MECHANICAL ENGINEERING LAB

INSTRUCTION MANUAL

NAME :

ROLL NO :

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

MEA ENGINEERING COLLEGE, PERINTHALMANNA

VENGOOR PO, KERALA-679325.

1
 INDEX

EXPERIMENTS ( Ist CYCLE)

SL NO NAME OF EXPERIMENTS PAGE NO

1 TEST ON STEFAN BOLTZMANN APPARATUS 03
2 TEST ON FORCED CONVECTION APPARATUS 07
COP TEST OF REFRIGERATION SYSTEM (SOLENOID VALVE
3 13
EXPANSION METHOD)
4 TEST ON FREE CONVECTION APPARATUS 20

2
Experiment No:

Date :
TEST ON STEFAN BOLTZMANN APPARATUS

AIM:

To determine the value of Stefan Boltzmann constant for radiation heat transfer.

DESCRIPTION:

The apparatus consists of a flanged copper hemisphere fixed on a flat non-

conducting plate. A test disc made of copper is fixed to the plate. Thus the test disc is
completely enclosed by the hemisphere. The outer surface of the hemisphere is
enclosed in a vertical water jacket used to heat the hemisphere to a suitable constant
temperature. Three Cr-Al thermocouples are attached at three strategic places on the
surface of the hemisphere to obtain the temperatures. The disc is mounted on an
ebonite rod which is fitted in a hole drilled at the centre of the base plate. Another Cr-Al
thermocouple is fixed to the disc to record its temperature. A stainless steel water
container with immersion heater kept on top of the panel.

SPECIFICATIONS:

Specimen material : Copper

Size of the disc : φ 20mm x 0.8mm thickness
Base plate : φ 250mm x 12mm thickness (hylam)

Heater : 1.5 kW capacity, immersion type

Copper Bowl : φ 200mm

Digital temperature indicator : 0 – 199.90 C

Thermocouples used : 3 nos. on hemisphere

Stop watch : Digital type

Over head tank : SS, approximately 12 liter capacity

Water jacket : φ230mm, SS

Mass of specimen, m : 5g

3
 THEORY:
Stefan Boltzmann law states that the total emissive power of a perfect black body
is proportional to fourth power of the absolute temperature of black body surface.

Emissive power, Eb = ςT4

Where, ς = Stefan Boltzmann constant
= 5.6697 x 10-8 W/ (m2K4)
𝑑𝑇
Rate of change of heat capacity of the disc = m Cp
𝑑𝑡

Where, m = mass of specimen = 5g

Cp = Specific heat of copper

= 0.38 kJ / kg K
𝑑𝑇
= slope of the graph temperature of the disc v/s time
𝑑𝑡
( 𝑇1 +𝑇2 +𝑇3 )
Average temperature of the hemisphere, Tavg = + 273.15 K
3

Where, T1, T2, T3 = Temperatures of hemisphere

Net energy radiated on the disc 4
= ς𝐴𝑑 (𝑇𝑎𝑣𝑔 − 𝑇𝑑4 )

Where, Ad = area of the disc in m2

Rate of change of heat capacity of the disc = Net energy radiated on the disc
𝑑𝑇
ie. m Cp 4
= ς𝐴𝑑 (𝑇𝑎𝑣𝑔 − 𝑇𝑑4 )
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑇
m Cp 𝑑𝑡
Therefore ς = 4 − 𝑇4 )
𝐴𝑑 (𝑇𝑎𝑣𝑔 𝑑

4
PROCEDURE:

1. Remove the test disc before starting the experiment

2. Heat the water in the SS container to its boiling point.
3. Allow the boiling water into the container kept at the bottom, which contains
copper hemisphere, until it is full. Allow sufficient time to attain thermal
equilibrium which is indicated by the three thermocouples provided on the
hemisphere.
4. Insert the test disc fixed on the ebonite rod sleeve completely inside and lock
it. Start the stopwatch simultaneously.
5. Note down the temperature of the test disc at an interval of 15 seconds for
about 10 to 15 minutes

OBSER VATIONS:

Temperature of the disc before inserting into the plate, Td = K

Temperature of the copper hemisphere

Thermocouple
in 0C
T1
T2
T3

Temperature- time response of test disc

Time, t (s) Temperature , T4 (0C) Time, t (s) Temperature , T4 (0C)

0 -------
15 -------
30 675
45 690
60 705
------- 720
------- 735

5
CALCULATIONS:

Plot the graph of temperature of the disc V/s time, to obtain the slope ( dT/dt ) of

the line, which passes through or nearer to all points.

