CHAPTER-I

INTRODUCTION

1.1.0. The Present Status of Asamiya, Bangla and Odia

Asamiya (Assamese), Bangla (Bengali) and Odia (Oriya) are three eastern New
Indo-Aryan languages spoken in a contiguous area and specified in the Eighth Schedule of the
Constitution of India.

As.amiya'(Assamese) is the official language of Assam. It is also spoken by a

considerable number of speakers in Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya and Nagaland. The number
of speakers who returned the language as their mother tongue in the 1991 Census, is
" 13, 079, 696. Among the eighteen scheduled languages, Asamiya occupies the twelfth position
in terms of the number of speakers in the 1991 Census of India.

Bangla" (Bengali) is the official language of West Bengal and Tripura and is also
considered as the regional official language of the Cachar district in Assam. A considerable
number of Bangla speakers is found in the neighboring states of Assam, Bihar, Orissa and in
Madhya Pradesh. The number of speakers who returned the language as their mother tongue in
the 1991 Census is 69,595,738. Among the eighteen scheduled languages Bangla occupies the
second position in terms of the number of speakers in the 1991 Census. In this connection, it is
worth noting that Bangla has been declared the national language of Bangladesh.

Odiahi (Oriya), is the official language of the state of Orissa. It has also been
recorded to be spoken by a substantial number of speakers in the neighbouring states of Madhya
Pradesh, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal, Assam, and in Maharastra, Tripura and Uttar
Pradesh. Among the eighteen scheduled languages, Odia occupies the tenth position in terms of
the number of speakers according to the 1991 Census. The number of persons who returned
Odia as their mother tongue in the Census is 28, 061, 313.

1.1.1. Filiation of Asamiya, Bangla and Odia

In regard to the origin of these languages, it is known that Asamiya,
Bangla and Odia are the three New Indo-Aryan languages belonging to the Eastern Magadhan

1
speeches. Like MagaHT, Maitfiilf and Bhojpuriya, they are said to be derived from Magadhi
Apabhramsa. The close genetic relationship of the three languages naturally gives rise to
some commonness of form and meaning in respect of such an important grammatical
aspect as reduplication. Still, owing to their distinct socio-political and cultural traits they
have developed some individuality. Therefore, how far they share the common features of
the phenomenon of reduplication and in what way they differ from each other in respect of
reduplication, have been made the focal point of the present work.

1.2.0. Defining Reduplication

The phenomenon of reduplication has been defined in different ways by different

scholars. Sapir ( 1921 : 76 ) states, “Nothing is more natural than the prevalence of
reduplication, in other words, the repetition of all or part of the radical element. This
process is generally employed, with self-evident symbolism, to indicate such concepts as
distribution, plurality, repetition, customary activity, increase of size, added intensity,
continuance.” According to Bloomfield (1933 : 218), “Reduplication is an affix that
consists of repeating part of the underlying form”. Chatteiji (1939 : 195) views
reduplication as a process of repetition of a word. Bloch and Trager (1942 : 57) say,
“Reduplication is the repetition of all or part of the base, with or without internal change,
before and after the base itself’. Nida (1946 : 69) considers reduplication as a case of
additive morpheme and states ; “Where only a part of the root or stem is repeated, the
repeated portion may be called a ‘reduplicative’. Such reduplicatives may occur preposed,
interposed and postposed to the root or stem, and they may consist of just the morphemes
of the stem or there may be some added elements ... .” Nida (1946 : 70) distinguishes
between complete and partial reduplication. He also classifies reduplicatives according to
whether they are preposed or postposed. He classifies reduplicatives according to the
structural order of phonemes which are reduplicated.

