
Trussed
rafters
(b)
The trussed rafters are usuall .'
then transported to the building
wall plates. This considerablyrt
compared with a traditional:
carpenters. The volume @ft"'.
is also less than that ot-fa'i:~a
The timbers used in.' a'
thickness, although the'imi
might be 100 X 38 rrlth.;'<1F
at intervals of 600 mm;,l~'(·r
400 mm for rafters ana,"o~'
structures.
The trussedrafter-re
plates' (sometimes referf
(Fig. 3.19(b). One1;co .,
hydraulic pressure is~
driven into the tirrill$e.r:'
. 0'::1.'; {'
Hipped roof A· c, •
(Fig. 3.20(a». Th
rafters which span.i
the corners of the'
of 'jack' rafters of diminishing length, span from the wall
plates to the hip rafter (Figure 3.20(b». Hip rafters are of
substantial cross-sectional size since they carry the weight of
the jack rafter ends. A typical hip rafter size might be 225 x
50 mm.
There is a tendency for the thrust of the hip rafter to
push out against the corners of the walls of the building. This .
thrust is resisted by a timber 'angle tie' which joints into, and
,
ties together, the wall plates at the corner of the walls.
Sometimes, as an additional measure, a 'dragon beam' is
installed. This is a timber member which joints into, and ties
together the intersection of the wall plates, and the midway
position of the angle tie.
Valleys When an intersection between two pitched roofs

occurs, a 'valley' is formed (Fig. 3.21(a». Like hip
construction, a valley requires jack rafters which span from
the ridge to a 'valley rafter', which is of similar size to a hip
rafter (Fig. 3.21b).
Fig. 3.21 Valley
A 'valley board' is sometimes fixed above the valley rafter
(a) General view which forms the base of a sheet-metal-lined 'valley gutter' (see
(b) Timbers Fig. 3.23(j».
. .
(b)
(a)
v.'
>~:"
""',
/$;
!r
<:5 "j .~
'l'hr~:,~:~
:
spikes cut and, pressedl '~/"
}', •...
I f,rom ga"iabi~fcJ~t£jell '
prate ': ' '.'. =: ','
tru~~M rat~e~s,
at 6ID,G)'c/e, '
Typical Truss Pi~te I
Alternative Truss Plate
truss plates
to both faces ~ .a11er.native method:-
'plywood g~s,s~t plates
to b0;tWtabes-!' ,
;::~~,,4'
L_ all members of trussed rafters ',t;1-,;

y{ machined on faces
'fa'sCia
Fig. :".47 Typicattruss 'rafter details for spans up t? 11 000 mm
I
~
,'- #;
·"···,.·f·::"·
r
I
double couhse of stares
/
/"' . clay angle ridge
tifebedded if)
C.
at ridge_-,,--_\
I cm.mr (1:3}
I
I
,~
,
.,y.••. I ~.
'
,,'Jl~;.,,..,
*i
:"": ~
\'-rafters
~clflues!
Typi,~1 Rict.ge Detail ,'il
-1 .":'':
',\0 roofing
"e'> 0>1> , ''I>~OJ
felt t • .•••. ~
iit
oe'-",,'Ii~()\0 S\
.,« '5,., X X
"-~
l.\Jv
( v
9-'1>~e"
,,\.. S'\''I>~ ,
~
\\\0 X"" (" . ,,-::--50x
battens
at 200
20
:::( ,';/.";
,"I·
<'l~.,~11
.
~.-:~'
\ '\ ' , gauge
, '\'\' :',ar-..-c, ,
i L ceiling.jOist
The tPditiO~.~thOd of~F?~j,dl~g·:h~a.~i~,i
coaland/or .'?{iW~~~J?Nit"".-
ornestic building is fQe open fire b uf1'J.ing,
fascia
L wall plate
use of its low efficiency compared to modern ~eating'ai1p.rHr~~tfsTts
,;sthe primary source of he.a'ting is declining. It musbQ~,.noted th;;iJ
bust ible fuels, suchascoal smokeless fuels, oils, gas an.,! wood,
e
,e some means of conveYIng the produets of away eO~b~lIf
m frO,
'Head Nailed'~lating Using 500x 250 slates
pV,anceor fireplace to the open air. ";rq ,"'"
: .~
'ology" ",; J. ",,'
~:, this is the ar~ainwhich combustion ()f''the fueHcilies'J:5liici,'I(c'

in,the form.ofa:n'opeil space with a fret orgrateiri'WhjGh'W0'®~;¢)f
inY er a free standJii'l'g appliante SHell as a slow comGiJsfi;ol1'~~;!.
t~r: 61lbu;(runf~pPH'anc~, gas'f,rtf!6r gas boiler. ~ > /(.'
.. ' "',":" ",!~-::;:", ;", .. ;"~r;, .
. "th~ fab.ric~_lf.rX9UI1¢iI1g
the fI~~~'d proYidin&jt~Xth the"""" ~
40
jtrellgth an~,protection,"'" "j . ,
" .. ".' "" . "',#/' "" , .

d:S~isstiictlYa void through wJ;it~~,i~he,;PfOduGtsofcE>T:Fibust.iOn
.forrned by lining theipside of~·'()Himriey with a.suitable lining,
.0 give ptO!~6,tipn to the chimri&ifa'bric from the products of
an, as well asf(}~irfl?,at1ue~f:i~'(;'i?.rfectshape a~.itS\Z;~;~9SWit.,~;:
Fig. 11.54
f fuel~..d applf!ilhe.e'being used', 14'
,r,
"
<1(22,
·':1'!t~:'~i~~~~'~ -: "~tr2;{S,,.
C.'·
-:» .. ~:;.~';~j;;., "':~:';
L
compression m~n'i'b~rs'are called rafters and struts, whereas the t
members are termed ties. Standard mild steel angles complying
recommendations of BS 4848 are usually employed as the strucnn
members and these are connected together, wh'ere the centre lines 6Ox60x6
With flat shaped plates called gussets. They can be rivetted, bolted angle ties----.
, together.to form a rigid triangulated truss; typical arrangements ar
in Fig. IV.S. Theinternalarrangement of the struts and ties will be
governed by the span. The principal or rafter is divided into a num
equal divisions which locates the intersection point for the centre' , ,.
the internal strut or tie. :>
Angle purlins are used longitudinally to' connect the trusses tog"
and provide the fixing medium for the roof covering. It is the type
gusset plates
cevering chosen which will determine the purlin spacing and the p 8mmthick \
me truss; ideally the purlins should be positioned over the strut or '
iri'tersei:ilo'npoiiits to avoid setting up local bending stresses in the
65x50x6 100 x 65 x8
Purlins are connected to cleats attached to the. backs of the rafters,
angle ties a ng Ie rafters
alternatively a zed section can be used, thus -dispensing with the n "
fixing cleat. Steel roof trusses are positioned at 3.000 to 7.500 m
and supported by capped universal columns or bolted to padstone
on to brick walls 'or piers. The main disadvantage of this form of r
the large and virtually unusable roof space. Other disadvantages ar
frequent necessity of painting the members to inhibit' rust and that,
.,..,
1\
flanges of the angles provide an ideal ledge on which dust can accu: '
Typical steel roof truss details are shown in Fig. IV.6.
Suitable truss and girder arrangements can be fabricated from w
plates \
1~<m IL .:
steel rubes which are lighter in weight, cleaner in appearance, have 8 mm thick 65 x 50 x 6
surface area on which to collect dust and therefore less surface area angle tie
protect with paint. 6Ox60x6 2 No. 75 x 50 x 8
angleties angle rafters
5Ox50x6 6Ox60x6
Coverings angle struts angle ties
The basic requirements for covering
materials to steel roof trusses are: 6Ox60x6
1. Sufficient strength to support imposed wind and snow loadi angle
tie
2. Resistance to the penetration of rain, Wind and snow.
3. uW: ~..' .." J"""":'~;1·'.':~
~g' tli:f •.J"
~.()' tI1·:rt,.s~Wtio"cl1i.iii«.i:i<il~bersof
.-'
"J.~t1:,~i;.1,;{l..•. ,~", .
an economic
arion.
~,..,. 60x60x6
, angle ties
I. 15~ .i
V'ering a steel roof structure have',
ierefore a combination of material Fig. IV.S Typical mild stHI angle roof trusses
( c·
.,;",iJ2
loss, or gain, is to be controlled to sacisfy legal require-
to conserve the fuel required to heat the building. .
oofing materials. if correctly applied. will provide a
will exclude the rain and snow but will allow a small
penetration unless the end laps are sealed with 25 mm
sape or a ribbon of mastic. These coverings are designed to
'x()
.- CD
•.
~ .~
CQ
'"
snow loads but are not usually strong enough to support
operatives and therefore a crawling ladder or board should
-=eo. ,~
E~- (!) .~
"O~ 0,
E:,:: ~ c 2
roE",
'"
~
c
0>
C
'He poor thermal insulation value of these roofing materials
co 0
X
,<1>
'~ co '"
'0 c of condensation occurring on the internal surface of the
,0-
a.
OJ
0
-
Q)
co c X C risk can be reduced by using a suitable lining at rafter level or