( 𝑇1 +𝑇2 +𝑇3 )
Average temperature of the hemisphere, Tavg = + 273.15 K
3

=
Temperature of disc before inserting to the test chamber (ambient),
0
Td = C
= K
𝑑𝑇
Rate of change of heat capacity of the disc = m Cp
𝑑𝑡

=
𝜋
Area of the disc, Ad = d2
4

= m2
𝑑𝑇
m Cp 𝑑𝑡
Stefan Boltzmann constant, ς = 4 − 𝑇4 )
𝐴𝑑 (𝑇𝑎𝑣𝑔 𝑑

=
RESULT:

INFERENCE:

6
Experiment No:

Date:
TEST ON FORCED CONVECTION APPARATUS
AIM:

To determine the convective heat transfer coefficient and the rate of heat
transfer by forced convection for flow of air inside a horizontal pipe.

THEORY:

Convective heat transfer between a fluid and solid surface takes place by
the relative movement of the fluid particles to the solid surface. If the movement
of the fluid particles is caused by an external agency such as pump or blower, that
forces fluid over the surface, then the process of heat transfer is called forced
convection.

In convectional heat transfer, there are two flow regions namely laminar
and turbulent. The non non-dimensional number called Reynolds number is used
as the criterion to determine change from laminar to turbulent flow. For smaller
value of Reynolds number viscous forces are dominant and the flow is laminar.
For larger values of Reynolds number the inertia forces become dominant and the
flow is turbulent. Dittus-Boelter correlation for fully developed turbulent flow in
circular pipes is,

Nu = 0.023 (Re)0.8 (Pr)0.3

Where, Nu = Nusselt number

Re = Reynolds number

Pr = Prandtl number
Va ds
Reynolds number, Re =
𝜈

Where, va = velocity of air in the test pipe in m/s

ds = diameter of the test specimen(pipe) in m

ν = kinematic viscosity of air in m2/s

7
 µ cp
Prandtl number, Pr =
k

Where, µ = absolute viscosity of air in Ns/m2

Cp = specific heat of air in J/kgK

k = thermal conductivity of air in W/mK

Nu k
Convective heat transfer coefficient, h = in W/m2K
ds

Rate of heat transfer, Q = h A (T∞ - Ts) in W

Where, A = area of heat transfer in m2

T∞ = mean temperature of air in K

Ts = Average surface temperature of tube in K

DESCRIPTION OF THE APPARATUS:

The apparatus consists of a blower to supply air. The air from the blower
passes through a flow passage, heater and then to the test section. Air flow is
measured by an orifice meter placed near the test section. A heater placed
around the tube heats the air. Heat input is controlled by a dimmerstat.
Temperature of the air at inlet and outlet is measured using thermocouples. The
surface temperature of the tube wall is measured at different sections using
thermocouples embedded in the walls. Test section is enclosed in asbestos rope
to avoid heat loss.

SPECIFICATIONS:

Specimen : Copper tube

Size of the specimen(ds x ls) : ɸ 25mm x 400mm long

Heater : Externally heated, Nichrome wire Band Heater

Ammeter : Digital type, 0-20A, AC

Voltmeter : Digital type, 0-300V, AC

8
Dimmerstat for heating coil : 0-230V, 2A

Thermocouple Used : 7 Nos

Centrifugal Blower : Single Phase 230V, 50Hz, 13000rpm

Manometer : U-tube with mercury as working fluid

Orifice diameter, ‘do’ :20mm

G. I pipe diameter, ‘dp’ :40mm

PRECAUTIONS:

1. Before switching on the unit, make sure that the variac knob in zero
position.
2. Operate thermocouple selector switch (TSS) gently
3. Increase the voltage slowly.
4. Do not go above 150V.

PROCEDURE:

1. Start the blower after keeping the valve open, at desired rate.
2. Put on the heater and adjust the voltage to a desired value and maintain it
as constant.
3. Allow the system to stabilize and reach a steady state.
4. Note down all the temperatures T1 to T7, voltmeter and ammeter readings
and manometer readings.
5. Repeat the experiment for different heat input and flow rates.