Gleason (1955 : 90) describes reduplication as “A special case of affixes of

highly variable form ... .” He (1955 : 91) also states: “Reduplications can be prefixes,
infixes or suffixes”. Furthermore, he comments, “The significant thing about a
reduplication is the allomorphic variation ... .” Robins (1964 : 212) looks at

2
reduplication as “A particular type of grammatical formation, whereby a part or the whole
of a root form is repeated in the same word, is found in a number of languages to varrying
extent; this is known as reduplication and is describable either as a process or as an
addition”. In a recent contribution dealing with reduplication in the South Asian
Languages Abbi (1992 : 12) states, “Reduplication stands for repetition of all or a part of a
lexical item carrying a semantic modification”. Thus following the abovementioned views
of reduplication, it can be treated as a special kind of affixation. Hence it can be said that
reduplication stands for repetition or copying of a word or a syllable either exactly or with
partial change in the phonological or morphological structure. The copied part is affixed to
the base element, in order to bring some modification in the semantic interpretation of the
base element or to convey some special meaning. In this connection we may refer to Bauer
(1988). According to him (1988 : 252), “Reduplication has two meanings. The first is the
formation of new affixes by repeating some part of the base (possibly the whole base). The
second is the formation of new words using affixes created in this manner”. That means, as
a result of reduplication there are —

1) formation of new affixes by repeating either some part of the base form or the whole
base, and,

2) formation of new words by affixation.

It is to be mentioned here that as a process the term1' ‘copying’ has been

preferred to the term ‘repeating’, throughout the present dissertation.

1.3.0. Reduplication in Indian Languages — Retrospection in General

Various kinds of reduplicated structures are found to exist in almost all the
modem Indian languages, and these have been studied by different eminent scholars from
different angles. Before discussing the existing works on the reduplicated structures in
Asamiya, Bangla and Odia (sec. 1.4.0.), with which we are actually concerned, some
significant works on the phenomenon in other Indian languages, which have been helpful
for understanding the nature of the phenomenon under consideration are worth
mentioning.

3
 Apte (1968) is a structural and functional study of reduplication, echo formation
and onomatopoeia in Marathi. He analyses the process of reduplication and establishes its
relation to echo words and onomatopoetic words from the semantic point of view as well.
He also classifies reduplicated words and echo words into different types on the basis of

their formal shape.

Singh (1969) deals with the echo formations in Hindi, where he considers it to
be a kind of partial reduplication involving structural as well as semantic imitation of the
stem or word. He shows different types of echo formations with different kinds of
replacive elements by citing examples. He also discusses these examples in different word
classes.

Dey (1975) deals with the echo constructions with emphasis on Ladakhi in the
transformational model and proposes ordered rules which are operative in the process of
forming echo constructions.

Ananthanarayana (1976) illustrates reduplication in Sanketi Tamil (a Tamil

dialect ) as a productive process in the language. He finds complete reduplication in
onomatopoetic expressions and in other lexical items, and partial reduplication of different
kinds in echo constructions. The different functions of reduplication like ‘distributive’,
‘intensive’ and ‘iterative’ have also been cited.

Bhaskararao (1977) contributes to the study of reduplication, echo words (as

partial reduplication) and onomatopoeia in Telugu from the structural point of view with
emphasis on their grammatical status. He deals with onomatopoeia in terms of their
phonological shape and frequency of occurrence of some sounds in forming
onomatopoetic words. He also derives sound - meaning relationship in the process of
describing the shapes of onomatopoeia. He is of the opinion that the meanings of
generality, extension, distributive or repeated action are signified by reduplication.

Nagaraja (1984) analyses reduplication of Khasi by classifying reduplicated

structures into three types depending upon the mode of affixation, that is, prefixation,

4
suffixation and infixation. He also examines the possibility of reduplication in different

word classes.

Gnanasundaram (1985) deals with the types of onomatopoetic words under the
heading ‘Reduplicatives’ and shows their occurrence with the quotative verb, auxiliary
verbs, nominal suffix and verbal noun suffix. Furthermore, he deals with the echo words
involving change of vowels or of consonants. The semantic functions of these types of
reduplicated words along with their onomatopoeic value have also been discussed in this
work.