x
c o 0
'~" 0
o co E at the lower tie level. Unless a vapour barrier is included on the
co x E
co
'"
C> (5
.0 co 8 ; the lining water vapour may pass through the lining and
-"u co c
:s 0 o
'"
;t)'n the underside of the covering material, which could give rise
e n of the steel members. An alternative method is to form a
§!
c
o
c e cavity between the lining and the covering.
~
'"
c
ISED CORRUGATED STEEL SHEETS
<?I~t_J
;;; ets are often referred to as 'corrugated iron' and have been
C <1>
"0 ~. e ed for many years for small industrial and agricultural buildings;
"§ ~ also be used as a cladding to post and rail fencing. They are
a. 0>
c
~ made to the recommendations of BS 3083 which specifies the
0>
C
'"
0
co ber of corrugations and the quality of the zinc coating or
0 x
~ ~
X
!D
r-, =
::;= .
to
r-,
x </)
-... itch of the corrugations, which is the distance between centres of
r
x
0
co
~ m<ii o corrugations, is 75 mm with 7, 8,9, or 10 corrugations per sheet
~ 2
Q)</)
o~
o
8 0>
c· 0>0>
CD
ith lengths ranging from 1.500 to 3.600 m. A wide range of fittings
'" ~ ·~o CD , eaves and verge treaunents are available. The ~h(:ets are secured
(X)
x
co
.s -.::
(X)
C/)
Q)
(l)
t:
1;;
:!:!
s with hook bolts, drive screws or nuts and bo1£;$in a similar "
co
a,
U)
)('(;;
"0 0
1;; ..•. to that detailed for asbestos cement sheets in Fig. IV;9. The purlins
x C, ~ o.!:
to _ ;g
0- E
ced at centres from 1.500 to 3.000 m accordingto"theth~9kne$s of
8 c:
ro
cO
';;; X 0
.0
to" 0
.,
~
~
=
ca
eting being used. To forma Wea1;~H~tdjg}l·tcoy:erw.g;*~'~lr:~~tsare
'.CO •..• 0
c
i"
8 E at their ends and sides aCGQ~r" . .
.:
'C
ions: .';!,~:.{:~ -:;:;
CD
E laps: up to 20° pitch 150 Ill'
c inous mastic;
.2
a.. "e laps: formed on edge away<:
~ 'orrugation lap for conditions Q' .
~~~l=(Ci:? lap for conditions of severe expc
2! en fixed, galvanised corrugated
I .~
u.. p to construct, strong. rigid and n~
I
135
~ ..•. J
(
I !
\",o(0'~\
- ~.~\~\
...•...
2 No. close fitting
ridges
",0 (0,(1. 6. .. ~., ..

.......-. ~ ~~
8 mm dia. galvanised
hook bolt with
diamond washer
and square nut
angle purlin
plastic protective cap

to bolt and nut---_
diamond washer ~ roof

and pad truss I .1
8 mm dia. galvanised Ridge detail

'zed' type hook
roof sheeting fixed with hook bolts
bolt
'zed' beam purlin
»:
11I----8 mm dia. galvanised
'J' bolt
tubular purlin
galvan\sed drive
·f",)~r.eW.;'Q'i~hcone
''''t\ead and twisted
shank '
hook bolt
139
(
f{it);
(-!E.
Corrugated
sheet rOofing
1.
losulat;.oo
of profiled sheet roofing
Sizes
(c)(;)
(e)(ji) Side t, x 8 (m). ". Thickness w
A p.V.c. laps ~lpi~(WIJ!)..' (Ic
U-- (rnm]
cap
-8 :SbM· -,"",
Jf.h
Nut d ..
::':;;I~.~
~.l;".;,
~1:'f",'( -~
k= ~ ~sher
25 Max, .tQ,~
x
.. .,.~
e
O.8-1:{) ,
,
19
134 1.22'5-'
~ 3.050 x
-!Corrugated 0.782
iheeting
70 1.525~·
3.050 x
1.086
_,f
jack rat.tElr';;,
-.ties
..•.
'to
._. -, '.,.the " feJi:'~'&f
, . "*~.....
,':.'r," ••.. I,~. ~t'·,w
01'.~,..;; ...• I- •.•.
. r-common rafte~~
sds Oil 'the i:1~ er- .
. . -.;1 ..:J1:!tjr;·,.'\
'h"P1'taft~t
.r'l':, eaves
verge
;~;i,, .)
' >;i);::It.'iht>a~'
" •
'
\o:- ••
: . the.·s~· at~'fu.~;ki.·s'\ls~
't!Ji~ J.A-':
1
r, .\ ?'t,' r "I" i-':",:\'·
J~i~~~;~,~(:f
q.:.y, .;~:;~::'-
I
co~riter-
"I~;I ~";'~' .~ (
" a~t ~ices§.i~edeflecti.ons and are'use eeilirig joist . Roofing T~rmi·n~169v
24'.'
i-'
r • '., :.f l 'i
exeeeds m:I\P.. r ,~- ," ,~~. I
H~~gers:ver1iicaImembers used to give support to the binders and allow /- 32 mrn thick ..V!I,~1I1bo"arl9'
'an economic section to be used, they are included in the d'esign i.fttl'ie\ I
~~:lik6'ftlie Bhld€£exc:eedi(3 600mm. p ,~fF'·'; '(~
,;,v "1::'J-"'~ ... -r" .1'';';' -!~,' ' ..• -. -, '-"l...'5n";,;.< '~;'i~ f~ ~i}'
100 x 50 rafters
I4~~g~ng~,!?~,t?J,0f,stiw,ts,.J;qil,arsaI1,QhaJ}g~~~i?:11t¥,;wo~~~~J?JN,~~~\%r,y,:
' at 400 c/c
fouethor fifth-1P.al,r of rafters. ., ..,g. 0";-;;'.>'<\>"";:") p'''' . _ • '.,. .' .abutrnent
, _.,. ". '" -""\',n', ,,~. -1- .,\ '~".;';#f,,;"J.·.;;.[~ #!':'ir,. •••.· ~~l',,,1 1t"';
.•••• -,'"
wall >II'
'E~VES
100 x 75
wall plate .'lsL..""-
I .. .' 2-400 max . ..1

.tf'i~n;-t~H!{6'~f
ra.
., '.., .". "

"'1' :... ~.~-.,.;': - ..... ~~
' ._---;J, ' , 32 thick,ridge board '
~,
=
'
~'I r ,: \, ~ 100 x 50 rafters'at 40~
~ I I - alternative pufl,n arr~ngef.1'1~pt
i "
\~; /_ struts, collars;an',d hanqers
I ,.' to every 4thpai(of 'r-atte'&o
100 x: 50 co;\\ar
beam
-«. 2Ii~~~'"'l
]. .-
.'" c,
: 0',: .." .:, ~,\" ,,"'.
~e~e C~~ g~~~ed'd[L1he ra~
below"th~eeiling.lleve~/r-ee I>.;
cle~,ig1}.ed"~~-s ~as.ed on' tr~
,cany' theJ'&liimSi; t~~Y'i~r~"~p
.
"i,·be,1iw.ee'J;j: JD~ng:i;ri;fiI;I€dd~;jith'(
"".' .','~ ~,,_,~:
W7n}-~er,s Q'f.',a:toqf trussare Fl,
",:,' x ," 00
(")
L-
.(1),
"0 ,.f+ .:"
r=.
"
l!: ~(r:
0'1
aregenerally.used. To make a ~, . ,..,
in
g' i 'f.'~-.l;~i\l'I"
'~, X'''",' ..
nectors 'llf1~ used; these are sqdte'( o
•
beihrg pointed up and down, which,
b,i:te 'in~0 the surface forming a stro
e
NO';:;
en
Q)
l~·t*i'"·
\:1.0:'~···
'"
• ..,.
133
Q)
(1)
'~"'~l!:,o;ver,a. greater surface area, A typis; OO~fu

(")..0
:)~
~~:'F"
•. 19". 1'146
. " .. '1--;1
',I.':
,5" ~;)~~~~, 4. 0::> l/
C')
X
,,)~,~:~Jt~ o
o
m 6f,'a domestic timber roof

'.i·: '~!'~~', ,":" ,...••:}' .
.:,:~,0I'e,ars'r:~n;·as.:,w~te"r.':f/,~*,~'l!!~;~e:s"1it
is;b:asecl upon a triangulated ,S
-.::
e1D'u·tid .this case the litJ:etf.i®'¢-rs are burtjqinted and secured with truss :J
a.
....'W:t~~s,'A,lI'9;reU'lbeT~in.a trussed rafter are machined on. all faces so that ~,
·x
a~h~f:JI'de'f1t:icaJ tH.tiC'k:j'1e'ss
ensuring a strong 6:bnnection,on, both o
'• .,.;~ J'~,~I(.t.l~l
.•..••• ',.' ''1, . ".' o
\i.:~·s,!Fliie .•trussed rafters are placed at 600 mrn centres and' tied together
qv~'Iit'~eir backs with tiling battens, no purlin or ridge is required, This
•.. •..
system of roofing is only economic if a standard ',' span ,.is used or if a 2 '"
'0
"M
'',;; "O~
reasonable quan tity of non-standard sizes are required. o Q) Q)
io s: >
~Truss or nail plates are generally 6'i' orte b'(two forms: ~ 0
x 0"0
I
o c C
o •.• ro
'1. :','TJ1ose
,j'('''~ r.,.;~·
in which .holes
.,.~~h. '-'.
are pti'Dched.lo,
'''''0 '",
t,ake/fialls and are suitable
,: (. " .
for
:'2: •.. •..
:J
~
~
Q)
! ,~\te:~ssembly using a nailing gun·,:.; 6

o '" '+-
o~
k
,...
Those
.~
ln
which teeth are punche~~;~~"b.~~N;I~¥l)~r
,OO:'~ . ~,., .. '~' , •.•~:~_ " .', \'_. ,_.
plate .and are ----~
u
,'" •..
LD
m ~
x~
me
.• 'used in factory assembly using"he.'l;vy,*~;s.~,§,,\,-,~,,'~ o ro r-, :J
0'"
,A~
.~~
a; s:
o
..0
In 'if,)} cases truss plates are fixed to b'o{,h,
Trussed rafters are also produced uS,ipg',_
••••
ro ~
(t:J
-2
.~~,~
Q)
thebutt joints instead of truss plates, typi~a:! ~ x

0.0
o
..c.
shown in Fig, Il.47:" :f "'0
~-; I "'~ L
.~= Q)
..0 L
:J:';:::
C E E
L
-+:-,.- " ,-
I- '"
Q)
"" - e
'" e
"' ~,".;'
'5:8
>
I-
,. ;,.
ES :>10: DRAINAGE AND SEWERAGE
•• SYSTEMS
:£MEaG0PPERBEL T UNIVERSITY
SCHOOL OF BUILT ENVIRONMENT
ES 210
• Drainage is a system of pipework usually
9RAINAGG.-AND SEWERAGE
installed below ground level to convey
SYSTEMS discharge from sanitary fittings, rainwater
gutters and down pipes to a suitable disposal
installation.
• The usual method of disposal is to connect to
FRANe0 MUlEYA the pipework to the public sewer which
2008 convey to a local authority treatment plant
DRAINAGE DRAINAGE
• However there are new methods which are non • There are two types of drainage system
water bome sewerage systems such as the ecosan • 1. FOUL DRAINAGE SYSTEM (INTERNAL)
which separate urine from faecal material which are • This type of drainage is broken down into two
e~entually used as fertilisers. sections
- SOUL FOUL
• This is suitable in areas where water supply is • This is the human waste that is drained directly into
scarce because water borne sewerage systems the manhole via to the sewer line. This is to prevent
require a significant amount of water for the system smells from coming back into the house. The soul
to operate efficiently. This topic will be considered in foul comes from toilets (water closets), bi-det and
urinal. The toilet pan is also fitted with a trap (water
great detail at a later stage. seal) to prevent smells from coming back.
DRAINAGE
- WASTE FOUL • SURFACE WATER DRAINAGE SYSTEM

• This is the waste water that is produced as a result (EXTERNAL)
of washing and cleaning. This waste is first drained
• This drainage consists of rain water from roofs and
into a gulley trap (G.T) before being discharged into
pavings. If not drained this water could cause
the manhole.
flooding and structural damage to infrastructure
• These traps include bath traps, sink traps, etc.
such as buildings and roads.
These traps can be either P traps or S traps. This
waste foul comes from the shower, bath tubs, • Any leakage in one of these systems would cause
laundry, kitchen sinks, and wash hand basins contamination. Leakages must therefore be
(WHBs). avoided by having an efficient drainage system.
F.MULEYA, SEPTEMBER, 2008 1

,
ES'210: DRAINAGE AND SEWERAGE
SYSTEMS
DRAINAGE
• THE SEPARATE SYSTEM • THE COMBINED SYSTEM

• This is one system of drainage system where storm
• In this system, there are two sewer lines
water is connected to foul system. It is simple and
namely the soil or foul sewer and the surface economic as there is no duplication of drains. It is
water storm sewer. The advantage is that also easy to maintain. Drains are also flushed in the
rain season.
there is less water that goes to the council
• The disadvantage is that all discharges pass through
system. The disadvantage is that it is
the main sewage treatment plant installation
expensive. resulting in being costly and difficult when there are
heavy rains
• THE PATIALL Y SEPARATE SYSTEM • Soakaways are designed to receive the

• This is a compromise of the other to systems and is surface water and allow it to percolate into
favoured by some local authorities because of its the soil. These are used to reduce the load
flexibility. il has two sewer lines namely combined
on surface water sewers.
sewer line and the surface water sewer.
• The amount of surface water discharged into the
combined system can be adjusted according to the
capacity of the treatment plant
DRAINAGE
• MANHOLES. • A manhole may be constructed of engineering bricks

or well bumt common bricks bedded in cement
• Man holes are chambers for inspecting any mortar and finished in English bond.
blockages. Deep inspection chambers are called • Ventilation of drainage
manholes. They contain half or three quarter round • In order to prevent foul air from soil and combined
channels to enable the flow to be observed. drains, all drains should be vented by a flow of air
Manholes are required at every change of direction through the installation of a ventilation pipe
commonly known as 'vent pipe'. It should be at last
and all connections must be made at an angle less
900mm above the head of any window. The vent
than 90 degrees. On the other hand whenever there pipe must be fitted with gauze wire at the top to
is a slope, the must be a manhole. prevent flies from moving in and out of the pipe.
F,MULEYA, SEPTEMBER, 2008 2

, ' '
., .
.•..• ;: . ",
E~ 210: DRAINAGE AND SEWERAGE

SYSTEMS
• Materials for pipes and fittings • CAST IRON

• UNPLATICISED pvc • These are suitable for both surface and foul water
• These pipes are made from polyvinyl chloride plus drainage. Pipes and fittings must be protected from
additives. The pipes are obtainable with socket corrosion by a bituminous coating both inside and
joints. UPVC have a smooth bore, light and easy to outside the pipe.
handle. Corrosion is also eliminated. They can be
jointed and laid ain all weathers. The pipe resists • The pipe is strong and can be suspended above the
attacks from normal domestic wastes and wide ground. However care must be taken as acidic
range of acids. effluents or sulphates may affect the coating.
• CONCRETE • SOAK AWAYS

• Concrete pipes and fittings are suitable for normal • In the absence of a surface water sewer, and if it's
drainage effluents but may be liable to attacks by unnecessary to store rain water, it is advantageous
acids thus requiring protection both internally and
to dispose surface water from impermeable areas to
extemally.
an underground soakaway.
• ASBESTOS CEMENT
• Filled soakaway
• AC pipes and fittings are available from 1OOmm to
900mm diameter internally. Substances that attack • This is suitable for small soakaways where the pit
concrete may also attack AC. Bitumen dipped can be filled with course granular material such as
concrete pipes and fittings are also available which broken brick crushed sound stone or river with a size
. increases the resistance to attack range of 10 to 150mm.
• Unfilled soakaway • Materials for sanitary • Vitreous china

fittings such as water • Pressed metal
• This is suitable for large soakaways. The pit is
closets and toilet pans,
prevented from collapsing by lining with brickwork or • Acrylic plastics
bath tubs, wash hand
stone laid dry, cement jointed honeycombed basins, kitchen sinks, • Glass reinforced
brickwork or perforated concrete rings laid dry urinals, urinal bowls, polyester
surrounded by granular material to leaf the water into etc are: • Cast iron
the soil. The top can b covered with standard • Ceramics • Terrazzo
concrete manhole top fitted with a cover to clean out
• Glazed fire clay
leaves and silt.
• Glazed stoneware

, ",
ES 2·10: DRAINAGE ANI:) SEWERAGE
SYSTEMS
DRAINAGE
• DRAIN TESTING AND INSPECTION • CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD DRAINAGE

• After the drain pipes have been laid, before • Materials should have adequate strength and
durability.
backfilling or placing the concrete or granular
• For soil drains the minimum diameter of the pipes
material around the pipe. testing should be
must be 100mm diameter and 75mm for surface
either by air or water. water drain pipes.
• Should there be any leak the pipe or fitting • Every part of the drain should be accessible for
must be rectified and retested. Testing must inspection and cleaning.
be done between manholes or short branch • Drains should be laid in straight runs as far as
drains along the main drainage. possible.
DRAINAGE
• Drains should be laid to a gradient to allow for the • Junctions between drains should be
natural flow of the waste or foul water. arranged in such a way that drains meet at
• Every drain inlet should be trapped to prevent entry an oblique angle.
of foul air in the building.
• Avoid laying drains under buildings. If
• Inspection chambers, manholes, rodding eyes,
access fittings should be placed at changes of
unavoidable they must be water tight.
direction and gradient. • Drains within 1m of the foundations must be
• Inspection chambers should also be placed at backfilled with concrete up to level of
junctions. underside of foundations.

fJ::-
134
--19mlJ"l
F lex.lble
$\loplies
over/low pipe
1c=3:!;;, ~4·~
38 mrh -s- 01 '5' Irap
38 mm waste
PaM!
Pipe
b: --'--T-
'gJ:~'-ifc :--E-;
1
1
\760mm
~ Taps
I
(bJ Typic,)! POSIlIOOS for 0<11"5
Fig. 10.23 Bath Fig. 10.2. Sil z ba h
. High-lOw shower spray head

SIl"
91Smm X91Smll\X180mm louiside) ~~I~~~ Feed CISlern
J!
760mm x760mmX180mm lovls,del B20mm or 795mm I Hol
610mm X610mm X180mm !OvIslde) # I I
( :JJ30~~
or-
:::~~B
Norl:. _ m~
o - waste
V.'W 01 tne
Ih~r:nosta~.conlrolLed
' osj slack
Pipe duel
mixing uml
St'ower u;,y
(.11 ClMf"d hrecl.y shower Iray (bJActyli( shower \ray 38 mrn waste pipe
Fig. 10.25 S~owcr Hays fig. 10.26 Install at ion or shower
any risk of scalding. Since [he spray may be submerged if the waste became water supply should always be directly from the main and a spray-operated.
blocked. the bidet represents a special risk to the contamination of rhe water ncn-concusive self-closing valve IS e sscncial. The waste pipe sizes VU}' from 19 to