9
 6
5
4
3
2
1
Sl. No:

V
Voltmeter Reading (V)

Input

A
Heater
Ammeter Reading (I)

m
of
Hg
Difference in manometer reading (hm )

Velocity of air in the tube (Va)

m/s
TABULAR COLUMN:

0
T1

C
Air

0
temperature

T7

C
K
Mean temperature of air (T∞)

0
T2

C 0
T3

C 0
T4

C 0
T5

C
of the tube ( Ts)

0
T6
surface temperature

Average surface temperature of the tube

K

10
( Ts)
K
Tm

Kinematic Viscosity (ν)

m2/s
(x10-6)

Prandtl Number (Pr)

Thermal conductivity (k)

W/mK

Reynolds Number (Re)

Nusselt Number (Nu)

Convective Heat Transfer Coefficient (h)

W/
m 2K
W

Rate of heat transfer (Q)

SAMPLE CALCULATIONS (For Set No: ):

Room temperature, TR = =
P
Mass density of air, ρa = =
RT R

𝜌 𝐻𝑔 ℎ 𝐻𝑔
Pressure drop across orifice meter, ha = = m of air
𝜌𝑎

2 𝑔 ℎ𝑎
Velocity of air at orifice, Vo = 𝐶𝑑 𝑑 = m/s
1−[ 𝑜 𝑑 ]4
𝑝

𝑉0 𝐴𝑜
Velocity of air in the tube, Va = = m/s
𝐴𝑠

𝑇2 +𝑇3 +𝑇4 +𝑇5 +𝑇6

Average surface temperature of the tube, Ts = + 273.15
5

= K
𝑇1 +𝑇7
Mean temperature of air, T∞ = + 273.15 = K
2

𝑇𝑠 +𝑇∞
Properties of air are taken at, Tm = = K
2
0
= C

From Heat and Mass Transfer Data Book, following property values at - - - - 0C
are taken;

Kinematic viscosity, ν = m2/s

Prandtl Number, Pr =

Thermal conductivity, k = W/mK

𝑉𝑎 𝑑 𝑠
Reynolds Number, Re = =
𝜈

Nusselt Number, Nu = 0.023 (Re)0.8 (Pr)0.3 =

𝑁𝑢 𝑘
Convective heat transfer coefficient, h = = W/m2K
𝑑𝑠

11
Rate of heat transfer, Q = h A (T∞ - Ts) = h 𝜋 ds ls (T∞ - Ts)

= W

RESULT:

INFERENCE:

12
Experiment No:

Date:
COP TEST OF REFRIGERATION SYSTEM
(SOLENOID VALVE EXPANSION METHOD)
AIM:

To conduct the COP test on the vapour compression refrigeration system

by solenoid valve expansion method and to find out the C O P of the system
practically and graphically.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Vapour compression refrigeration test rig, stop watches, measuring tape etc

INTRODUCTION:

The main aim of refrigeration is to bring the temperature below a required

level to feel comfort in the case of air conditioner, to make ice products in the
case of freezers, to keep the fruits and vegetables undamaged in the case of
refrigerators, to keep the fish and meat fresh for a long periods in the case of
deep freezers. As per the second law of thermodynamics, heat cannot be
transferred from a cold body to a hot body without the aid of mechanical work.
By using mechanical work the heat is extracted from the substance in the
refrigeration system. There are two types of refrigeration system 1. Vapour
compression system and 2. Vapour absorption system. Among these vapour
compression refrigeration is common and it is familiar to all.

DESCRIPTION:

The apparatus consists of a hermetically sealed compressor used to

compress the Freon gas. A condenser is used to condense the gas to make it in to
liquid. A capillary tube and an expansion valve are provided to throttle the liquid.
An evaporator is provided to evaporate liquid in to gas form by absorbing
required heat from the brine. So the heat is extracted from the substance to bring
it cool at any level. Proper copper tubings are used to flow the gas through all the
parts for proper functioning. 4 switches are there to operate the condenser fan,
compressor, expansion valve, and heater. Digital thermometers and pressure

13
gauges are fitted to find the temperatures and pressures at different stages. The
test rig is mounted on caster wheels with sturdy tubular frame and laminated
panel board.

SPECIFICATION:

Power of compressor motor : 1/3 hp

Capacity of cooling fan : 21 W

Cut of temperature : 110 C

Energy meter constant : 750 rev / kWh

Thermo meters : Digital

THEORY:
π
Mass of brine in the evaporating vessel, m= d2 hρ kg
4
Where h = height of water in the tank
d = radius of the brine tank
ρ = density of water =1g/cc
Heat extracted from brine, H =m C (t6- t5) kJ
Where C = specific heat of water = 4.186 kJ/kg
t6= initial temperature of brine in 0C
t5= final temperature of brine in 0C
Refrigeration power=heat extracted /total cooling time kJ/sec or kW
n x 3600
Input power = kW
t x EC
Where EC=energy meter constant = 750 rev / kWhr
t = time taken for n revolutions of energy meter disc
Total input power = input power +power of condenser fan
COP=refrigeration power/ total input power