Abbi (1980) especially deals with the reduplicated structures in Hindi from the
‘Generative Semantic’ point of view. Abbi (1992) observes reduplication as an areal
universal feature by studying broadly the four language families of South Asia — Indo -
Aryan, Dravidian, Munda, and Tibeto - Burman. By analysing the proto forms of Munda,
Dravidian and Indo European, she tries to establish the Munda origin of reduplication in
general and of word reduplication in particular. While doing this, she identifies a shared
semantic field for word reduplication of these languages.

Koul (1993) discusses the echo word constructions of the modem Indian
languages from the generative point of view by formulating phonological rules.

All the works, as mentioned above contribute to developing the insight for
analysing the phenomenon in the present study.

1.4.0. Reduplication in Asamiya, Bangla and Odia — Retrospection in particular.

As far as Asamiya (Assamese), Bangla (Bengali) and Odia (Oriya) — the three
major eastern Indo-Aiyan languages are concerned, there are some important
contributions to the study of the phenomenon of reduplication by different distinguished
scholars.

In the field of Asamiya, we may refer to the significant contributions of

Goswami (1973, 1982, 1987) which deal with the onomatopoetic words,
nononomatopoetic words and echo formations under the categories of complete and

5
partial reduplication respectively. He also discusses the subtypes of partial reduplication,
with changed vowels and consonants, with repetition of the final syllable, and with
repetition of the initial syllable. Goswami (1978, 1981) provides us with a brief but useful
account of onomatopoetic words and echo formations in Asamiya. Dutta Baruah (1978)
offers a chapter on reduplicated structures in Asamiya. He classifies the reduplicated
structures in terms of their formal shape and discusses the semantic interpretations of those
structures. He also shows complete reduplication of lexical items in different word classes.

Reduplicated structures of Bangla have, so far been described by different

renowned scholars.

Tagore (1900 / B.S. 1307) deals with the reduplicated lexical items of Bangla by
describing them mainly from the semantic point of view. He points out different meanings
like ‘hesitation’, ‘mildness’, ‘intensity’, ‘incompleteness’, ‘span of time’, ‘excellence’,
‘ascertainment’ etcetra that are conveyed by reduplicated words of different kinds. Tagore
also provides us with a list of onomatopoetic words and describes them from the
viewpoint of phonaesthetics or sound symbolism. He proposes to classify the
onomatopoeia into static and dynamic types. Some echo formations have also been
mentioned in this connection by Tagore.

Raya Vidyanidhi (B.S. 1319:219 - 224) discusses the reduplicated structures in

Bangla by naming them as ‘associated words’ (doSOr SObdo) and classifies them into five
types. In this connection, he tries to trace the origin of the second element of the
reduplicated constructions. He (B.S. 1319 : 233) also deals with the reduplicated
onomatopoetic words. Apart from these, he (B.S. 1319 : 231) mentions that indeclinables
are reduplicated to convey the sense of repetition, high quality, and so on.

Trivedi (1917) also discusses the onomatopoetic words of Bangla from the
phonaesthetic point of view. He is of the opinion that the phonetic nature of the initial
sounds of the onomatopoetic words suggests the meaning. He explains the semantic nature
of the Bangla onomatopoetic words on the basis of the points of articulation of the initial
consonants of the words. In this connection, we may refer to Chatteiji (1926 : 890), who
rightly says, “The proper significance and use of the onomatopoetic forms in the

6
psychology and art of Bengali speech has been discussed by Rabindranath Tagore in
r f
‘Sabda - tattwa’ and by Ramendra - Sundara Trivedi in ‘Sabda - katha’”.