supply by back siphonage; this may be: reduced by having the supply 'pipes at 32 mm internal diameter.
least 2 m above the bidet. Some water authorities .may require bidets to' be
supplied from a separate cold water cistern, or separate hot and cold water
supplies.
Sanitary conveniences
Figure 10.28 shows details of a bidet, including the water supplies and waste
connections. The list of provisions required to comply with the Building Regulations J 985
with regards to e nt ry a nd performance of sanitary conveniences are as follows:
Drinking fountain: chis is used in most business and industrial buildings, as
L Sufficient sanitary conveniences s ha ll be plovided which shall be;
well as in schools and colleges. Several patterns are available in fireclay or stain-
less steel. Figure 10.29 shows a fireclay drinking fountain having a hooded jet, (0) in rooms separated from places: where Iood is stored or pre par cd; and
which prevents water from the mouth coming into conran with the jet. The (b) designed and installed so as to allow I.! t'fec!i\'c cleanuig.
He~le-d nm ,
Hooded
25mm
iel ---::;::::::;;:::=.;;;::==+ __
225mm
w~sle----::±::ii::.:.W.
Non·concussi ve self cloling •••,I •••
e
_ __+=~
- -.-.-----.-----.--~-----.
Lt= ' @
,/'
I.',
F·, ..
b'l(
se-e
13mm Inlel ----- --' /
l
e
1
i . {:lj Section (hJ Rear elevatlcn
530mm
spray
Ccto tOri--:=======:::,:::-r-T
.
(a) Plan (0) VII: •.•.
Fig. 10.29 Drinking Iount am

Waste-+---j-,
~In @ J30mm
SOllY -1-:-+-------1
fe/Plan (djView
Fig. IO.lg Bidel
lntervenrng
veflllllll!d ~,pace
Figure 10.30 shows partitions that do not seal the w.e. cubicle and will
allow effective cleaning of the floor and also permit good ventilation. Figure
Panllion$ nol se~li09 Ihe ccbetes and aJoy.,"S s.'tfluary acccmmcoaucn eore ee Ircenill ; 'Ich.t>n
J O.~ 1 shows the method of entering a snaitary convenience from a room where jree Ctrculillion of air Ihr()lJ9hout the wnoll' room OI'"loom
Of •••••
food is stored or prepared. The ventilated space should effectively separate the
convenience from the other room. Figure 10.32 shows the entry to a bathroom Fig. 10.30 vemilaricn Fig. toJ! Eru ry
containing a we, direct' from a bedroom or dressing r oo.m. It is good practice,
however. to separate the bathroom from the bedroom or dressing room by
means of tin intervening ventilated space, especially if the only W.c. in the pre-
the Building Regulations 1985 require a mi nimu rr; air change of three ;lcr
rniscs is in [he bathroom. A landing or corridor will act as an intervening
hour. The veetne tion ma y be intern.itt cnt but should run for: 5 rr.inutus
ventilated space - see Fig. 10.33
after the convenience has been vacated.
~. Acceptable level of performance. In order to reduce the risk to health of
If natural ventilation is required this can be by means of a window, sky-
persons in buildings the Regulations require closets to be provided which
light or similar means of ventilation which open directly into the external
are:
air.
(a) in sufficient number and of the appropriate type for the sex and age' of
the persons using the building: and Planning of sanitary apnr rmcnrs
(") xit cd , dc siguvd :J1ll1 installed SO:JS IIO! 10 be p tcju diciul t o hcclth. Legislation such as the Standards for School Premises, Public Health Act,
.1. 1·'·llfilari,"ln If I1h'('ll:Inic;Jl vcnrilation PI' iI sanitnry couvr-uit-ucc l.~ rcquirc d I::lclnry Act .rnd the Officc!i, Shops :lnd IClrlW:l) I'rcrursvs 1\(..'\ require that
I
f----
112 the trough, the range of w.e.s cannot be used. It is used in schools, factories and 'schools and factories. the central chromium plated or stainless steel pillar is
public conveniences. Figure 10.15 shows the installation of a flushing trough, fitted with a thermostatically controlled umbrella spray, or, in some fountains.
which operates as' follows: sptay taps are fitted, fed from hot and cold supply pipes, The minimum head of
water above the spray is 3 m and the: water supply is usually controlled by foot
I. The siphon is operated in the same manner as, the individual cistern and as
pedals. A liquid soap dispenser or a soap (ray may be fitted at the tOP of the
wafer flows down the long leg of the siphon air is with dr awn from the small
central pillar.
diarncr er air pipe, which allows water in the timing box to be siphoned out.
The fountain is a very hygienic method of washing. but is cnlv economical
2. Air is admitted, through the top of the' timing box and the main siphonic
action is broken at a predct errninedtirne.
where several persons wash at the same time.
3. Water flows .rhrough the refilling hole and the timing box is refilled with
Baths: although a shower is a more efficient and hygienic means of washing
water.
than the bath, most people find a bath more relaxing and it is therefore morc
rlushing valve popular. Figure 10.23 shows a typical installation of a bath and also various
siting arrangements. The water supply may be by pillar taps as shown, or by a
This is an alternative method to the flushing cistern or trough, for the Flushing of
w.C.s. and is very popular on the Continent and USA, The water authorities in
special fitting incorporating a diverter and a shower. For domestic installations,
the taps and supply pipes are 19 mm internal diameter, but for institutions these
Great Britain, however, are reluctant [0 allow the use of the valve, due to the
.are sometimes enlarged to 25 mm, to increase the speed of filling, The trap and
possibility of waste of water and also the danger of back siphonage. The valve
waste pipes are 38 mm internal diameter for domestic installations and SO mm
should be supplied from a storage cistern and no other sanitary fitting should be
internal diameter for institutions.
connected co thesupply pipe to the valve.
Figure 10.24 shows the 'site' bath, which is short, deep and incorporates a
Figure tu.t osnows a see.don of a flushing valve, which- operates as follows:
seat. It may be used where space is limited, but is not conducive to relaxation. It
1. When the handle is operated, the release spindle i\ and release valve Care is, however, suitable for old people since the user may maintain a normal sitting
tilted and water escapes from the upper chamber B through (0 rbe flush
position.
pipe, quicker than water can enter through the bypass,
2. The pressure in the upper chamber 8 is towered and the greater' upward Showers: these are more hygienic, quicker to use and require Jess. water than
pressure of water under the piston lifts valve D from its seating. the bath. For an efficient shower, a minimum head of water of 1 m above the
3, When the piston reaches the top of the upper chamber B, valve D is Iully spray is required. A head of water of 1.5 m is however, preferable
open and water passes down the flush pipe. . Two types of spray-beads are obtainable.
W:lre; also passes through the bypass and fills the upper chamber Band 1. A traditional rose type. which delivers water ch roug h a pe rf'or a red disc fit red
equalises the upward and downward pressures on the piston, thus permitting at high level.
the.' piston to fall gradually under its own weight. 2. An adjustable umbr ella spray, which is usually Iirrcd at ches r level. Some
The amount of water passing down [he flush pipe is determined by (he time people, especially women, find the umbrella spray preferable [0 the disc,
it rakes to fill the upper chamber B with water through the bypass. The because the shower may be used without wetting the hair.
regulating 'screw is used to determine the amount of water discharged by the
. Hot and cold water to the shower should,;,\~t" made through 13 or 19 mm
valve. e
internal diameter pipes and a thermostatically cbntrolled mixing valve is recom-
Figure 10.17 shows the method of installing the flushing valve for a range of mended to prevent scalding. The shower tray may be of glazed fireclay, or
three w.c.s. acrylic plastic as shown in Fig. 10.25. Figurt: 10.26 shews the installation of the
shower, including a view of the thermostat-controlled mixing unit. The modern
Waste appliances
type of mixing unit does not require non-return or outlet valves. A flexible
1I"lsll many wash basin designs are available, ranging
hIS/liS: from surgeon's chromium placed outlet pipe is shown. with tWO wall brackets (or the spray,
bnxins to small hand rinse basins. They can be obtained to fit into a corner of the which allows the spray unit 10 be used at adult ht:"ight, or at a lower position for
room and may be supported on brackets, a pedestal or by a 'builr in' corbel. children. The spray unit may also be held in the hand for shampooing the hair.
Figure 10.1 H shows a vertical section and a plan of a typical wash basin Figure 10.27 shows the hot and cold pipewor k required for a shower, including
supported on a pedestal, which allows the supply. pipes to be concealed from the minimum head of water above the spray. Where this minimum head of water
view. is not available a srnalllow-vottage pump may be inserted in the OUtlet pipe.
Sill}.:s:Figure 10.19 shows the Belfast, London and combination type. glaz.ed Bidet: (pronounced 'beeduy': French for lin!e horse) is used (or perineal wash-
fireclay sinks and Fig. 10.20 shows a view of-a stainless steel sink having a ing and may also be used as a footbath, The hot and cold water supplies are
cupboard with sliding doors below. Figure 10.21 shows a cleaner's bucket sink 13 mm internal diameter and hot water may be supplied to the rim. A rmxed
which is usually installed in a cleaner's cubicle. Figure 10.22 shows an ablution supply of hot and cold water is also connected to an ascending spray. either
fountain, which !"Oay be used as an alternative t? a range of ~jght wash basins in through individual control valves or by a therrnostaric valve, which eliminates
Overflow -+----"<:-----1+ I
Weir
overflow
4C I .~, Sites
L-=-__ '
Lr.flS'lh
610mm )(460mm
460mm
Width
x 380mm
Depth
x255mm
x200mm
(oul~ide)
(outside)
Sizes
Lengtn Width Deplh
Pedestal I. 220mm X610mm x305mm {ovtside}
915mm x 610,.,..,m x 305 mm (01)ls'4£o)
32 m,n .•.•.
aste +------,/-1 Hot
915mmX510mm X255mm (oulsid~) Sil(:S
pipe lenglh Wic!lh D~Dt~,
A 635mm eoo 560mm 610 mm X510mm x2551Or)l \ou"lSid'e)
8 460 mm and 405 mm 1.070mrn :<460 nlm.x 240n-,m louls,de)
915 m,.... x 460rnm}( 240rnm (ou1510€j
(al Vertical sucncn (bl Plan (al Belfilsll'(pe sink Ie) Cornbinauon sin:'.
~~ ba~in with pl!dcslal Fig, 10.19 Glazed fireclay sinks
Swivel noi~le
supplylin'nll _ .•_.....,
N()/~: Tne fClI.JlIlain••..
,ill acccmrnocate
""0---------- Drainer
. up to el9tH persons
------:>.--Liquid soap hold!!
Spray heBd--. --------~,...:::;.
-++--------Drawer Umbrella spray ------~ -~«_----. Diameler 1,070
'IH--------Sloding doors
Sius
length Width
915mm X457mm Single drain!!, Accessp<l!'1el--------n II ~J If.--+lI:.------Weter supplyat e
1.066 rpm x457 mm Single drainer controlled temperature
1.372 mm x 457 mm Doubledrainer
1.600mm X 534 rnm Double drainer 38mm waste -----~-__J~, ------- Cast Iroo ....-eiSIl!
lever
Fig: 10,20 Stainless steel sink -- Stefl! 1001 action ring
Note: Sink may qtJ fll\eQ on the wall or 0f1 the floor
Shes
Hingcd taess bucket-
grallng L!nglh Width Depth
-510mm x3BOmm)( 230mm (outside)

460mm X 380mm x 200mm (outside)
Fig, 1O.2! Cleaner's bucket sink Fig. 10.22 Ablution fountain

III
tJO
~,-------Ifljp
valve
AUlom8Tic
lIushinU ,;istcrn ---If-
Flush
pipe
11f-----32mm
internal
1:900 diamE'W flush pipe
'i--j-----~-Sparge
pipe
Hol and cold
suocnes
4 ~~ 1~30
13mm taps
Floor lev ••.t

32mm il1lern~f diameter ootue [tap
------ 89mm Inlern~1

d.amete O...tllel
rig. !!l.X Ceramic bowl- type- urinals Fig. 10.10 Slop hopper
========~.
~"··""'-·"'-l
13mm
Hot and,nlet
cold supplies
i
I I
..--.-l$Omm
J8mm Pip!' ----,

Draining board
I ~ ~
I
40SIT'm
1.015
405mm
32 mm PiPe:
lnvenec uep to retain
water m .•••.
aste pipe
loose cover -----, lever Fulcrum ----~----::::::J-::=f;:~ Note. Water levels shown at corrvnencernetu of siphonage
Compre5scd air --
:>r::::-:_-l+SiphOO tube
19mm
overflow
u ,,,,,,=->_,,,,--Silencing
-=H-=T'!f--- Copper
pipe
or rubber
SIano pipe ---l';=====,* =!Ft---Silelle,no
P'PI.'
else
en!iron l;Jefl---4=J:i
1>"-=----- Rubbe-
'-----PiSlon Or
plunger butlers I
:1--------··32 mm or
;
38mm·diametef n mm lrusn pipe - tower well Ulube
Dual uusn siphon !lush pipe
Fi~ 10.12 Hiph- or low-lcv c! piston.t vpe flushing cistern rig. to.1J Bell·[ypes nushing cistern (for high·levC'1onl~·
25 mm _ ". -",...=-'L._-"'''''''::L-''-__ .•••=_<L_~'''''~

overflow
Cu-::nf--·-------R!'9vlating screw
Paruuon ---jj----H
--19m!!)
diameter
inlCI --1-+---.----- Uppr.r chamber B
By-pass --------++11 r--~:/-+------ aeteese valve C
11-+------ Cup wastier
--------Lever
S,phoo ~ ~ Air pipe
Pislol"l-------.-it--1
=-~-- --= Release

spi,..dle A -----++-,==tH
_
T,m'"9bo'IO'9110"4"'''~ ~ ~~:~';"9
Fig. 10.15 Flushing troughs
~
. ~ - Maximum heeo 36.00
Gate valve---\~====::'-r-----
[.1
11
~-=-:~:~:;:
--L
1
II
II
22:-=-_-
r- ~
II
II
P'P'W""
SIOP"'"
;0';"' duct
Flush pipe 1
I
w.e.
Fig. Ill.1I lnstallarion or flushing valves Fig. 10.16 Detail or nllshing valve
t3t
t;) ~-.--- ---·-,~-.7
I'
t ~ i
co-ordinatinq length 1700
work size 1694 ~

r~ bath
panel
with toe
outlet for 38 mm waste and trap connection
, I I recess
- <t -
overflO~ -~-
fall to outlet
ZlJ' '-1
0 :
"l ~
~
BS 1206 fireclay sinks
belfast pattern - wide range of sizes
from 457 x 380 x 200 deep up to
1219 x 610 x 305 deep, Sinks
_-LI I
-+Jl::I~------~I~I--~I~I_:----
II , "
supported on cantilever brackets,
legs and bearers or on brick
Blo '- adjustable feet or cradle support dwarf walls. Fixing heights 850
gl~
~I
L waste hole boss r' edge
lipping
to 920 to top of sink
co-ordinating width = 700 work size = 697

co-ordinating sizes can be varied within range of Clip-on draining boards
n x 100 mm where n = any natural number including unity reversible and available in
hardwood, stainless steel,
aluminium alloy and vitreous
BS 1189 (cast iron) and BS 4305 (cast acrylic) baths
enamel in range of sizes
overflow outlet overflow outlet from 560 x 406 to 762 x 457
brackets
i
t .
hook over
"'\f ~~~g
\ chain
f: overflow
pipe
connected
---.~-
\.
plug
and
\ chain
' sink
'" overflow slot
\~'F-
"
{ I
-\!
/
to trap i Stainless steel sinks

38mm
opposite '. dia. generally made to the
I
cleaning eye \ waste I
requirements of BS 1244
~, outlet available with single or
double drainers in a
range of sizes from 1070_x
460 to 1600 x 530. Sink
tops. supported on
cantilever brackets
waste ~aste I
plpe--.J
pipe~
Alternative overflow connections Sink units

available in same plan sizes
as BS 1244 sinks to a general
work height of 910 rnrn, Sink
top can be of stainless steel
or vitreous enamel with a wide
choice of cabinet designs
~ I-~outlet for and fi n ishes
~ JilW waste and sealed
~ I trap connection
,"
t.•.
j. •• ",
Fig, VII.13 STnks'and draining boards
"
",\
'~j
, ;{
..
l "
<', Sl-,.ng/e5<:,11COVer 10 BS 497 •
, G~~"" ~v., ---l Light dUlv slog/e seal

manhole coYer 10 as 497 .
Gro •.•fIod lavo!
Frame bedded In_

Concrete COVI!'r cemenl.mortar 1 3 mlt
I 2 a mue;wuh
m.k;1 steer rods
:' ~e', :.:
--COVer slab
I I
1 1
ff-;>;t----229mm Class8
I == I
engineering bride in
150rnm concrele--L I
cement monar surround ~ui/ed in I I
1 3 m,x walet.logged grOlJnd I I
, 1
I
I
==----t:J--+: ---G.,"",,,.
I
m,II••bI, -,
I I ~:~: :~O~:I:~II~~~e
I
I
1
1
1==1
~~~~~:~a~~~~~~I---+' -bl-_ 1
"," "'ne""9 II ,1
GI.J1l!<1Cl\annel ._
------- I ". ~--·-+I----One.p)ecc base wllh
I I channel and l)("nchh
: I cesto as reqlMI!O
~---- ---- -- ------ -_1
Fig. 8.23 Section through shallow .
nrecasi Concrele mspecuon chamber
I
,--1.:.2 ceme'li mortar benching
'''''''cd '0' "''''o,h s.d",
I
I"
;rc-tfL,.f<-,I--Coocrere
1: '2 4 mit
'.<
Fi~. $.]4 Derail or benching