14
Determination of the COP by graphical method:-

Convert all the pressures p1, p2, p3 and p4 into bar absolute, locate the points 1, 2,
3 and 4 on the P H chart and note down the enthalpies (at the corresponding
points) of compressed gas, condensed liquid ,throttled liquid and evaporated gas.
The enthalpy change during evaporation= H4-H3
Enthalpy change during compression =H1-H4
COP =H4-H3/H1-H4
PROCEDURE:

1. Check any loose connection in circuits.

2. For capillary tube expansion open both valves at either sides of the capillary
tube.
3. Put on the main switch and the condenser fan switch. And also note the room
temperature.
4. After 5 minutes on the switch of compressor and start one stop watch.
5. Note the time for cooling and the time for 5 rev of the energy meter disc after
2 degree fall in brine temperature. Also note the pressures and temperatures
at every point.
6. Repeat the experiment five times for each 2 degree fall in brine temperature.
7. Tabulate the readings and find COP
8. Plot the cycle on the P H chart and find enthalpy change while cooling and
during compression.
9. By using the formulae H4-H3/H1-H4 COP can be find out graphically.
10.Note the result and the inference.

15
 7.
6.
5.
4.
3.
2.
1.
Sl. No:

Compressed gas pressure (p1)

psi
Condensed liquid pressure (p2)

psi
TABULAR COLUMN:

Throttled liquid pressure(p3)

psi
Evaporated gas pressure(p4)

psi
0
C
Compressed gas temp (t1)
0
C
Condensed liquid temp (t2)
Initial temperature/room temperature, t6
=

0
C

Throttled liquid temp (t3)

0
C

Evaporated gas temp (t4)

0

16
C

0
C

Brine temperature (t5)

Time for cooling

sec
kJ

Heat extracted from brine

Cooling rate/
Refrigeration power
kJ/sec

Time for 5 revolution of disc

sec

Input power
kW

Total input power

kW

COP
SAMPLE CALCULATION (Set No: )

The diameter of the brine tank, d = 29.5 cm

The height of brine in the tank, h = 25 cm

π
Volume of brine in the tank = xd2xh = = cc
4

Mass of brine, m =volume x ρ = g = kg

0
Initial temperature/room temperature, t6 = C
0
Final temperature, t5 = C

Heat extracted from brine, H =m x C x (t6-t5) = = kJ

Total time required for cooling, t = s

𝐻
Rate of cooling or refrigeration power = = / = kW
𝑡

Time required for 5 revolutions of the energy meter disc, t3= s

nx 3600
Input power = = / = kW
t 3 xEC

Power of condenser fan = W = kW

Total input power = Input power + Power of condenser fan = kW

refrigeration power
COP of the system = = / =
input power

17
 Pressure Enthalpy Chart (p-H chart)

18
Determination of C O P using p- H chart:

14.5 psi=1 bar

P1= --------------psi = ------------------bar abs; P2=--------------psi =--------------bar abs

P3=---------------psi = -------------------bar abs; P4 =--------------psi =-------------bar abs

Plot the cycle showing all processes according to the pressure

Enthalpy at point 1, H1= kJ/kg;

Enthalpy at point 2, H2= kJ/kg

Enthalpy at point 3, H3= kJ/kg;

Enthalpy at point 4, H4= kJ/kg

Enthalpy change during evaporation =H4-H3 = kJ/sec

Enthalpy change during compression = H1-H4 = kJ/sec

H 4 −H 3
C O P of the system = =
H 1 −H 4

RESULT:

COP of the refrigeration system (by calculation) =

COP of the refrigeration system (by graphical method) =

INFERENCE:

19
Experiment No:

Date:
TEST ON FREE CONVECTION APPARATUS
AIM:
To determine the surface heat transfer coefficient for a vertical tube
loosing heat by free convection.
INTRODUCTION:
In contrast to the forced convection, a free (or natural) convection
phenomenon is due to the temperature difference between the surface and the
fluid and is not created by any external agency.
APPARATUS:
The apparatus consists of a brass tube fitted in a duct in vertical fashion.
The duct is open at the top and bottom and forms an enclosure and serves the
purpose of an undisturbed surrounding. One side of the duct is made of Perspex
for visualization. An electric heating element is fitted in the vertical tube which in
turn heats the surroundings by natural convection. The temperature of the
vertical tube is measured by seven thermocouples. The heat input to the heater is
measured by a dimmerstat. Thermocouple number 8 reads the ambient
temperature and is fitted in the duct.
SPECIFICATIONS:
Diameter of the tube (d) : 38mm
Length of the tube (L) : 500mm
Duct size : 300mm x 300mm x 640mm
Temperature indicator : 0 to 3000C multi channel type calibrated for Cr/Al
thermocouples.
THEORY:
When a hot body is kept in a still atmosphere, heat is transferred to the
surrounding fluid layer in contact with that hot body. The hot fluid (hot air) rises
up through the duct due to decrease in density. The surrounding cold fluid (cold
air) flows to the space due to pressure difference and the process of heat transfer
continues.