The contributions of Chatteiji (1926, 1939) provide a brief but excellent sketch
of this aspect of Bangla morphology. He states that reduplication is possible in all Bangla
parts of speech like nouns, adjectives, pronouns, verbs, etcetra. He (1926 : 1047 - 1049)
points out that certain verb forms are doubled in Bangla to indicate repeated, intense or
continuous actions. Chatteiji also discusses briefly about a type of reduplication, which
behaves like the roots, when used in pairs. In such cases, the verb is repeated and the
vowel or the consonant in the initial syllable of the repeated part is changed. This results in
the formation of a ‘jingle’ extending the idea of the verb or conveying the meaning of a
similar type like Bg. kheYe - deYe ‘after eating and the like’; Jirie - Tine ‘after taking rest
and the like’; JhaRle JhuRle ‘doing dusting and the like’, etcetra. In this connection he
also points out a type of common verbal nouns of reciprocity which are reduplicated. The
second part of such reduplicated verbal nouns takes an affix ‘-i’ in the word final position
e.g., Bg. mara mari ‘fighting with each other’. He also cites a number of roots used in
pairs which are similar in meaning or have connected ideas and express ‘an intensive idea’,
e.g., Bg. dhue - muche ‘by washing and rubbing’; mere - dhore ‘by beating and arresting’,
etcetra. As regards onomatopoetic words, Chatteiji classifies them under two heads —
‘onomatopoetics proper’ and ‘roots repeated’, imitating different sounds and expressing
emotions. ‘Onomatopoetics proper’ has been again classified into two types — ‘Simple’
and ‘Duplicated’. The ‘simple’ type includes the single use of onomatopoeia and the
‘duplicated’ type, the repetition or doubling of the form. Again, he classifies the category
of ‘roots repeated’ into two types — ‘complete repetition’ which is the duplication of a
root form and ‘modified repetition’ in which “another root of similar sense and assonance
echoes the preceding one” (Chatteiji 1926 : 891). All these are onomatopoetic verbs.
According to him, reduplicated onomatopoetic words are used ordinarily as adverbs or
may be used as gerundives. He also mentions a group of reduplicated onomatopoetic
words which are used with Bg -kOr ‘to do’ and regarded as compound verb formations.
Chatteiji also takes into account the echo words and semantically reduplicated words, as
types of reduplication.

7
 Sen (1939 : 53-54) gives a brief sketch of the Bangla onomatopoetic words and
echo words. He classifies the reduplicated structures into three groups, viz., echo words,
dependent or tag words and tautologous words on the basis of the mode of formation of
the last part of the reduplicated construction. While discussing onomatopoetic words he
mentions that the meaning of such words sometimes depends on the vocalic segment used
in the words. He also gives a short list of onomatopoetic words.

Apart from these, Dutta (1961, 1962) offers a list of onomatopoetic words and
semi-onomatopoetic phrases with balanced vocables.

Bykova (1981 : 103-105) presents a sketchy discussion on Bangla reduplication.

She discusses the semantic nature of different types of reduplicated structures used in the
language.

Ghosh (1991) deals with Bangla onomatopoetic words only from the
psycholinguistic point of view and also discusses the use of the onomatopoetic words in
the modem Bangla short stories.

As far as Odia is concerned contributions of Tripathy (1962 : 206-212) and

Mahapatra (1995 : 200 - 207) are noteworthy. These works deal with the types of echo
formations and tag or dependent words only. Mahapatra (1996 : 7 - 13) provides us with a
handsome list of Odia onomatopoetic words.

Thus, it is evident from the above account that description of the phenomenon
of reduplication is available in some form or other in all the three languages. But no
attempt has been made so far to compare and contrast the three languages with regard to
the phenomenon of reduplication. Therefore, the present work attempts to find out the
similarities and differences of the three languages with regard to the reduplicated
structures. In addition, it endeavours to throw some light on the pedagogical purpose of
the study.

8
1.5.0. Methodology

The present study aims at contrasting the reduplicated structures of Asamiya,

Bangla and Odia. The approach is data - oriented and has been carried out in the
descriptive model.

Description of languages being a prerequisite of any comparison of languages,

the present study, first of all, essays detailed descriptions of the reduplicated structures of
Asamiya, Bangla and Odia, which are followed by the contrastive study of the
phenomenon. In this context, it is worth mentioning that viewing reduplication in terms of
copying and affixation seems to be more relevant in explaining the phenomenon
adequately, while dealing with various types of structures. So reduplicated structures of
the three languages have been analysed in terms of copying followed by affixation.