~an or caSI iron inspeclion chamber
Table 8.5 Minimum dimensions for access points and chambers (Building
Regulation, 1985) 450)(450mm C I uarne and cover --------, r---;--,----110mm u PVC Conl1tCI':><
D,CPlh to
l nrern al !01.1!S Cover sizes Concrete raislfl9 orece ----======f.ar~-t_T"'r':l---
Invert Length X wjdt h Circular Lenarh X ••••idth Circular ~'-+-+_f__:9'..:..l-- Surround access pil
Typ< m rum X mm mm rnm X mm mm
110rnrn u PVC O't>p-OIJI pIpe _
w,'" roinimurn IOOmr:l
cooccte 1 3 9xli;.no".
Rodding eye As drain but min 100 a99rc9;w~ rnu
cmc II0mm m",no,.],,, noes Of
Access fitting /(Y'----'\·110mm cuuet ccnuecto.
110)( l60mm 146%Obranch
small 0.6 or less I SO x IOv ISO 250 x 100 '50 \
large ~?S X iDO 225 x 100 onto 160mm mall"! drain lines \
\
Inspection cnamte r \
O.b 01 le ss .\90' 190·
1.0 or less 450 X 450 I 450 450 x 450 4501 '--
~\anhole I.~ or less I~OOx150 1050 600 x 600 600 ---------. __ .--1t'IOmmOlPVC
over i.S I.WO x -;50 1200 600 x 600 600 pipe sho-wn ~'LII
________________________ cao oe :601""" J
Shaft over 2.7 900 X 840 900 600 x 600 600
fig. 8.26 Section through Marscar system or access to main drain
"Dr ains up to
j-For clayware
frame.
'fable
300
from
8.6
150 mrn
01 plastics
Maximum
mm dia mer er (Budding
may be reduced to a
spacing of access points
To
Regulations
m
A ccess Fit t ing

Small
rum
1985)
Large
in order [0 provide support
for drains up to and including
Junction
Inspection
chamber
for cover and
Manhole
Mllnhole base
II
B/llnch pipe
Start of external drain" 12 12 22 45
Redding eye 22 22 22 45 45
Access fitting
smaU 150 diam
1SO x 100 12 22 22
large 225 x 100 22 45 45
Inspection chamber 22 45 22 4S 4S
Manhole 22 45 ',5 45 90
Fig. 8.27 'Osma' manhole base unit