20
 The coefficient of heat transfer is given by
h = q As(ts – ta)
where, q = heat transfer rate in W
As = Area of the heat transferring surface in m2
ts = Average surface temperature in 0C
t 1 +t 2 +t 3 +t 4 +t 5 +t 6 +t 7
=
7

ta = ambient temperature in the duct in 0C

The surface heat transfer coefficient of a system, transferring heat by
natural convection, depends on the shape, dimensions and orientation of the
surface and the temperature difference between the surface and the fluid. The
dependence of ‘h’ on all the above mentioned parameters is as follows:
𝑛
ℎ𝐿 𝑔 𝐿3 𝛽 𝛥𝑡 𝐶𝑝 µ
= 𝐴[ ]
𝑘 𝜈2 𝑘
ℎ𝐿
is known as Nusselt Number (Nu),
𝑘

𝑔 𝐿3 𝛽 𝛥𝑡
is known as Grashof Number (Gr) and
𝜈2
𝐶𝑝 µ
is known as the Prandtl Number (Pr)
𝑘

ie Nu = A (Gr. Pr)n
where, L = length of the tube in m
k = Thermal conductivity of the fluid in W/mK
g = acceleration due to gravity in m/s2
β =Coefficient of volumetric expansion for fluid in
1
= in K-1
t f + 273

Δt = ts – ta in 0C

21
 Cp = Specific heat of fluid in J/kgK
µ = dynamic viscosity of fluid in Ns/m2
ν = kinematic viscosity of the fluid in m2/s
tf = mean film temperature in 0C
t s +t a
=
2

‘A’ and ‘n’ are the constants depending upon the shape and orientation of
the heat transferring surface. For a vertical cylinder losing heat by natural
convection, the constants ‘A’ and ‘n’ are determined according to the following
empirical correlations:
hL
= 0.59 (Gr. Pr)0.25 for 104 < Gr. Pr < 109
k
hL
= 0.13 (Gr. Pr)1/3 for 109 < Gr. Pr < 1012
k

All properties of the fluid are determined at the mean film temperature tf.
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Ensure the dimmerstat is at zero position before starting and increase it
very slowly.
2. Operate the change over switch of temperature indicator gently from one
position to another.
3. Never exceed the input power above 80 Watts.
PROCEDURE:
1. Put on the supply and adjust the dimmerstat to obtain the required heat
input.
2. Wait till the steady state reached which is confirmed from the temperature
readings t1 to t7.
3. Note the surface temperature at various points and the ambient
temperature.
4. Repeat the experiments at different heat inputs (Do not exceed 80W).

22
 6
5
4
3
2
1
Sl. No:

V
Voltage (V)

A
Current (I)

0
C
TABULAR COLUMN:

0
C
C
C 0
0
Tube

0
C
C 0
0
Surface Temperature of the

T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7

Average Surface
0
C

Temperature of the Tube

(Ts)
0

23
C

Ambient Temperature ( Ta)

W

Heat Transfer Rate (q)

Heat Transfer Coefficient (h)

W/m2K
0

Average Temperature of
C

Fluid (Tf)
Grashof Number (Gr)

Gr x Pr

Theoretical Heat Transfer

Coefficient (hth)
W/m2 K

Nusselt Number (Nu)

SAMPLE CALCULATIONS (For set No: ):
Heat transfer rate, q =VxI = W
t 1 +t 2 +t 3 +t 4 +t 5 +t 6 +t 7 0
Average surface temperature, ts = = C
7
0
Ambient temperature in duct, ta = C
Area of the heat transferring surface, As = πdL = m2
Heat transfer coefficient, h = q / As(ts – ta) = W/m2K
t s +t a o
Mean film temperature, tf = = C
2

Properties of fluid (Air) at tf (- - - - 0C) temperature

Thermal conductivity of the fluid, k
Acceleration due to gravity, g
Kinematic viscosity of the fluid, ν
Prandtl Number, Pr
Coefficient of volumetric expansion, β=
= W/mK
= m/s2
= m2/s
=
1
= K-1
t f + 273

𝑔 𝐿3 𝛽 𝛥𝑡
Grashoof Number, Gr = =
𝜈2

Gr x Pr =
0.59(Gr .Pr )0.25 .k
Theoretical heat transfer coefficient, h= = W/mK
L
ℎ𝐿
Nusselt Number, Nu = =
𝑘

RESULT:

INFERENCE:

24