Contrastive analysis according to Fisiak (1980 : 1) is “...concerned with the

comparison of two or more languages (or subsystems of languages) in order to determine
both the differences and similarities that hold between them”. The present work, therefore,
demonstrates both the similarities and differences of the three languages with regard to
reduplication.

As the semantic interpretation of reduplicated structures becomes clear in a

language when these are used in the sentence proper, all the examples of reduplication
throughout the work will be cited in sentences. This will help in explaining and
understanding the exact semantic modifications and the functions involved in the particular
uses of the reduplicated structures.

1.6.0. Purpose

The main objective of the present treatise is to contrast the reduplicated

structures of Asamiya, Bangla and Odia for which detailed descriptions of each of the
three languages are very much required. The present work, therefore, also aims at
describing the reduplicated structures of the three languages at length in separate three
chapters. Moreover, an efficient use of these reduplicated structures is obviously essential

9
for the purpose of effective communication on the part of a second language learner. It is
therefore, expected that a contrastive study of the reduplicated structures of these three
languages — Asamiya, Bangla and Odia, will enable us to detect the problem areas of
teaching and learning of the reduplicated structures of these three languages. Such a
detection may have a beneficial impact on the preparation of language teaching materials
also.

1.7.0. Collection of Data

Being a native speaker of standard colloquial Bangla (which is spoken in and

around Calcutta proper) I have collected data of Bangla reduplicated structures from my
own speech. Further, for the sake of accuracy, the data have been thoroughly checked with
other speakers of standard colloquial Bangla belonging to different sexes and age groups.
Asamiya and Odia data have been collected from the speakers of the respective standard
colloquial speeches through field work.

Standard colloquial Asamiya is spoken in and around Sibsagar area, as

mentioned by Grierson (1927. Linguistic Survey of India, vol. v pt. 1 : 394): “the standard
dialect of Assamese is that form of speech which is prevalent in and about Sibsagar.”
Later, however, Goswami (1978 : 21) points out : “With the transfer of the centre of
culture and literary activities, from Sibsagar to Guahati in recent times, it may be said that
the standard form of Assamese, though based on the grammatical structure of the eastern
dialect, has undergone changes with a tendency to assimilate forms and expressions of the
central place of Assam, namely Guahati”.

The variety of Odia that is spoken in and around Puri and Cuttack has been
considered to be the standard colloquial variety. As Bhattacharya (1993 : 3) puts it “It
should be pointed out here that it is now well accepted by the scholars of Oriya that SCO
is spoken in Puri - Cuttack area i.e., the central coastal belt comprising the districts of Puri
and Cuttack.”

10
 Asamiya data were collected from the following informants:

Original Educational
Name Age Sex inhabitants of Qualifications Profession
(1) Mr. Jadav Barua 52 Male Sibsagar M.Sc. Bank employee
in Guwahati
(2) Mrs. Dipalima 38 Female Sibsagar M.Sc. B.T. School teacher
Barua - Bora in Guwahati.
(3) Mr. Ajit Bora 43 Male Sibsagar M.Sc. Bank employee
in Guwahati
In case of Odia the data were collected from the following informants:

Name Age Sex Original Educational Profession

inhabitants of Qualifications
1) Mr. Dinabandhu 46 Male Cuttack M.A. School teacher
Pratap in Cuttack
2) Mrs. Mamata 36 Female Puri M.A. School teacher
Mishra in
Bhubaneswar
3) Mr. Manoj Kr. Pani 28 Male Dhenkanal B.Tech. Engineer
(Service) in
Bhubaneswar
4) Mr. B. C. Nayak 50 Male Bhubaneswar B.A. Defence person
in Calcutta
5) Mr. S.N. 42 Male Bhubaneswar M.A. School teacher
Pattanavak in
Bhubaneswar
Acceptability test was also carried out in each of these languages by means of
spot verification and by interviewing different types of informants of different age groups
and people of different social strata.