• Con nection Ircm ground floor applinnces or stack.
Cove(-·-~
I
Light and medrurn duty covers are available wirh siogte and double seals. Prarue --ncir~,
~--'.'
" "J-.'
~-"~C~""""""
:l
whilst heavy dut y ("uVCC$ arc single sc n! t)'pr only. 1\ double seal cover is required
ever an OpCI1 c hanncl rypc rnanholc iovid e :'\ building. Figure 8.28 shows single: Single soal Si,.,glo u~1 Irocouedl
and double seals for manhole covers. Covers may be r c ct angul ar , triangular or
circular on plan. Triangularand circular covers have three points of suppOrt and
have the advantage of being non-rocking. Frames are solidly bedded in 1 in 3
cement and sand mortar on tOP or the manhole. Covers are bedded in (he frames
With grease to ensu rc .m airtIght Joint
Double sea! Double seat IrbCeSStldj Double $0111double cove.
{(odd;llg pOJJJlS
91 -\ redding point may be used in {he' Iollcwing syS(~~s:
Fig. 8.18 Types or manhole. cover seals
Flushing cisterns
W.lfl"'l"c/IH£·/{
The capacity of the cistern is usually 9 litre bur to conserve water, a 7 litre capacity
The most widely used pa nern IS the 'wash-down', in which the contents of [he cistern will be phased in in 1991. Figure 10.12 shows {he piston rype flushing cistern.
pan 3re removed hy a gravity water flush. These W.c.s. are cheap, simple and which operates .::IS Ioflcws:
e lfivienr and are rarely- blocked by misuse. The pan shape has been developed
1. When the lever is depressed sharply, the piston is lifted. which displaces
from [he earlier tong and short hopper rypes. [0 provide the minimum of fouling
water over rhe: siphon.
area. They are designed to maintain a 50 mm minimum water seal.
2. Water discharging down the flush pipe rakes some air with it and creates a
Figure 10.1 shows a section through
a wash-down w.C. pan. The outlet may
pan.ial vacuum in the: siphon.
L~· obca.oed ;d~or r:gn( hdnJ and also P
Or S a') shown; J( may be flushed trorn a
3. 3cring upon (he water In [he cistern forces water
The gre:are:r air pressure
high- or low-level nushing cistern depending upon the circumstances. The high.
rbrough (he siphon until air is admitted under (he piston, which breaks the
level cistern provides a more effective flush, bur is nor as near and as modern a~
the low-level cistern. Siphonic war cr closers arc more silent and positive in action
siphonlc action. A dual flush siphon. which is shown 3S pan of Fig. 10.12.
reduces the water consumpt ion.
rhan the wash-down type, but arc more prone to blockq-cs.
Figures 10.2 and 10.3 show secnons of two rype s of single trap siphonic Ope-anon
w.C.s. which operate as (allows:
1. When the flush lever is depressed and im rnediat cly released, air is drawn
I. The cistern IS flushed and water passes through the pan to the long leg of through the air pipe at A, which breaks rhc siphonic action at {his level and
the siphon, which is shaped [Q restrict the flow of water. only 4.5 litre Or 3.5 litre ofwacer is used.
2. The long leg of the siphon is momentarily filled with water and a aiphonic 2. when the flush lever is depressed and then held down, the piston closes the
action set up, which empties the: water and any contents from the pan. air pipe and a 9 litre or 7 litre flush takes place.
5. Water contained in {he after flush chamber reseals the [rap.
Figure 10.13 shows a bell- type flushing cistern which operates as follows:
Figure lOA shows the method used to joint flush and OUtlet pipes [0 both
wash-down and siphonic W.c.s. .J. The lever is depressed. which lifts the bell inside the cistern.
Figure 10.5 shows a rwo-rrap type siphonic W.e. which operates as follows: 2. The lever is released, which allows the bell [0 fall, thus displacing water
under the bell down the stand pipe.
1. The cistern is flushed and water passes through the pressure reducing
3. Water flowing down the stand pipe: rakes some of the air with it and creates
Itrrnenr :\. which draws air through pipe Co and reduces [he air pressure in
chamber B. a partial vacuum in the pipe. which Huts t~e siphonic action and the cistern
is emptied.
2. A stphonic a c rion LS set up. which empties' the: water and any contents from
the p:tn throu~h the scaled trap~ C and D. I\t the same lime, the sides of th c Autouun.ic Flushing cistern
pan 3fC thoroughly washed by srrc ams of water (rom the perforated rim E.
This is used for the automatic flushing of urinals. It is usual [0 allow a capaCilr
3. Warcr contained after-flush chamber F reseals the trap,
in the
or 4.5 or 3.5 litre of water per stall. or 600 mm of slab and for an interval of 20
Urinals minutes between each flush. Some water authorities require the water supply to
automatic flushing cisterns to bc metered. Figure 10.14 shows a section through an
Figuro 10.6 and 10.7 show rhc inst aHa tions of ceramic slab and stall-type
automatic flushing cistern, which operates as follows:
urinals r cspectively. The slab type i~ cheaper than the stall type, hue ir docs not
provide (he same degree of privacy: Vertreal pa r ritions which increase privacy, I. warer rises evenly inside and outside the bell until it reaches the air hcle,
however. mil)' be obtained with some rypcs of slab urmals , 2. Air inside (he bell is rhus trapped and becomes compressed as the water
level rises outside rhe bell.
I-'igure 10.8 shows rhe insralla riou {If reramir bowl-type urinals. which have'
Ins fouling .J!'CJ (hall lh~' ~lal) Jilt! ~1;lIj urmuls. l'rp cwork is also mort' accessible 3. When the war cr level reach es :I certain hC'ighl above the dome, rh c com-
and there IS no problem with (raps belo« the floor level. pressed air IS sufficient to force Water OUt of [he t.r-rube and reduc c the air
Figure 10.9 shows alternate arrangement for bowl type urinals. pressure inside the dome.
4. The reduced air pressure inside the dome: Immediately allows water [0 flow
Note: The ami-siphon trap method i'i more expensive than the inverted (rap
through the siphon and a siphonic anion i:, set up. which empries [he
method bur is more hygienic.
cistern.
Slop hopper S. When the flush is finished. water from the reserve chamber is siphoned
rhrough {he siphon rube. which refills the lower well a nd'Ll-rube .
This is 3 very useful applra nce for U:'(' 10 hospit als and berets for the efficient
disposal of stops. The hinged hr3SS gr;lIing allows for the filling of a bucket (rom Flushing rrougbs
{he hot and (old rapv. i-'i!!u[t' JO 1t1 5hnw~ rh c insr allarion of a slop hopper and
This may he used as an alternative [0 separate cisterns. for the flushing of a range-
Fig. 10.1 I shows a combined washup sink and slop hopper, also for use in of W.c.s. It has {he advantage over separate W.c.s of reducing the supply plpe-
hospitals.
work, connections and valves, bur if a repair is required to one of the siphons or
i= lOW.","
CISler"
3Srnm
boee
-ts~2::-~;;;;;~;;;;;;;;;;~1~t-
-l~~;;;~~~
After
!lush
chamber
to reseal After flush
trap chilmber 10
reseal [(ilP ':05mm
80mrn bore
()pen flushing
Leog leg 01 siphOn
rim
Fig. 10.2 Single-trap type siphonic W.e.

(Twyfords Ltd.I
~u:>Oer CO •.•ro&CIOt -_._- r------ Shaped steer Dnp Ieecvejve wnh loose kev _.--r""' •••••
:: _ washer
~,:::'p,pe--~
______ Rubber rlf'\g
+------AUIOffiil!lC flushingcislern
---- Flush pi~ (4.5 liJre per 610nrm 01 sl,b}
P~'(I.lrethanepuny
or tubber "nsrolnl
p "" W.C.
yam------I:l.-_...-li:!
--SollpLpe 64mt'l1 cutretwilh
hingl!docrnicalgralinll - End slab 305 mm wKlI!
~ ---- --- Yam
Chanoel-----""'~;;:: 1.070
Trl!adJ50mmwlde---~,
Fig.
1"1----;--- Aulornatic flushinv cistern

f';.~titre per SUIU)
r-------"'-'-'-'-'----j $prUder ---------tt~'"'

~_%:::if"_"'----- Sparge pipe
~lmm--iF"lJ;;~ Slalts 610 mm wide
C~nnel----------- 1.070
Tread 1S0mmwide
fig. 10.5 T....o-rrap type siphonic w.C. (Twyfords l.rc.) Fig. 10.7 Ceramic stall-type urinal
! .!9
r
(b) Relative positions of discharge points. rain water pipe

'-back inlet gully for sink waste
(c) Drainage system Of the Local Authority sewers. with back inlet
accessgu IIy --
/' - -+ :--:.1:;1-..- inspection
t ':;-.;/" chamber
There are three drainage systems used by Local Authorities in this
country and the method employed by any particular authority will
determine the basic scheme to be used for the drain runs from
individual premises.
c2" rwp
COMBINED SYSTEM
All the drains discharge into a common or combined sewer. It is a simple

and economic method since there is no duplication of drains. This method _c_o_m~i_n_ed_se_w_e~ : __-_.•.. ~ _ -_-_- __
has the advantages of easy maintenance, all drains are flushed when it rains
Combined System
and it is impossible to connect to the wrong sewer. The main disadvantage
is that all the discharges mUst pass through the sewage treatment rainwater pipe wi th /.-.=:=r:."&- i.c. (surfacewaterl
installation, which could be costly and prove to be difficult with periods
of heavy rain.
ratnWatershOe~y'.
gcr::'
--"'6}+-'
.--_
,
( .. I.C. '1)
501
, ! d Ii
TOTALLY SEPARATE S\'"STEM

house-··-i
I I I I I ! i Ii:
-'~""I
n'$f _ +i '[JI
i.c ..•. garage
lill!IiII;1I1I1I ,
The most common method employed by Local Authorities; two sewers
are used in this method. One sewer receives the surface water dischatge
rwp ~_...:::::::-.
---......"
I ,
rwp
and conveys this direct to a suitable outfall such as a river where it is soil or foul sewer --0-,- (1: -.:.---=: __
discharged without treatment. The second sewer receives all the soil or ';.
foul discharge from baths, ba&ins, sinks, showers and.toilets; this is ~en surface water sewer ----+- ~
conveyed to the sewage treatment installation. More drains are required
--------------- -----
Separate System
and it is often necessary to Cross drains one over the other. There is a risk
of connecting to the wrong sewer and the soil drains are not flushed
during heavy rain, but the Savings on the treatment of a smaller volume
/.-.--
. -----
if...---:,..-.
g..,....-./-"
. i.c.
of discharge leads to an OVerall economy.

~i
PARTIALLY SEPARATE SYSTEM
house-
II
' iiL[]. ..
W r.c.
-garage
This is a"compromise of the other two systems and is favoured by some

I I' ,
Local Authorities because Of its flexibility. Two sewers ar.e used, one to
rwp~_ --::--.,..
--.::::: -
I orwp
' I
-1--11
carry surface water only and the other to act as a combined sewer. The combined sewer --_ ~
amount of surface water to be discharged into the combined sewer can be ------------- ,-
surface water sewer __ ~ -
adjusted according to the capacity of the sewage treatment installation. - . ---------- -----
Soakaways, which are pits below ground level designed to receive Partially Separate System
surface water and allow it to percolate into the soil, are sometimes used
to lessen the load on the sUrface water sewers. Typical examples of the Fig. IV.6 Drainage systems
., three drainage systems are shown in Fig. IV.6 .
~ ..,.... 226
227
0;
. ,
.J
socket _.
i!!F" _ -:. ~c~~
,pigo< -, -J diameter
i, i, -Ti, f6' -t. and ~
bends also avai table .
depth of --; length -1-- groove for

,/\
socket --~ f---- • key
\
main
Typical B.S. 65 Clay Drain Pipe

drain --- \'"~
tarred qaskin-. polyester ~ouldings
branch
drain /
0
'\
em/sand rubber '0' rings / 45
1:2~ ~~ ,\
- - --.---~
":" ~':.
450 Oblique Junction Eighth Bend
flow flow
J and ~ section channel junctions and bends similar
..,-<,'
:- rebate for 150 square

; or circular dished grating-----.
450 /
./
angle
Rigid Joint
Flexible '0' Ring Joint
(not recommended in AD_H)
clay
r---
i,»~~ t I pipe r
ID' -ro
~ - spigot
ro!Q)
s:: V> outlet
7' flow y
Yard Gully with Access Gully with
I 'P' Trap Outlet 'Q' Trap Outlet
,- vertical in let ~ alternative

rubber . horizontal inlet
- polypropy lene rubber sealing
sealing
'Hepsleve' coupling ring rebate for square or
ring __ r-r-
, circular grating-------,
Flexible CouptinqJoin t Flexible Ring Seal Socket Joint
t-
120 taper
y tv
~trap
/'
spigot outlet j L hopper can have back inlet
Back Inlet with

T pitch fibre coupling 'S' Trap Outlet
Reversible Gully with
'P' Trap Outlet
Pitch Fibre Pipe Joints all gullies can be supplied with 'P', 'Q', or'S' trap outlets
(not recommended in AD.H)
Fig.IV.7 Pipesandjoints Fig. IV.S Clay drain pipe fittings and gullies
'- 230
23\
• ,. t'"
.... ,..•.
Approved Document H recommends drains to be of sufficient strength,
durabiii ty and so jointed that the drain remains watertight under all
working conditions, including any differential movement between the
pipe and ground.
Where a firm and stable ground is present many designers still prefer
to Specify the traditional rigid bed of concrete and haunching, used in - excavated spoil
conjunction with a rigid pipe such as clay, cast iron, concrete or asbestos as backfill
cement. The main advantage is that the excavated spoil can-be used as selected fill free
backfill which is not always the case when using a granular bedding. The from stones larger
use of fleXible materials, such as pitch fibre and unplasticised PVC together than 40mm lumps
of clay over 100mm, .
with their flexible joints, is generally recommended since they give both
timber. frozen material
axial flexibility and extensibility, but they will require a flexible bed to and vegetable matter .-~
fulfil their function. Three bedding techniques are in general use and these
are illustrated in Fig. IV.9.
The selected material required for granular bedding and for tamping
around pipes laid on a jointed concrete base must be of the correct
granular material
conforming to
B.S. 8301
(Appendix 0)
_ :f ~! co
~t
U
qUality. Pipes depend to a large extent upon the support bedding for
their strength and must therefore be uniformly supported on all sides
by a material which can be hard compacted. Generally a non-cohesive
granular material with a particle size of 5-20 mm is suitable and if not
present on site it will have to be 'imported'. Details of the suitability of
materials for bedding and surrounding all types of pipes can be found'
in BS 830 l-Code of Practice for Building Drainage.
Pipes with socket joints are laid from the bottom of the drain run with
the SOCketend laid against the flow, each pipe being aligned and laid to
selected fill
the correct fall. The collar of the socket is laid in a prepared 'hollow' in
the bedding and the bore is centralised. In the case of a rigid joint a tarred
-t
gaskin is used which also forms the seal, whereas the mechanical or
flexible joints are self aligning. Most flexible joints require a special
gl
selected or
lUbricant to ease the jointing process and those which use a coupling can granular iill
be laid in any direction. free from stones o
o
larger than 40mrn
granular fill <ll
Inspection chambers conforming to ~106

B.S. 8301
Deep inspection chambers are called manholes: they are a box containing OJ
{Appendix 0) -- 0,
half or three-quarter section round channels to enable the flow to be ._---=-.l
observed; at the same time providing an access point to the drain for the
purposeof cleansing. Inspection chambers are positioned to comply with , ,
the access recommendations of Approved Document H (see Fig. IV.6).