1.8.0. Scope

The present work is divided into seven chapters. The first chapter as mentioned
above, includes introduction dealing with the present status of the three languages, filiation
of the three languages, definition of reduplication, a study in retrospection, methodology,
purpose, collection of data, and scope. Different types of reduplication as realised in terms
of semantic features have been discussed in the second chapter. The third chapter is
concerned with the different types of reduplication in Asamiya, along with their functional
and semantic interpretations. The types of reduplicated structures of Bangla and Odia with
their functions and semantic interpretations, have been described in the fourth and fifth

11
chapters, respectively. The sixth chapter presents the contrastive study of the different
categories of the reduplicated structures, including their subcategories available in all these
three languages with reference to their functional and semantic interpretations. The
seventh chapter is the last or concluding chapter which focuses on the importance of the
present study in the perspective of language pedagogy.

NOTES

i) ‘Assamese’ or ‘ Asamiya’ is one of the major New Indo - Aryan languages specified in
the Eighth Schedule of the Indian Constitution. The name of this language in this work
has been accepted as ‘Asamiya’ following the convention of the spelling (
asamiya ) used by the native speakers of the language.

The population strength of Asamiya speakers as returned from different states

(having Asamiya speakers more than 10,000) according to the 1991 Census has been
presented below:

States Number of Speakers

Assam 12,958,088

Arunachal Pradesh 48,222

Meghalaya 34,118

Nagaland 13,144

ii) ‘Bengali’ or ‘Bangla’ is one of the major New Indo - Aryan languages specified in the
Eighth Schedule of the Indian Constitution. Since the term ‘Bangla’ (=3h«vTT bangla ) is

used by its native speakers, the term with the convention of the spelling has been •
accepted as the name of the language in the present work.

The following is a chart containing the number of Bangla speakers (above

10,000) as returned from different states of India, in the 1991 Census.

12
 States and Union Territories Number of Speakers
West Bengal 58,541,519

Assam 4,856,532

Bihar 2,523,040

Tripura 1,899,162

Orissa 442,971

Uttar Pradesh 263,917

Madhya Pradesh 250,794

Maharastra 161,497

Meghalaya 144,261

Delhi 121,938

Arunachal Pradesh 70,771

Andaman and Nicobar Islands 64,706

Mizoram 59,092

Nagaland 38,280

Andhra Pradesh 30,281

Rajasthan 28,133

Karnataka 20,926

Gujarat 20,809

Manipur 19,385

13
iii) ‘Oriya’ or ‘Odia’ is one of the major New Indo - Aryan Languages specified in the
Eighth Schedule of the Indian Constitution. The term Odia C3<3«2fT Odia) has been
accepted as the name of the language in this work, following the convention of the
spelling used by the native speakers.

The strength of Odia speaking population above 10,000 as returned from

different states of India in the Census 1991 has been given below:

States and Union Territories Number of Speakers

Orissa 26,199,346

Madhya Pradesh 721,348

Bihar 404,443.

Andhra Pradesh 259,947

West Bengal 170,001

Assam 140,782

Gujarat 38,277

Maharastra 38,183

Tripura 18,423

Uttar Pradesh 14,742

Delhi 13,099

Rajasthan 10,494

iv) Incidentally, we may refer to McCarthy, J. (1981. A Prosodic theory of non -

concatenative morphology. Linguistic Inquiry. 12, 373 - 418) and Marantz, A. (1982.
‘Re reduplication. Linguistic Inquiry. 13, 483 - 545) who view reduplication in terms

14
 of copying and affixation in the frame work of nonconcatenative morphology. In this
respect we can quote Spencer, A. (1991. Morphological Theory, 151) : “Marantz
therefore proposes that reduplication is essentially affixation but that what is affixed is
a C V skeleton, or prosodic template. The phonemic content of the reduplicative affix
is then obtained by copying the complete phoneme melody of the root and linking it to
the affixal C V template respecting the principles of association familiar from auto
segmental phonology.” Further, we may refer to Steriade, D (1988. Reduplication and
Syllable transfer in Sanskrit and else where. Phonology. 5, 73 - 155) who Opines that
partial reduplication involves full reduplication along with truncation of the copy. -

REFERENCES

Abbi, A. 1992. Reduplication in South Asian Languages — An Areal, Typological and

Historical Study.

Ananthanarayana, H.S. 1976. Reduplication in Sanketi Tamil. Osmania Papers in

Linguistics, vol. 2, 37-46 .

Apte, M.L. 1968. Reduplication, Echo formation and Onomatopoeia in Marathi.

Bauer, L. 1988. Introducing Linguistic Morphology.

Bhaskara-pao, P. 1977. Reduplication and Onomatopoeia in Telugu.

Bhattacharya, K. 1993. Bengali - Oriya Verb Morphology. A Contrastive Study.

Bloch, B. and Trager, G.L. 1942. Outlines ofLinguistic Analysis.

Bloomfield, L. 1933. Language.

Bykova, E.M. 1981. The Bengali Language.

Chatteiji, S.K. 1926. The Origin and Development of the Bengali Language.

Chatteiji, S.K. 1939. Bhasha Prakash Bangala Vyakaran. (A grammar of the Bengali
Language).

Dutta, B. 1961. Onomatopoetics in Modem Bengali. Bulletin of the Philological Society

of Calcutta, vol. 2, 84 - 103 .

15
Dutta, B. 1962. Semi - Onomatopoetic phrases with balanced vocables in Modem
Colloquial Bengali. Bulletin of the Philological Society of Calcutta, vol. 3.2, 83 - 89.

Dey, P.K. 1975. Echo word construction, (with special reference to Ladakhi) Indian
Journal of Linguistics, vol. 2.2, 92 - 98.

Dutta Baruah, P. N. 1978. Comparative Analysis of the Morphological Aspects of

Assamese and Oriya.

Fisiak, J. (ed.) 1980. Theoretical issues in Contrastive Linguistics.

Ghosh, M. 1991 .Bdngla Dhwanyatmak Sabda. (Bengali onomatopoetic words).

Gleason, H. A. (Jr.) 1955. An introduction to Descriptive Linguistics.

Gnanasundaram, V. 1985. Onomatopoeia in Tamil.

Goswami, G. C. 1973. Asamiya Golok Vyakaran.

Goswami, G. C. 1982. Structure of Assamese.

Goswami, U. 1978. An Introduction to Assamese.

Goswami, U. 1981. Asamiya Bhasar Vyakaran.

Koul, O. N. 1993. Echo - word constructions in Modem Indo - Aryan Languages.

Gavesana.vol. 62.

Mahapatra, B. P. 1995. Odiare kOtharO LOtha - Odia Bhasa Vibham, 200 - 207.

Mahapatra, B. P. 1996. Odiare dhwani - sObdO • ‘ Vishuva ’ special volume 48 varsa, vol.
1.7-13.

Nagaraja, K. S. 1984. Reduplication in Khasi. Indo-lranian Journal, vol. 27, 189 - 200.

Nida, E. A. 1946. Morphology (The Descriptive Analysis ofwords).

Raya, Vidyanidhi, J. (B.S. 1319) Bangala Bhasha. 219 - 224.

Robins, R. H. 1964. General Linguistics : An Introductory Survey. 4th edn. 1989, pg.
202 .

Sapir, E. 1921. Language; An introduction to the study of speech.

Sen, S. 1939. Bhasar Itivritta.

16
Singh, A. B. 1969. Echo Formation in Hindi. Indian Linguistics, vol. 30.2, 185 - 193

Tagore, R. 1900. Sabdatatva ■

Tripathy, K. B. 1962. The Evolution of Oriya Language and Script.

Trivedi, R. 1917. Sabdakatha ■

Vijayanunni, M. 1991. Census of India 1991 series - 1 (Language).

17