Simple domestic drainage is normally only "Concerned with shallow ci J
l2~~1
. dla .
150
inspection chambers up to an invert depth of 1800 mm. The internal

Fig. IV.9 Typical pipe bedding details
sizing is governed by the depth to invert, the number of branch drains, the
-:- ;'.". diameter of branch drains and the space required for a man to work within
232
233
~
r
requirements of BS 460 which specifies a half round section gu tter with

a socketjoi:nt in diameters from 75-150 mm and an effective length of
1800 mrn. The gutter socket joint should be lapped in the. direction of the for detai Is of eaves
flow and sealed with either red lead putty or an approved caulking com- construction see
pound before being bolted together. The gutter is supported at 1000 to Figs. 11-45& 1'1-49---'
1800 mm centres by means of mild steel gutter brackets screwed to the

half round section
feet of rafters for an open eaves or to the fascia board with a closed eaves. rainwater gutter--
Cast iron rainwater pipes are also produced to a standard effective
length of 1800 mm with a socket joint which is caulked with red lead gutter brackets
putty, run lead or in many cases dry jointed-the pipe diameters range fixed to fascia
at 1·000 c/c---./'
from 50-150 mm. The down pipes are fixed to the wall by means of pipe
nails and spacers when the pipes are supplied with ears; or with split
0
ring hinged holderbats when the pipes are supplied without ears cast on. 112 offset or
swanneck-----
A full range of fittings such as outlets, stopped ends, internal and external
angles are available for cast iron half round gutters, and, for the downpipe clip or holderbat __
pipes, fittings such as bends, offsets and rainwater heads are produced.
Unplasticised PVC rainwater goods

The advantages of UPVC rainwater goods over cast iron are:
1. Easier j ointing, gutter bolts are not required and the joint is self
sealed access cover
sealing, generally by means of a butyl or similar strip.
2. Corrosion is eliminated.
3. Decoration is not required, the two standard colours available are
black and grey.
r'-~-J~
4. Breakages' are reduced.
-·-·-.d.f
5. Better flow properties usually enab les smaller sections and lower
.....
'''''.....
~
falls.
Half round gutters are supplied in standard effective lengths of 1 800

and 3 600 mm with diameter range of 100-110 mm; the pipes are supplied
r
to surface
water drain-
in two standard effective len~ths of 2 000 and 4 OOO.mmwith diameters

of 63, 68 and 75 mrn ..The gutters, pipes and fittings are generally
produced to the requirements of BS 4576. Typical details of domestic
rainwater gutter and pipework is shown in Fig. IV.II.
Sizing of pipes and gutters

The sizing of the gutters and downpipes to effectively cater for the
discharge from a roof will depend upon:
ti:
\,.:
(a) The area of roof to be drained. Fig.IV.ll Rainwater pipewOfk and d'rainage
.. \
. (b) Anticipated intensity of rainfall. ~l~
i'
'\ (c) Material of gutter and downpipe. -f::
236
~~?
brick levelling 600 x 450 light duty cast iron the inspection chamber. A general guide to the internal sizing of brick
course--- cover and frame to B,S. 497 built inspection chambers is given in Approved Document H, Table 9
which gives minimum sizes.
lnspection chambers can be constructed of brickwork or of rectangular
or circular precast concrete units (see Fig. rv.l 0). The inspection chamber
- 100mm
precast access covers used in domestic work are generally of cast iron and light
V If 1 If J concrete duty as defined in BS 497. They have a single seal which should be
one brick
slab
wall in
~ main drain - I-F=-J bedded in grease to form an air-tight joint; double seal covers would be
B.S, 3921
~channel_~r- ~ required if an inspection chamber was situated inside the building.
class B
VI/A l ~smooth
""
cement(l:l)
Concrete access covers are available for use with surface water inspection
bricks
bedded In
.
// 1
'II #' j
finish
chambers.
cm.
and mtlaid (1:3)
to V I/~ _~
Ventilation of drains
English =- To prevent foul air from soil and combined drains escaping and causing
a nuisance all drains should be vented by a flow of air. A ventilating pipe
'/1
I,;"" .~ ...•.'. f'"·.0.,.".': ':
bond -c', c" .. branch should be provided at or near the head of each main drain and any branch
--C-:~. '... '.' .0.. drain
~.:Q:':' .. 0:' drain exceeding 10·000 in length. The ventilating pipe can be a separate
. o' . v ''-0
pipe or the soil discharge stack pipe can be carried upwards to act as a
mass concrete benching - 150 mm thick mass ro icrete ventilating discharge stack or soil vent pipe. Ventilating pipes should be
(1:3:6) base open to the outside air and carried up for at least 900 mm above the
Shallow Brick Inspection Chamber head of any window opening within a horizontal distance of 3·000 from
frame bedded 600 x 450 light duty cast iron the ventilating pipe which should be finished with a cage or cover which
in cm. mt (1:3)- cover and frame to B.S. 497 does not restrict the flow of air.
150 mm
~ RAINWATER DRAINAGE
concrete I A rainwater drainage installation is required to collect the discharge from
encasing
in wet
i,~ . L precast
concrete
roofs and paved areas, and convey it to a suitable drainage system. Paved
soils ...._. Eo 600 min
cover slab areas, such as garage forecourts or hardstands, are laid to fall so a~ to
/.A '. direct the rainwater into a yard gully which is connected to the surface
diameter
water drainage system, A rainwater installation for a roof consists of a
precast concrete 1-'1 P1--
'. t collection channel called a 'gutter' which is connected to vertical rain-
shaft rings o·
main drain
o water pipes. The rainwater pipe is terminated at its lowest point by
circular or <D' I
rectangu lar channel means of a rainwater shoe for discharge to a surface water drain or a trapped
in plan
precast i:oncre te
base with
.,
U
_~~ I J-=t I~·.:~ ~ :
0
gully if the discharge is to a combined drain (see Fig. IV.11). If a separate
system of draingge or soakaways are used it may be possible to connect
the rainwater pipe direct to the drains, providing there is an alternative
means of access for cleansing.
I
I
channels and
benching cast
In as requ Ired
-t. ". ..
, The materials available for domestic rainwater installations are asbestos,
galvanised pressed steel, cast iron and UPVC. The usual materials for
I
II Precast Concrete I nspection Chamber (B.S. 5911)
domestic work are cast iron and UPVC, the latter being the usual
specification for new work.
II Fig.IV.10 Typical shallow inspection chambers
II " Cast iron rainwater goods
Cast iron rainwater pipes, gutters and fittings are generally made t9 the
11"1: ".'. '
. l ",.
234 235
, ....;
~ ..'" r •
il .,:" ': .
,.
-.:;;;~.;:ri':.
y,,- oblique junction 600 x 450 cast iron cover
I
brick levelling course
incorninq drain or "'- and frame to BS 497
»>
private sewer -_ / ~
" J12 No. pipes and 1 No.
~~
flow -
,
I
_ -r-.r.
I "r-
1/
~_
junction 'sprung'
into position . ."
_ •...•
. ~~~r!~;~~ci~ing~ F~:·~PJ~ ~~c~r:'e
~;::st
wall in BS·3921
class B bricks
small diameter sewer

----
flow
in em. mt (1 :3)
laid to Eng\.ish
Bond
Rem.oving 3 No. pipes and inserting oblique junction
'l.
collar
coupling~
~ ,. incoming drain or private sewer
.-oblique junction
gL~I".,::....
incoming
r
:¥.:.~.!..•
.i A
:.1
m.assconcrete
benching
drain
flow private or publ it sewer
mass concrete base
Ramp connection
150 x 150 cast iron

cover and frame
replacement pipe
with spigot at small diameter sewer
each end- -' 100 rm
Removing 2 No. pipes and inserting oblique junction flow
[ f~ ~~gaIV. step irons

I oblique junction ?bliqUe . . to BS 1247 every
I branch
rL;;Y Junction . 4th· course vertically
81 branch set;stagg·er.edat
L
'23'!:ic/cR6riiontally
-;lsitStep,450 mm
10w,cC;?ver level
-.
~p
wall in BS 3921
class B bricks
in cm. mt (1 :3)
laid to English
Bond
cuttinq scor~ rernovabje
for removal disc or '.
of cap-- stopper
bedded in ,.~ "[rf" J mass cnncrete
clay or mastic benching
Stopped junctron
private or public sewer
205
sealed drain run- under test and observing any fall in pressure as indicated
by the fall of the float on the smoke machine (see Fig. VII.6).
Air test: not a particularly conclusive test but it is sometimes used in

special circumstances such as large diameter pipes where a large quantity
of water would be required. If a failure is indicated by an air test the drain
should be retested using the more reliable water test (see Fig. VII. 7).
'0
C
,c.o
CO '"
The illustrations of drain testing have been prepared on the assumption
~o •...
::J
'0 ~ that the test is being carried' out bf the contractor before backfilling and
a.
'" ~.o
'" '"
.9- ".0
"'::J
haunching has taken place.
c C ~
c
o
C -0
o c tna.>6
In general the testing of drains should be carried out between manholes;
.;; .~ .a.";;
u '"
o "'<n
2:;:: '0 >- " manholes should be tested separately and short branches of less than
'"
c .,0 en c ~ '"
c = .~ Q)
'" '" t: 6.000 m should be tested with the main drain to which they are
"
o .0 -§.£ E o."c
o ::J
•.•.0
OJ o L-
~ ~;: E
X -
Q)0.
0
o
'0
CO _ 0 connected; long branches would be tested in the same manner as a main
'"
.0
~_:J-t;R
Z drain .
.,
'"
'""
C>
SOAKAWAYS
=
~
o A soakaway is a pit dug in permeable ground
~
~ which receives the rainwater discharge from the roof and paved areas of a
'"
E small building and is so constructed that the water collected can percolate
o
c
'"
2: into the surrounding subsoil. To function correctly and efficiently a
e
. '" soakaway must be designed taking into account the following factors:
~B~
'" c 0 ~'" x 1. Permeability or rate of dispersion of the subsoil.
'" E ClJ~~g;
0. E g.~
.0
E.o
" 0 .cOO+-,
.•....•
...cC::l
rl "0 (,I)"O.!:: 2. Area to be drained.
~ E:; E
~E2tn 3. Storage capacity required to accept sudden inflow of water such as
U 0 (I) C
(,I) 0 1....- that encountered during a 's#)p:rL" "
~"-~E
'a;", ._
~o 0 LO
E
Q.)
E 4. Local authority requiremenss as .:~.~metJl'qd ef-conseruction and
~ CO Q.,-c:r--.. siting in relation t0i;mildi'ng$:" .,":: .
"'.0
> ~
0·_ E
:J ~
a E'" 0:;:: 5. Depth of Water t11Y~e:i~f"'3I.c~.¢i '; i ,,-.}~.,
'"" '~"
Q.tr....Q)-
'"
c.o'"
>.0 ~
Q.
tr....Q.c
Q)
J:' ~ c
•.•••.••
Q)
=
'O '.. ; ;~~17~';:~'~·
~~;l'1~". . '., .
o o~ Before any soakawa.~;[f!:Gl:!~\M~~~O.fl:§l'~'Eted the local authority
rl 2 1;;
ctI •..•••
d l'i J""'~'ll!~"" "•..·~.,.,~l".l . , . 'f' .
g> II) sh ou ld b e contactee to.'~,,,,sarm\p.~~nl-1S,sJ0i~·
a!I,ltl.·ascertam rts speer IC require-
.0 .:
~ •.. ments. Some authol'if~~~P+~i1i~1h}:~~S!ofsoakaway~ as an outfall to a
-•..
C1J
~ 'ro "C subsoil draina{e;scfi,edil~;;t'f>1i;~~~v.~,,~ effluent from a small sewage
~~~ o -f'-"" "·'···:'SfkY.~l';;n~'!l··. .,
treatment pliRt:"' ~Ni:--",(k:H ¥ \;t:·,." .
~ a. ca . \ ': "~'I'" .'. \,' ~~f<_ ~.:4·.·f~_ ':~J ,,' .
0.0
c 1;;
.: The ra:;;:artll:iW~'iq~~ff:~~W~~r.eolate into the ground depends mainly
'co
~ '"
'0.0
en
•..•..
II)
G on the per~~~f'!tM0'iH,,@enerally'
. 1'~'~'m"'~~*'
soakaway c0I'1st;r'.i0tli'~,;~~Fe';Pssands
clay soils are unacceptable
.
for
and gravels are usually satisfactory .
<
,... An indication '0~·the"pt;r.m.eapility of a soil can be ascertained by observing
the rate of per,~~t~tfh:1jir<~~50 mm in diameter should be drill~d
:; I.. · '~j·\'"l1!J~'~"--;;..t1>"k. d ept
to a d ept h 0 f l.~(il(!f'~!'J~ti~~"to·a· <., h f .
0 300 m IS poure
d into
. t h e h 0 Ie
.21 and the tim~,tf.kdtt~r~~~a,1:~tfto disperse is ~oted. Several tests should
"-
211
LL
1600 x 450 cast iron
t cover and frame
--.-.8t~
bl2
surface water
drain
~:;"=-=:~.•
'::::-?7.'~--=,
T::.:
ash or alternatives ",:,
similar for walls ~

blinding dry rubble
walling and
dry jointed mass in situ
brickwork concrete
strip
coarse
granular Brick-lined soakaway
material
with size brick levelling courses --, ..-cast iron cover and frame
range of
10tol00mm- __
~~_, I ,I 100' 1 :~"~'l'~~8>0.
"~'-':~:'~~ precast
concrete light
~min I duty chamber

cover slab
diam-~~
.,,'
67,5 t9 '-800 dia .. -:

-8 ~ E
100 mm thick ~ <i:E
..- ~·o
large rubble precast o ::J co
at outfall concrete b E'-
cover g ,.:b
slab
.)~ tJ.g 75 mm dia.

drainage
holes
<J
mass in situ
concrete
strip
~
.••. '\
"
," ,
,I"~ ••••••
r: - ---- - --- ~ '--- - -. --~- ..-
------- .•.. - -.--- --, .
available) the choice usually being one of personal preference. BS 1188
gives recommendations for ceramic wash basins 'and pedestals and specifies
two basic sizes. 635 x 457 and 559 x 406. These basins are a one-piece
I plastic wc seat " ~ I,/:~~Iushin~ fitment having an integral overflow, separate waste outlet and generally
I
I to BS 1254 cistern
pillar taps (see Fig. Vll.ll).
U
to BS 1125
E
Wash basins can be supported on wall-mounted cantilever brackets, leg
::J
~~:~I~~~~~sticL .~ Q) E supports or pedestals. The pedestals are made from identical material to
> .-
one piece rubber ~i ~ the wash basin and are recessed at the back to receive the supply pipes to
I E
l ', / 21~
;;; I
or plastic connector the taps and the waste pipe from the bowl. Although pedestals are
I ,flushing
1 nm
I
(;
o
t~ designed to fully support the wash basin most manufacturers
that small wall mounted safety brackets are also used,
recommend
N
io BATHS AND SHOWERS
o
r Baths are available in a wide variety of
designs and colours made either from porcelain-enamelled cast iron,
vitreous enamelled sheet steel, 8 rnm cast acrylic sheet or 3 mm cast acrylic
Cl horizontal
C")
outlet used sheet reinforced with a polyester resin/glass fibre laminate. Most bath
in conjunction designs today.are rectangular in plan and made as flat bottomed as practic-
with converters
to form P or S able with just sufficient fall to allow for gravity emptying and resealing of
trap. the trap, The British Standards for the materials quoted above recommend
~
a co-ordinating plan size of 1 700 x 700 with a height within the range of
distance from wall governed 90 mm dia. outlet
by flushing system n x 50 mm where n is any natural number including unity. Baths are
BS 5'503 ceramic washdown we pan supplied with holes for pillar taps or,mixer fittings and for the waste
outlets. Options include handgripssbuilt in soap and sponge recesses and
flushing overflow outlets. It is advisable to always specify overflow outlets asa
rim -------.....,. precautionary measure to liFhi~"rkle water level and to minimise splashing;
C")
most overflow pipes are designed to connect with the waste trap beneath
co
the bath (see Fig. VH.14;)" Support for baths is usually by adj~staple feet
CD
~ for cast iron and steel a.I<1!<!I~.IDy a strong cradle for the acrylicbaths. Panels
of enamelled hardboar.('Or moulded high impact polystyreneor glass fibre
are available for encl~g:the bath. These panels can be fixed by using
stainless steel or il'14,~.4.y
_angles
_ or direct to ~ timber stud f~amework~
Typical siphonic we pans
lever Shower sprays ~.;fsed III conjunction With a bath by fitting a rigid
siphon bend
11 plastic showe~:~~~'t~%"~ible curtain to one end of the bath. A separate
u
pull shower titmeJl,~,e~\':e:~E~ considered preferable. Such fitments require
chain 4.
!~:,
less space. th~,ti~;~"':."'~*~i9P.q.lJ!ilth, use less hot water and are considered
warning 1:o·be'moI'.e~hii~te~fGls~;e·.~h:e used water is being continuously discharged.
pipe
~
f the shower tray with a waste outlet, the
J
\. " <_ •. "
'
Piston type cistern
'@t' or curtain (see Fig. VII. 12). Materials.
scribed for baths. The spray outlet is
is connected to a mixing valve so that t.he
Hed·.
~~~
'.
,...' "f" fl'
n:'
l ,.
r
SINKS
Sinks are used mainly for me preparation of
food, washing of dishes and clothes, and are usually positioned at the
r
_overall size 457 x 635
)"' drinking water supply outlet. Their general design follows that described
'\ ,0.
J
for basins except that they are larger in area and deeper. Any material
splash back considered suitable for sanitary appliance construction can be used.
Designs range from me simple belfast sink with detachable draining boards
of metal, plastic or timber to the combination units consisting of integral
g:r- ,,' overflow slot ,H
It)
draining boards and twin bowls. Support can be wall-mounted cantilever
brackets, framed legs or a purpose made cupboard
shown in Fig. VII,B.
The layout of domestic sanitary appliances is governed by size of
unit; typical details are
CD
,'~ fitments, personal preference, pipework system being used and the space
j ~(
.1
available. Building Regulation G4 lays down specific requirements as to
the interconnection of food storage and preparation rooms of sanitary
accommodation which contains a water closet fitting.
f',
~t PIPEWORK
38 or 78 mm Approved Document H sets out in derail
seal 'P' trap------, the recommendations for soil pipes, waste pipes and ventilating pipes.
These regulations govern such things as minimum diameters of soil pipes,
copper traps BS 1184 '5' traps also material requirements, provision of adequate water seals by means of an
plastic traps BS 3943 available
integral trap or non-integral trap, the positioning of soil pipes on the
inside of a building, overflow pipework and ventilating pipes. The only
Typical lavatory basin details pipework which is permissible on the outside of the external wall is any
waste pipe from a waste appliance situated at ground floor level providing
'Ijody --II['-:J such a pipe discharges into a suitable trap with a grating and the discharge
1
r
'.
backnut
~Ii is above the level of the water bu·t··below the level of the grating.
II Three basic pipework systems are in use for domestic work, namely:
32 or 40 mm outlet t 1. One-pipe system.

2. Two-pipe system.
_'Y'
.fi ,-':-
,.
- -r;8i',seal· 76
or
co
C")
co
'1':
:'"
l
/"
3. Single stack s~stem,
Whichever system, is a:dqp;t~<ll.Dhefunctions of quick, reliable and quiet
~:k~:£~ removal of th~disG!l-atges.t(j d'l.e drains remains constant.
~ ~""''; \. '.' .;
ped'e$:t"I;~
-:tt. j~ One-pipe sys~~~iii¥r.'a single discharge pipe which conveys both
soil and waste ~~Y'~b the drain. To ensure that water seals in the
traps are not brt5'k:e:;~de:-e~!sealsof 75 mm for waste pipes up to 65 mm
Typical-pedestal If,; "'- tXP:fir~~~~t-:{~~
basin diameter and·?(j['i~)r.l~~i:B~s 'over 75 mm diameter are required. To all.ow
J ~ .• ",,~, ••• v
for unrestricte~~ai)[<;tu:t~J>,f",-appliancesmost branch pipes will require an

~~,:
~.. ." ii
"~~'k.:"~' ~H{~. . .
anti-siphon arrang!fil?:~n!?(~ee Fig. VI1.14). The advantage of this system is
•
~ ,\,' {~
if:
J."
J
••r
1:s 210: VENTILATION IN SIMPLE

BUrLDINGS
.. VENTILATION IN SIMPLE BUILDINGS
• VENTILATION
• The purpose of ventilation of buildings is to

remove high concentration of body odours,
carbon dioxide, water vapours and also
removes dust, fumes, smoke and excess
heat.
t'
'i VENTILATION IN SIMPLE BUILDINGS VENTILATION IN SIMPLE BUILDINGS
• The air in the room containing these • SYSTEMS OF VENTILATION

contaminants is replaced by fresh air and • There are two types of ventilation namely
thus creates air movement inside the room. natural and mechanical.
Absence of odours, dust and fumes in air is
better criterion for good ventilation
• NATURAL SYSTEM OF VENTILATION
• This uses (a) wind pressure, (b) stack
1
method and (c) a combination of the two j
4
VENTILATION IN SIMPLE BUILDINGS VENTILATION IN SIMPLE BUILDINGS
• Wind causes a positive pressure act on the _ • Stack effect

windward side of the building and a negative
pressure on the leeward side.
• Inlet openings should be on the windward side and • This is created by the difference in
near the bottom. The outlet openings should be well temperature between the air inside the
distributed and located on leeward side near the top. building and the air outside; the warmer the
This will allow cross ventilation in the room as air the less dense forcing the air inside to be
illustrated in the figure below.
displaced by the cooler denser air from
outside.

ES 210: VENTILATION IN SIMPLE
BU!LDINGS
• If a wind is present and the air inside the • MECHANICAL VENTILATION

building is warmer than the air outside,
ventilation will take place by both wind and • These systems employ an electrically driven fan
stack effect. or fans to provide the necessary air movement.
These systems have advantages over the natural
• Natural ventilation cannot ensure a specified systems as they provide positive ventilation at
air change nor is it possible to filter the air the same time.
before it enters the building
• There are three main types of ventilation namely:
• Natural inlet and mechanical ~xtract (Exhaust • Mechanical inlet and natural extract.
system) \
• This is important where air has to be heated
• This is the most common type of system used in before it is forced into a building.
kitchens workshops, labs, internally sanitary
apartments, garages, etc.
• It is used in boiler rooms, some offices and
some factories air may be heated and
• This system creates negative pressure on inlet side
ducted to various rooms
causing air in the room to move lowards the fan.
Mechanical inlet and extract • AIR CONDITIONING

This provides the best possible system of • This is a system that provides automatic control
ventilation but most expensive. It is mostly within predetermined limits of the environment by
used in cinemas, theatres, offices, heating, cooling, humidification, dehumidification and
restaurants, lecture theatres, dance halls,
cleaning of the air in the building.
restaurants, departmental stores and sports
centres, operating theatres and sterilising • The control of these conditions may be desirable to
rooms. The air is normally filtered maintain the health and comfort of the occupants or
- Types of fans have been attached on the next to meet the requirements of the induslrial process
page. irrespective of climatic conditions.

"
ES 210: VENTILATION IN SIMPLE
BUILDINGS
• Advantages of air conditioning

• FURTHER READING
• Working efficiency of personnel is improved.
• Reduction in illness and absenteeism. • Hall.F (1987) Building Services and
• Shops have increased sales because customers enjoy the equipment, vol 2, 2nd edition, Longman
environment.
• There is reduction in cleaning the building.
group UK. Pages 50 to 52.
• Some factories need air conditioning to keep plant and
processes at maximum efficiency e.g. computer rooms, food
production rooms and electronic laboratory.
• Sealed windows reduce the entry of noise from traffic and also
entry of tumes, dust and smoke is eliminated.
F,MULEYA, SEPTEMBER 2008 3

Di'rection of wind
Roof extract LJ I
ventilator Cool air stack
L--
------
=-.
r,-:;i
) stack
Fresh
air inlet
Positive Radiator ._ I
pressure
zone
Fig. 5.12 Roof pitch

Fig. 5.11 Roof pitch 30 over 30 Fig. 5, n Flat roof Fig. 5'.14 Upwardsventilarion Fig. 5.15 Cross ventilation
~
\ I
v--- Air is warmer
the top floors
on.
r-r: Flexible connection
Centrifugal fan
------- -, 1/l-- I
"
and motor-
Terminal
...-/1~ 1'1--
Duct gradually increasing in size ----~----,
Exhaust grills -----,-,
Extract grill 1 1 I r\\ \~
I--
I--
Warm air flow TI--
through staircase
.' and corridors

1,,1
j\ft( r(
)\_ Z_~ I~kj
1/ J\ . J\ Shunt ducts I';' 1 IIII
/ \ i'--. Cool-air passing

through entrances
entrance door and
windows
Fig. 5.1(\ Slack effect ina (all building

\
~ V
7c...[ ~room
Air forced into
w'o",,="
5
ill! ~IJ!II
I .(:
I
Stage
Entrance door from heated corridor I
Service duct I Bathroom
'--- Inlet grills
Wrnd pressure ~
1
Air drawn
• E:fC
from room
I 5
by suction ---
Fig. 5.17, Plan, at cll.SYllt<tnt y;il]pow

,"";:'. ~'·i~'¢:1'"~..;£ec.~
52 Figure 5.24 shows a downward and upward airdistribution system, with all
the ductwork installed in the false ceiling or roof space. Figure 5.25 shows an
upward air distribution system, having the heater unit in the basement. In both
Felt pad K'
systems, the control dampers may be adjusted from a control panel, so that up
Wind guard
to 75 per cent of the air may be recirculated thus saving a great deal of fuel
costs,
Types of fans
There are three types of fans used for mechanical ventilation systems, namely:
propeller, centrifugal and axial flow.
Propeller fans
These have two or more blades fixed at an angle to thehub. '1.'hey.\i!€velop·3. low
pressure of only about 125 Pa (12.5 rnm water gauge) and will therefore not Fig. 5.26 Propeller fan Fig. 5.27 Propeller fan at wall opening
force air through long lengths of ductwork. 'Their-main purpose i~ for free air
-openings in walls or windows, but "short 'terig'th's. of <llicli1$.'gifinay be used,
providing that the resistance through-rl,e (ill:l,0n is 10w.Tth¥<f"yria.J:il.r~m:Qvelarge
volumes of air and their installation'cost iSlow. A:.,prop'ellerfan having broad Forward Backward
curved bla-des will move more air, and is quieter than-a-fan with narrow blades of
the sa!fle diameter and run~ip~.}-t._the ~..,,!-rn,e
sp<,;ecl;,:rhey operate at efficiencies of Outlet
00
up to 50 per cent.
Figure 5.26 shows.a four-bladed propeller fan and Fig. 5.27 shows the Scroll shaped
method of installing r.he fan at a wall opening, which is a common method used' casing'
for ventilating workshops and kitchens. ",":1 I Impeller
Centrifugal fans
These consist of an impeller which revolves inside a casing shaped like a scroll.
The impeller blades can be (a) forward'or
thickness or aerofoilsection,
through long lengths of- ductwork,

backward' curved of either constant
(b) paddle blade, They can develop high pressure of
up to about 760 Pa (76 mm water gauge) and are therefore
in both ventilating
used for forcing air
and air conditioning
systems, The fans are generally quiet in operation but are bulky, the efficiencies
O
Paddle
blade ' •
'lnlet
Fig. 5.28 Centrifugal fan impellers

'-,
Pulley
Fig. 5.29 View of centrifugal fan

/ V-belt drive
Motor
range from 45 to 8$ per' cent, according to the type. The fan's output can be
varied by different motors and speeds, or by being coupled to a bolt drive, which
permits a change of pulley size to suit the fan's speed. The larger fans will deal
Duct flange
with large volumes of air and are used extensively for large buildings. The inlet Thermal insulation
of the fan is at 900 to the outlet and this makes it sometimes difficult to install,
unless the ductwork can also be turned through the same angle. Figure 5.28
shows the forward , backward and paddle blade impellers used with the centri- Axial flow fan
fugal fan. The forward blade impeller is suitable for constant air resistance, the Flow of
hot gases
backward blade is suitable for variable air resistance and the paddle blade is
suitable for air having a high level of suspended matter.
Figure 5.29 shows a view of a large centrifugal fan having a vertical outlet.
Outlets from the fans can be vertical, up or down, horizontal. or at various Motor surrounded t Fan for cooling
angles to the horizontal. by coot air motor
-;-. E~"210: MATERIALS AND THE
ENVIRONMENT
, >
MATERIALS AND THE ENVIRONMENT
• The preservation of the environment has

become a prominent issue in the recent
past years due to the recognition of the
harmful effects of pollution and
unsustainable exploitation of natural
resources.
MATERIALS AND THE ENVIRONMENT . MATERIALS AND THE ENVIRONMENT
• Since the building industry is a heavy user of • The building process should have an
synthetic and natural materials it could have Environmental Impact Assessment to
an important impact on the preservation of address issues such as impact of
the environment. construction and materials used on human
life, animal life, atmosphere, physical state of
land etc in a particular location
MATERIALS AND THE ENVIRONMENT 'MATERIALS AND THE ENVIRONMENT
• Example • Factors considered under the Environmental

• Consideration of the relationship between the use of Impact Assessment
certain timbers and timber related boards and • Will the use of materials result in the depletion of
sustainability of tropical rain forests. natural resources and to what extent or what will be
the impact?
• Trees are a vital component in the maintenance of a • Will the materials create a hazard or potential health
healthy environment. They help purify the air and hazard to human beings and animals?
preserve fertility of the soil. Depletion of the forests • Will the use of the particular material generate
may further lead to climate change. controversy?

--,
. '
"', ' ES 210: MATERIALS AND THE

!.-
ENVIRONMENT
MATERIALS AND THE ENVIRONMENT MATERIALS AND THE ENVIRONMENT
• Will the materials used change the view to • Types of Environments

• Natural environment
the public and to what extent? Positive or
• Air quality, water quality, ground water, soils, etc.
negative? • Man made environment
• Will the material create an aesthetically • Historical sites, archaeological sites, infrastructure
offensive view to the public? resource consumption in terms of energy, nuclear
power stations, etc.
• Will the material involve the generation of • Sensitive environmental areas
transpqrtation, storage or disposal of • Prime agricultural lands, ground water and river
discharge areas, flood pains and other open spaces
hazardous waste?

..;~
.,
t.
~=*-
Yes 'Maybe No Yes
- *:j. , ~... ~..•

..",.. ....•
,., ••t..•••••
~.,... •••••••••••
: '
rs·.of any Stare'Of lederalty designated unique, rare. 0';:'

~sfich;;"k' Slate and Federal Itsts and Migratory ~ird
f(animals into an area or create H barrier to the migration or the risk of explosion or release of potennany hazardous substances including.
" arfish? 'iimrred to, oil, pesticides, chemicals, radiation. or other toxic substances, in
i~ntr.a'P'!lent. or impingement of animallile? t.of an accident or "upset" condition?
g'.fish 'and wildlife habitats?
F~ti~m resulting in hurnan-wildlite interaction problems?
'Y health hazard or potential health hazard?
people to potential health hazards?
:tially aiter the present or planned LIse of an area?
a component of the National Parl< system, the National Wildlile Refuge
, the National Wild and Sc~nic River system, the National Wilderness system, adverse eHect on local or regional economic conditions. e.g., tourism. IOCRI
onal Forest land? ~.~~e.ls,land values. or. employment?
ri,Fiii "f€;$ourt:'es. Will the project:

">ii'· .,
~'!f~:.Iocrease the rate qf use 01 any natural resources? controversial?
S.ubstantially deplete any nonreusable naturalresources? with locally adopted environmental plans and goals?
.• 8e located i0 an area designated as or being considered for wilderness, wild and
Scenic river, national park, or ecological preserve?
-any .sceoic vista or view open to the: public?
EfJergy. Will the project:
aestneticaty offensive site open to the public view (e.g .. OU{ or place with
.• Use S~bstantja[ amounts of fuel or.energy? 9r design.ofsurroundinq area}?,
',•. Substanrially' increase th~ demand on existing sources of energy? . try change the )/isua~,~~Ie or cnaracter of the vicinity?
Transportation an.d lfaffje.circuJa.tion. Will ttie project result in:
Jo. • Movement of additional vehicles? gicar. cultural, or hist?rical sites. structures. objects, or buildings, either
• Effects on existing parking facilities or demands for new parking? for Inclusion in the National Register (e.g., be subject to the Historic
• Substantial impact on existing transportation systernts)? ation Act of 1974)?
• Alterations to present patterns of circulation or movement of people aneVor goods?
• lncreasec traffic hazards to motor vehicles, bicyclists, or pedestrians?
• Construction of new roads? "/ve the.generation, transport, storage or disposal of any regulated hazardous
·(e·9·, asbestos, if demolition or building alterations are involved)?
Public service. Will the project have an effect on, or result in. a need for new Q! altered
governmental services in any of the following areas: :S·. Department of Agriculture (USDA), 1990, Attachment B. po. \-7.
•. Fire protection?
• Schools?
~ Other governmental
. Utilities. Will the project

services?
result in, a need for new systems or alterations to the .following

..
utilities:
• Power and natural gas?

• Communications systems?
• Water?
• Sewer or septic tanks?
• Storm sewers?
~. r
.A ~~' ,":'"
~-.
';
,
SiilnPL.E.METHODS 'FOR IMPACT IDENTIFICATION-MATRICES, NErwORKS. AND CHECKL'STS H~
>, ." , )~':~" J'. . '
lifbii!-:
ti,~~':Fri~~~1ii~§.~~~~~~~~t~g~Y~~Mii,~~ ENVIR~NMENTAL IMPACTS

iJ~tent of present uses, as in aqricutture, business, industry, recreatlo 7,x"'""'>:e""lo'·":"?''''':i''~-"'~·;f;'Y~:~~ .:':'c,,, "'."'.
.. Yes. Maybe No co~
'tafld· ~~e( categories. including the potential for development; locate maj~ • '" '". ,'.':.!;;'~'-"":'. --:. ,·4-:"
ion corridors, including roads, highways, srup channels. and air traffic patte! ..wr:f~.ihe.proiect result in:
.'•... ,_ . ;-.:..,
transmission facilities and their placement (underground, surface, or overhead); identitY:'
."
resources. . ~ :~.~P€sor embankments?

N~ disruption 10 or displacement of the soil?
_.. '...••;+;,;"i!.~.raptiy.
.,;>.;.,',;=--r ::.c.:~'·~:.:,-"
•. ~ _physiography. and geology Provide a ffetailed description QI the topographical, ..' ct to 'ia~Qclassiiled as prime or unique farmland?
~:;~":" p~Ysiographical. and geological iealures within the areaot tna proposed action. Include U.S.'· gas:1n gro~nd contours, shorelines, stream channels, or (iver banks?
" .' ". .. Geological Survey Topographic Maps, aerial pnotoqrapns (il available), and other such grapli' non, covering or'modiliGation of unique physical features?
material.
wind or water erosion of soils? .
Soils Describe Ihe physical characteristlcs and chemical composition of loe sOilS. including Ihe
reon future uses of site on a long-term basis?
. relationship of Ihese factors 10 land slope. y. .,Wililhe project result In:
'\G~oIogjca' hazards- Indicate the. potential (or the occurrence of geological hazards in the. are-a, ~ntemissions Which win exceed Federal or State standards or cause
as sarmquakss, "Slumping," landslides, subsidence, permatrost, and erosion. tion of ambienl air qlJality (e.g .. radon gas)?
nableoclOrS? .
Identify Ihose species and ecosystems Ihat will oe affected by Ihe proposed action.
of air movements. humidity. or temperature?
~~~.
Species List in general categories. by common and scientific names, the plant and wildlife sp ns of hazardous air pouuraots regulated under Ihe Clean Air Act?
·tound In the area of the proposed action, and indicate those having commercial and recreati
.... :,ttle project result in:
Communities and associations Describe the dominant plant and wildlife communities and
. to a
public water system?
in c.urrents or water movements in marine or fresh water?
associations located within the area Of' the proposed action. Provide an estimate of the pop
densities of major species. If data are not available for the immediate area of the proposed
~;es in absorption rates. drainage patterns, or the rate and amount of surface
;:' data tram comoarable areas may be used, . . runoff?

tions to the course or flow flood waters? of
Unique and ottier biotic resources Describe unjq~e ecosystems or far~ or endangered species- namen!, control, or modifications of any body of water equal to or greater than
other biotic resources that may have special importance in the ¥,ea of the proposed action. ~s in
surface area? ..
Socioeconomic consiceratioos . as into surface waters or alteration of surface water quality including. but not
.If the proposed action could have a significant socioeconomk: effect on the local area, discuss
, temperature or turbidity?
socioeconorntc future of the area without the implemefl~Hon of the proposed action; desert
01 the direction or rate of [tow 01 groundwaters?
economic development in the VIcinity of the proposed action, p~~.icularly the Icoal tax
" .... :;.in groundwater quality?
per capita income; and identify trends in economic·de\lelopmen~af.'ldfor·land use of the- are,
ontaminatlon of public water supplies?
both an hislorical and a prospective viewpoint. Describe the population densities of both the
.iOIati<Jnof Slate Stream Quality Standards, if applicable?
immediate and generaJiled area. Include distances from'the:site of the proposed action to n
ocation in a riverine or coastal floodplain? .
residencas, cities, and urban areas, and list the populationso! these areas: Indicate the nun
'q;o!;ure 'of people or property 10 water-related hazards such as lIooding?
and types of resicences. businesses. and industries that wiit be 'dir~fy affected and those ttii
. ~. in a State'S coastal zone am;1 subject. toconsistency with lhe State Coastal
would require relocarion it the proposed action occurs, ..
Management Plan?
Air and water environment Describe Ihe prevailing climate and the quality and quanlity of"the air and' water resources of the'· on or construction in a wetland or inland uoodptaio?
area.
Climate Describe Ihe cI'matic conditions that have prevailed in ttie 'vicinity of Ihe proposed acti,
te significant solid waste, or litter?
extremes and means of monthly temperatures, precipttanoo. andwind speed and direction, In.'
'1 addition, indicate the trequency of temperature inversions. fog. smog. and-destructive storms'~,
as hurricanes and tornadoes. •
Hyorology and. hydrography Describe surface waters (fresh, brackish, prosaline) in the viCinity'''!,.
the proposed action, and discuss drainage basins. physical and chemical characteristics, water
WillUhe project:
use, water supplies, and cfrcuranoo. Describe the groundwater situation, water uses and sou
aquuer systems, and flow characteristics. ge the diversity or productivity .of species or number of any species ot plants
'!.o
ding trees, shrubs, grass, crops, microftora, and aquatic plants)?
Air, noise, and ~ter quality Provide data on the existing quality of the air and water (indicate
I.
I
diStance(s) ·from the proposed action site to mo~itOring
noise levels at the site boundaries.
stations] and the mean and maximum
.
~:~~u·ce the numbers or affect the habitat of any State or federaily designated
-rare, or endangered species of plants? (Check Stale and Federai lists of endangered
unique.
!~es.) . . ;
Unique features
Identity unique or unusual features of the area. including historical, archaeological. and scenic • tntroduce new species.ot plant into the area or create a barrier to the normal
and values. .::'n:~lenishment of eXisting species?
.lICe acreage of create damage to any agricultural crop?
Source: Abstracte<f from Federal Power Commission. 1973.
""%" t'<l r
"
·.. 1
I
I
. 88
,~~
.'" ,;,ji\! ~.~ ,t. ( ""' , .••

'
. -Office 'r,
building, iitQs'!rnent Cornpecrers Irouers) l
E--
I I
notet,
hospital,
"'illid'
recreations,
Front loaders 1---'--,--]
school. public
works
._-----
store, service
station Backhoes I I~===I. I I..-
'
'I
I
'
II"
.-
I II t II Tractors I I "1 ~ I. I :;f
83
75
---.
84 84
.79
84 83 84
. Scrapers, graders ! I 1 .1 I" .' ·1
89 ·89 71
81 78 78 77 T7
88. Pavers It· It· I ~
88
65 87 75 Trucks
84 72 ·79
RR 72 89 75 89 74 84 Concrete mixars
eq.~i~iirlent
present
g0'ir~i;(eq'u!pment
at site.
present at site. Concrete pumps
I I I I i I
nvirdrimentalProtection Agency. 1972, p. 2·104. . I .[ I I I I
Cranes, movable
Cranes, derrick
.:quivalem 'noise levels at construction lines and their attenuation with distanc
Table 99 c6iitalns information on noise with related examples, is available in
observed 50 ftfrom various types of con-
O:oneq uiprnent. These levels range from 72
FciBA for earth-moving equipment, from 75
::dBA for materials-handling equipment,
f~b~ 68. to 87 dBA for stationary equip-
impact equipment may generate noise
n
.up to s dBA ru.s.
EPA, 1972)
and Berglund (1986). '
Specific noise-impact guides have>c,
veloped for certain key sources; one ex
the guide developed for electric POWel
(Edison Electric Institute, 1984). Tills
dresses prediction, evaluation, meast
i
>".
"
e~'m"oc
'1'
Compressors
G~~~~
.. ',
.Jackharnmers and"rGck,drilis
W<~OO";
..
',
Impact pile dfjv~r~, p'Eia.i<S

,.
,. .
1 ~-~-~
,
I
j:i=+=~
.'
I 1
--+-
I
j 1
isefrom project operations includes sound
ons from highway vehicles, aircraft, rec-
and control of power plant noise emis .
is based on actual noise output data fro
rnent for any form of powerplant--c
Vibrator
Saws
I ". ir I I
vehicles, internal-combusrion engines, gas, or nuclear. open or enclosed--and
dustrial machinery. Noise produced by on limited available. oata sarnptes.
peered longtime average sound levels, .S. Environmenlal.protectioh·Agency, 197£, p. 2A08c
ay vehicles can be attributed to three range' ofcommunity positions for a wi ~.
generating systems: rolling stock such of wearher.and geographic conditions. A
;sand gearing, propulsion systems re- ified composite noise rating" procedur
'tt;~eiigihl accessories and other acces- ornmended for estimating the expected r' ",l car shak~rs), and tonal soundsje.g., published for the source type. IJ this approach
(' arid aerodynamic and body systems of a community to power plant noise. Th, from transformers,motors,pumps, and is unproductive, consideration could be given to.
,~~els.pf6ducedby highway vehicles are cedure provideS"a: means for estimating tb . the collection of existing noise emissions data
of vehicle speed, as illustrated in Fig- pected response of a typical cornmunif toise information is unavailable for a' pro- for sources of SImilar type. Another approach is
power plant noise emissions that contain- -project or activity, several possible meth- to gather noise emission information from the
nal=noise data for OH-58D Army term, steady broadband sounds (e.g., those xisr for assembling pertinent information, manufacturers of the noise-producing items. Fi-
d other mill tary aircraft is a vail- . cooling cowers, condensers, and boilers); " pproac.h would be [0 conduct a computer- nally, noise emission standards, if relevant and
h;' White, and Murphy (l992). Fi- rnirtent high-level sounds (e.g., those ,)J search of. me literature to determine available, could be .kIsed to identify noise emis-
i.~g!i;on noise levels from' power safety vents, outdoor public-address sy$,~ any emission information had been
'~;';'N': . sion concerns.
::1
:11
.':~
. :~~;~
·"l!,t
,~iit
••
Conatruction practice
*
Site inventory Short:t~~~:~0~~~t:.:~~,::~1J..'!!
Stream- flow variation Vehicular traffic Dust. sediment, an€l..t<ee..iCliucy,""',;."," •..,.~"-~,;,..,, .
I?~ hydrologic loss Test pits Tree root injury, sediment . ,;: ;,:%~~.
j,e0inrriunity relationships Species diversity
Environmental monitoring Negllgibie ;r properly done :' '" ""or ~'~~;.-.::!'"
::-:::t.1JI'J
G1t;(. ~?;';:: Temporary controls Short-term and nominal
'.':~
,.,kJp\!€llity Carbon monoxide Storm water Vegetation, water quality
Hydrocarbons Erosion and sediment Vegetation, water quality
Oxides of nitrogen Vegetative Fertilizers in excess
Particulates Dust Negligible if property done
Climatology Diffusion Clearing and demolition Short-term
'Noise Clearing Decrease in the.area of protective .tree, shrub;
Noise
and ground covers, stripping of topsoil;
Aesthetics Width and alignrnenl increased soil erosion, sedimentation, and
Variety within vegetation type storm-water runoff; increased stream water
Animals, domestic' temperatures; modification of stream banks
Native fauna and channels, water quality
Appearance of water Demolition Increased dust, noise, solid wastes'
Odor and floating materials Temporary facilities
Odor and visual quality Shops and storage sheds Increased surface areas impervious to' water
Sound infiltration, increased water runoff, petroleum
Historical products
Historical intemal and extemal packages
Access roads and parking lots Increased surface areas impervious to water
_______ Archaeological Archaeological internal and extemal oacka ir)filtration, Increased water runoff,
gen\!ration of dust on unpaved areas
""Bottomland forest" represents a composite cOl1sideralion or the following "I parameters: species associations. percent mas
trees. percent coverage by understory. diversity of understory, percent coverage of ground cover, diversity of ground cover, nu ytilitytrenches and backfills Increased visual impacts, soil erosion. and
trees greater than 16 in (or 18 in) doh/acre. percent of trees greater than t 6 Ifl (or 18 in) dbh, frequency or inundation, quantity eo sedimentation for short periods
.quatltyedge, '
'Sanitary' facilities Increased visual impacts, soild wastes
b.·Upland forest" represents a composite consideranorrot the following 10 parameters: species associations, percent rnasroeannq F~;{cis .',' Barriers to animal migration
percent coverage bi understory. diversity of understory. percent coverage of ground cover. diversity 01 ground cover, number
greater than or equal (016 in dbhlacre, percerit 'of trees greater than or equat to 16 in dbh, quantity of edge, and mean distance ~aYi19wn areas Visual impacts, increased runoff
a'Open (nonlorest) iaIlds" represent a composite ,considerationof Ihe following four parameters: land use, diversity of land use, Concrete batch plant' Increased visual impacts; disposal of
of edge, and mean distance to edge, , wastewater, increased dust and noise
"~Stream" represents a composite consideration of the following eighl parameters: smuosnv, dominant centrarchkis. mean tow-water, Non<;legradable or slowly degradable
turbidity, total dissotved solids, chemical type, diversity of fishes, and diversity of benthos, Teij1pqr<!JY and permanent pest control
Oo'Freshwqter jake" represents a composite consideration of the following 10 parameters: mean depth, turbidity, total dissolved (termites, weeds, insects) pesticides accumulated by plants and
'chemical type, shore development, "pring fiooding above the veqetanon line, standing crop of fishes, standingcrop of sport lish, animals, then passed up the food chain to
of fishes, and diversity of benthos, ,,' , humans; degradable pesticides having short
'''River swamp" represents a cornposite consideration of toe following six parameters; species associations. percent forest cover, biological half-lives preferred for use
floodec annualfy, ground cover diversity, percent coverage by ground coven-and days subject to river overflow,
.9"Nonriver swamp" represents a composite. consideration of the following five parameters: species associations, percent forest Earthwork . .Lonq-terrn
percent nooceo annually, ground 'cover divers~ty, and percent coverage by ground cover. Excavation Stripping, soil stockpitinq, and site grading;
Source: Adapted from Canter and Hill, 1979. ' .."
'- tiia:ding increased erosion, sedimentation, and
Trenching runoff, soil compaction; increasedsoil levels
-Soil treatment of potentially hazardous materials; side
'" effects on living plants and animals, and the
incorporation of decomposition products into
foed chains; water quality
Site drainage Long-term

Foundation drainage Decrease in the volume oi underground water
Oewaterinq for short and long time periods, iricreased
Well points stream flow volumes and velocities,
Stream channel relocation downstream damages, water 'quality
.~.!.,.~..... ~,. ~
MASTeR C0f'Y
WALL and CEILING FINISHES
• WALL FINISHES
• External brickwork with an exposed face of acing
bricks is self finish and requires no further treatment
• External rendering/plastering
• This form of plastering uses cement sand or cement
sand lime mixtures applied to the wall of the building
to give extra protection against moisture, and
provide the desired texture and appearance.
WALL and CEILING FINISHES WALL and CEILING FINISHES
I. Properties of plaster.
• It must be durable.
• Cement sand lime is more absorbent
drying shrinkage.
but has less
• Plaster is applied to surfaces of block work or

• It must be moisture resistant. common brickwork
• Cement: Sand ratios 1:3 and 1:4 are the most
• It must have an acceptable appearance. common. 1:3 is stronger and moisture resistant but
• Cement sand mixture produce strong subject to cracking due to the fast rate of drying.
moisture resistant rendering but subject to • External plaster must be 19mm thick while the
internal plaster must be 13mm thick. Wood float is
cracking due to high drying shrinkage.
used for finishing the external plaster so as
• • OTHER WALL FINISHES

• Gypsum.
• Ceramic wall tiles
• This is a naturally occurring material found in • • These are used as decorative finish for intemal
the UK and various parts of the world . walls. The tiles have a hard and shiny surface that is
easy to clean. They commonly used In wet areas
extracted and then pulverised into a fine such as bathrooms, kitchen, toilets and laundry.
powder and heated. They are laid up to a height of 1.8m. Ceramic wall
tiles come in a range of different colours.
• Plastered walls require painting to improve • In the past the most common were the 150 x 150mm
appearance and increase protection. This is white glazed tiles also known as Johnson tiles.
Today we have various colours and sizes e.g.
discussed in detail at a later stage.
1
.200 x200mm • The thickness of the tiles ranges between 4 to 6mm.
.300 x 300mm • Ceramic wall tiles are fixed to the wall using a
special adhesive/cement called tile fix normally
.450 x 450mm supplied in bags of 10kg. Grouting is done along the
.300 x 200mm joints to improve the texture and prevent water and
moisture from penetrating into the tiles .
• 350 x 350mm
• Skirting (Usually timber) has to be fixed along the
• Etc wall. Ceramic tiles are supplied in boxes with
coverage of 1m2 or 2m2 per box.
• Mirrors • Timber panelling

• Mirrors are used cladding. One of the functions is to • This can also be used as internal cladding with t and
create virtual continuity in the room or passage. G + V joints as shown I the illustration. Timber panel
can either be laid horizontally or vertically.
Mirrors are made from special selected quality or
silvering quality. • Timber panels come in various types such as:
• Blockboards.
• Large areas of mirror are bonded to blockboard and
screwed to battens fixed to the wall. Relatively small • A sheet material, which consists of a core of strips of
softwood each of up to 25mm in width with a sheet
area of mirror might be fixed directly to the wall by
of veneer (thin slices of timber applied with glue to
use of screws or clips. Mirror tiles are fixed to the board surfaces), bonded to the top and bottom
wall with contact adhesive surfaces.
• Laminated boards • Metal cladding

• This type of finish comes in various materials among
• Plywood others: copper, chromium and aluminium. Metal
• Its made of thin layers (piles) of timber which cladding is hygienic, hard wearing and good
appearance. It is also easy to clan and maintain.
are bonded together face to face resulting in
• CEILING FINISHES
a board material which is stiffer and stronger
• Functions of ceilings
than solid timber of similar thickness.
• To hide the roof structure.
• Soft boards • To act as insulation against heat.
• Particle boards with 6 or 8mm thickness. • To act as insulation against sound.
2
• Types of ceiling boards. • Particle board.

• Direct ceilings: Those applied to the underside of • This is the most commonly used type of ceiling
the floor or roof structure board available in 6 and 8mm thickness. It is
• Plaster board available in standard sizes of 2.44 x 1.22m. Fixing is
done by nailing the boards to brandering (50 x50m
• This is a rigid flat sheet material, which comprises a
softwood timber), which is fixed @ 600mm centre
core of gypsum plaster with surfaces of special
both ways.
paper.
• Polystyrene
• Soft board
• This is cut into sheets of 1.2 x 0.6m. Polystyrene has
• This has air gaps in it making it light.
a very short lifespan making it a disadvantage where
• It is a thick board long term ceiling boarding is required.
• Suspended ceilings. These types of boards rest on • Framed and panel system
supports that are eventually supported by strings or
wire fixed to the ceiling. Tap boards are used at • Fabricated in a factory the delivered and rapidly
suspended boards in sizes of 1.2 x 0.6m assembled on site. It consists of a steel or aluminium
• Suspended ceilings come in various forms such as members suspended from underside of the roof or
jointless, frame and panel, strip and open. ceiling by hangers. Panels are small self-finished
• Jointless units produced in various sizes.
• Consist of timber or metal which is suspended by • More types of ceiling for further study
metal supports or hangers fixed to the roof or floor
structure. The finish may be of plasterboard plaster • Strip
on expanded metal lathing.
• Open
• Particle, soft board, and tap board have to be • PAINTING AND DECORATING
painted. Details are discussed at a later • Paint is a mixture of liquid or medium and a
colouring or pigment, which has 3 functions.
stage.
• To impart colour.
• Ceiling boards are normally fitted with an
• To provide protective coating, which increases the
access point referred to a trap door size 0.6 x
durability of the timber to which, it has been applied.
0.6m. Trades men involved include It protects the surfaces from abrasion, sunlight,
carpenters, Painters, tile fixers, welders in damp and sunlight.
case of spider truss assembly, etc. • Its adds to the cleanliness of the surface.
3
• Painting is done to eternal walls, internal • TYPES OF PAINTS

walls and ceiling except where the wall has • OIL BASED PAINTS
been finished with ceramic or glazed tiles • Primers
metal cladding or fair face that does not • This is the first coat applied to seal the surface
against damp, air, etc. It is applied to timber, metal
require to be painted. and plastered surfaces.
• Undercoat
• This paint is used to build up the protective coating
and to correct the surface for finishing coats.
FLOOR, WALL and CEILING FINISHES ALL and CEILING FINISHES
• Gloss paint • Thinners (Solvents)

• These have good adhesive properties and • These are colourless liquids incorporated in
very easy to clean. Gloss paints are shiny oil based paints with the purpose of thinning
and used as finishing coats in wet areas the quality of the paint. This improves the
such bathrooms, toilets and kitchen.
ease of application and penetration or clear
• Other types of oil paints finish
• Velvaglo Satin.
• Double velvet.
• WATER BASED PAINTS • Special paints.

• These paints are also referred to as emulsion • Anti fungus paints.
paints. Undercoat is also required before • Anti acid paints.
applying water based paints. Water based • Heat resistant paints.
paints like PVA EMULSION are used as • Existing painted walls that require repainting must be
finishing coats in non wet rooms internally prepared before painting by scrapping and filling all
such as walls, ceiling boards. External walls small openings and pockets with wall filler. The
are also painted using PVA emulsion. Water actual painting is done by painters using either roller
is used as a solvent for water based paints. or brushes.
4
WALL and CEILING FINISHES
• BURGLAR BARS.
Burglar bars are used for protecting dwellings from
burglary. These are done in various patterns. The
most common type of material used is round and flat
metal bars, usually mild steel.
• See attached sketch below illustrating methods of
fixing. Burglar bars are fixed on window openings
while grill gates are fitted to doors using heavier and
bigger steel round and flat bars.
5
Table 8.2 Jointless liquid floor finishes
Floor finish Composition Base for finish
Cement 1 : 3-4! Usually concrete

screeds (cement: sand) or
(maximum 1 : H: 3
bay sizes (cement: sand:
usually aggregate
15m2)(see 12
also
'ground
floors',
Ch. 3, p.135)
Expanded metal Concrete and

may be insulation
incorporated in.
the screed to
reduce cracking
Lightweight Cement and '¢onc;rete

screed liqhtweiqht or
aera"tedaggregftte"" "
.. __ ~-~:.~~..tt:5"l~t !·fl:"'i .• !~·
Granolithic
Tii'I.aximum
bay-sizes:
mon61itf;li"&
28 rti2i::~ .,
bonded
14 m2)
'I
'"table 8,2 continued
~~--------------------------------------~~~----~
, "Floor finish Composition Base for finish':' "
Rubber latex, Usually concretes

cement, with cement
aggregates (such screed, or
as cork, sawdust, alternatively ,
sand), fillers, timber ort \Nhi~,~
pigment g a I\lci'n'i!\e!:1f;Wfr- _ .~
netting''i's-Jirst-.
fixed '"f '\t1;f
!o, ,):';'1'"
Terrazzo Cement and

(specialist marble aggregate
advice
should be
sought
concerning
bay sizes)
Synthetic Screed using

anhvdrlte synthetic
screed anhydrite in place
of cement
.: Magnesite BiJl:,nt magnesite,

magnesium
chlorfde, fillers
(such a~wood
flour, limestone,
sawdust).
pigments
"Mastic Bitumen,
asphalt aggregate (such
as limestone),
fillers, and if
colours are
required,
pigments
Cd)
sia or ballrooms,
bor finish. is.used.
,~(e) ry surf~~.~ b~ing
Typical laying methods
; .." ~
Characteristics will yary
with,th~itype"of brick
used' ("see'Br.i.cks', Ch. 2,
Mortar bed
p. 39). Erig'lreering Bricks or brick of 1:4
bricks are ,eX!r.emely paviors may cement : sand
hard-wea ri.l'Ig-:and be laid in thickness:
resistant to chemicals, decorative 15-20 mm
Brick paviors are bonds •• .>or ..----:.,.".:-
manufactured in a ~~~ <- <1"f'D
similar manner to bricks .:'.D..•..
but are less deep. They, ~. 4" Concrete sub-floor
may have special ' .
surfaces such as
chequered, ribbed ;il.n.~
rouqhened . Jd.< ,:.
• ~~ . "';J..~ t,.'.~l"
.,I;e;· ~~" ~~: ~ .

.l ;$e.i'wa[\es:t1:&:0"
,:;j. )('.¥ 50-; 2@0:rX';
2Q(;) ;.;:-~<;"-,,
1 : 1 cerperit :~a.ncj
l4exafu'oA's 175
x "~7:S' . j~~~tSi;-I!:":! .ft·:~':" :...':r~Je~"". :;;..j';,~ ", ~
'Recta'n~les 200
"x 10.0 ....
,~l
Quarry Made from clay which is Thicknesses:
tiles pressed into shape and 12, 19,25,32
<I"
hard burnt. The range of Squares: 150
quarries include: colours x 150, 200 x
- reds, browns, buffs, 200
Octagons: 175 40mm
blue; accessories (see
x 175 Thick 1 : 4 cement
illustration opposite and
Fig. 5.8(d), Ch. 5); Rectangles: bed sand
square and octagonal 150 x 75 method I>
shapes and chequered 1: 1 cement: ~

and raised dimple sand grout
surfaces to provide anti- into which
slip qualities tiles are pressed
Adhesive
method
QUARTZITE & SLAT~ ..(Natura~ stone, machine cut to various sizes)
Diamond Quartzite tiles are hard Slate with its natural beauty is ideal for classical or informal floor areas. The liIes are either machine cut or hand shaped to various
wearing and available in many sizes, sizes and thicknesses. The warm colours of the slate depends from where they were quarried.
colours and thicknesses.
MARBLE & GRANITE TILES (Natural stone, cut and polished to size, and in various patterns)
~,
~ '".~ ~,
'''11
:>:..
Marble will always be a distinctive, sophisticated wall and floor covering with its subtle symbol of prestige, elegance and gracious Granite is obtainable in about six colours
livmg, The benign warmth and mystery of marble will continue to surpass time. A few patterns are shown here. in any size and thickness.
NATURAL WOOD (Less frequently used and depending on availability and demand)
Strip wood flooring is still use'd for

. '.
~~!!-~-!!"
Ii< , '
~1.
Wood mosaics and the larger basket weave pattern are about 10mm thick and are
1
J
'I .' I I
I
squash courts, dance floors and in some obtainable in pre- formed squares in light or dark hardwoods.
traditional houses.
CERAMIC TILES (Presently in great demand for both interior a'nd exterior floors)
//
~/ :...
'~~~"+--+--r--r'~~+--+~/~'~
Ceramic tiles have virtually taken over Irom other' floor and wall finishes Tiles are made 01 clay which is fired at a high temperature and can be also
because it is hard wearing, has low thermal conductivity, its easy to clean and glazed smooth, matt or non-slip. There are various designs, shapes,
, maintain and has virtually an untimited range 01 colours, patterns and,qualities. thicknesses and sizes.
TERRAZZO TILES ~(For pedestrian malls, large areas and heavy .traff!c .
pavinq.)
Durable, hard wearing and attractive these tiles are made with cement, line exposed aggregates. Thicknesses vary between 25 to 50mm and sizes 250 to
aggregates and coloured pigments. Colour combinations are standard, These 450mm squares.
tiles are made as de'scribed alan side with a combination olished terrazzo and
VINYL TILES (Popular for domestic, commercial and industrial interior floors)
NOTES:
• For laying these floor finishes
consult the manufacturers as
techniques & methods differ.
• Some sub-floors must be wet
while others to be absolutely
dried out for a weekormore.
• Cements, adhesives, grout
Flexible or semi- flexible tiles 'are manufactured from textures, Thicknesses from O,2mm to O,3mm and sizes may stain the tiles so it is
thermo plastic binders and fillers, i.e. vinyl/asbestos, PVC normally 300 x 300 mm. Sub- floor must be quite smooth important to keep them clean.
/ Cork etc and in colours with different patterns and and dried out before laying tiles with the proper adhesive.
80

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__ Spirit Level

With a spirit level establish a horizontal line on all walls QUARRY

colour grout. Thereafter wipe clean with a damp

Must be Clean.ar), and atIeasi a weexs i

REI>\OVE Onrp ihotougnly. Must be clean. dr, ana ' I~ ,.:~;:

LOOP PILE GUT PILE

J CUT LOOP PILE

E' ~~~~I===J~-f -t-. ~~~~J===!/=3i

~ 150, 80mm MOCK BEAMS

FIBROUS PLASTER CEILING SUSPENDED CEILINGS

38 x 38 mm battens spaced at 38 x 114 struts

38 x 114 wall plate. --..,.----------,. Punched metal nail

e---_ 38 x 114 tie

200 x 15 asbestos '------- Insulation

Pre-cast concrete lintel --------

Standard metal window frame

, "i Hardwood internal sill ------------

Ctay face brick with recessed joints ------<0-

l~ Naturat ground level jIII-----

Remove topsoil and

Fig;S.26·;Joihtless ceiliii€jS'~·· .",.

"IN SITU CEILINGS>

Fig 5.22 continued

SQUARE SCROLL DIAMOND

881 882 883 884 885 886 887 88B

889 8810 8811 8812 8813 8814 8815 8816

8817 8818 8819 8820 8821 8822 8823 8824

8825 8826 8827 8828 8829 8830 8831 8832

COLD AND HOT WATER SUPPLY

• An adequate supply of water is a basic

• Temporary hardness of water can be • Sterilisation

F.MULEYA, OCTOBER 2008 1

• DIRECT COLD WATER SYSTEM • Advantages

F.MULEYA, OCTOBER 2008 2

• Materials for pipes • Mild steel

• Plastic • INDIRECT COLD WATER SUPPLY

• HOT WATER SYSTEM • Advantages

F.MULEYA, OCTOBER 2008 3

ES ,?10: COLD AND HOT WATER

• ONLINE HEATING SYSTEM • REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING

F.MULEYA, OCTOBER 2008 4

Pac~il)g gland .JI

1:':.... 1"2f\ D 0 I; ,.J:". .•..•h .•..

Drain valves (see Fig. 1.26)

l' Safety valves

i..;: ..•ilr'c,~t1 Expansion and feed cistern

Indirect 'cY,i'nder or calofifier ~:

'"'\; Si'lk'e- .:r.heiiT1oStatically

19 mm diameter vent ----------,

I' arid vent pipe

Immersion heater boss r

losses in the vent pipe

'Prirnatic' cylinder well insulated '" 1 1

/sj::1 Heat exchanger I Boiler

2 500 watt heater on

19mm diameter cold feed---------'----'---------~

stove enamelled ',~,--- I Cold feed pipe

" k I. Cistern heater