UNIT-3

What is the role of Quality function deployment (QFD) in Process Quality improvement?

It is a management tool that provides a visual connective process to help teams focus on the
needs of the customers throughout the total development cycle of a product or process. It
provides the means for translating customer needs into appropriate technical requirements for
each stage of a product/process-development life-cycle. It helps to develop more customer-
oriented, higher-quality products. While the structure provided by QFD can be significantly
beneficial, it is not a simple tool to use

The success of a product or service largely depends on how they meet the customers' needs and
expectations. Consequently, more effort is involved in getting the information necessary for
determining what the customer truly wants. This tends to increase the initial planning time in the
project definition phase of the development cycle, but it reduces the overall cycle time in
bringing a product to market. One process-oriented design method constructed to carry out the
translation process and make sure that the findings are implemented is quality function
deployment (QFD). QFD is a visual connective process that helps teams focus on the needs of
the customers throughout the total development cycle. It provides the means for translating
customer needs into appropriate technical requirements for each stage of a product/process
development life-cycle. It is well documented that the use of QFD can reduce the development
time by 50 per cent, and start-up and engineering costs by 30 per cent.

Explain QFD in detail.

QFD was originated in the late 1960s to early 1970s, in Japan, by Professor Yoji Akao (Akao,
1972). It is an integrated set of tools for recording user requirements, engineering characteristics
that satisfy these user requirements, and any trade-offs that might be necessary between the
engineering characteristics. Many definitions of QFD have been proposed which reflects its
many facets. However, QFD is primarily a people system. Nothing happens without people. Its
point of departure is the ``voice of the customers'' (VOC). It also brings together multifunctional
teams to work together towards satisfying the customer. QFD also helps to build a partnership
between customers and suppliers. Companies are sometimes too internally focused and therefore
develop goods or services with a vague understanding of the customers' requirements, or they are
too externally focused, trying to constantly please the customer at the expense of their own
business survival. QFD can help companies make the key trade-offs between what the customer
wants and what the company can afford to build. By concentrating efforts on what will satisfy
the customers and the company most, less time will be spent on redesign and modification of the
product/process. It helps companies to move from an inspection-based approach to designing
quality into products and as such plays a key role in any total quality management (TQM) or
continuous improvement programme or implementation. QFD does nothing that people did not
do before, but it replaces inconsistent, intuitive decision-making processes with a structured
approach.

Explain QFD process in detail.

The starting point of any QFD project is the customer requirements, often referred to as the non-
measurable such as ``how it looks, how it feels, durability, BIJ 7,1 10 etc.''. These requirements
are then converted into technical specifications like ``oven temperature, mould diameter, etc.''.
This stage is referred to as the engineering characteristics or measurables.

The QFD process involves four phases:

(1) Product planning: house of quality.

(2) Product design: parts deployment.

(3) Process planning.

(4) Process control (quality control charts).

A chart (matrix) represents each phase of the QFD process. The complete QFD process requires
at least four houses to be built that extend throughout the entire system's development life-cycle
with each house representing a QFD phase. In the first phase, the most important engineering
characteristics, that satisfy most of the customers' demands defined by the scoring at the bottom
of the house, go on to form the input to the subsequent stage in the QFD process. The house of
quality

The first chart is normally known as the ``house of quality''. The QFD charts help the team to set
targets on issues, which are most important to the customer and how these can be achieved
technically. The ranking of the competitors' products can also be performed by technical and
customer benchmarking. The QFD chart is a multifunctional tool that can be used throughout the
organization. For engineers, it is a way to summarizes basic data in a usable form.
What are the Benefits and drawbacks of QFD?

Companies which attempt to implement QFD have reported a variety of benefits and problems
with the method. Table I summarizes some benefits and drawbacks of QFD. These drawbacks
have prompted the need for new approaches to the application of the QFD method. Combining
QFD with other techniques, such as fuzzy logic, artificial neural networks (ANN) and the
Taguchi method, will help address these issues and forms the basis of future research in this
field.

Advantages Drawbacks
Customer-oriented Ambiguity in the VOC

Brings together large amounts of verbal data Need to input and analyze large amounts

Brings together multi-functional teams QFD development records are rarely kept
Reduces development time by 50 per cent andManual input of customer survey into the
reduces start-up and engineering cost by 30 per
house of quality (HOQ) is time-consuming and
cent difficult
Helps design quality into the products at the
QFD analyses often stop after the first HOQ,
design stage so links between the four QFD phases are
broken
Organizes data in a logical way The HOQ can become very large and complex
QFD is used not only for products, but for Setting target values in the HOQ method is
processes and services imprecise
Strengthens good relationship between Strength of relationship is ill-defined
customer and company
Improves customer satisfaction QFD is a qualitative method

What is robust product design?

Robust product design is a concept from the teachings of Dr. Genichi Taguchi, a Japanese
quality guru. It is defined as reducing variation in a product without eliminating the causes of the
variation. In other words, making the product or process insensitive to variation. This variation
(sometimes called noise) can come from a variety of factors and can be classified into three main
types: internal variation, external variation, and unit to unit variation. Internal variation is due to
deterioration such as the wear of a machine, and aging of materials. External variation is from
factor relating to environmental conditions such as temperature, humidity and dust. Unit to Unit
variation is variations between parts due to variations in material, processes and equipment.
(Lochner and Matar, 18). Examples of robust design include umbrella fabric that will not
deteriorate when exposed to varying environments (external variation), food products that have
long shelf lives (internal variation), and replacement parts that will fit properly (unit to unit
variation). The goal of robust design is to come up with a way to make the final product
consistent when the process is subject to a variety of "noise". 
  
 

How do you make a design robust?

Taguchi considers making a design robust in the parameter design portion of product or process
design. In parameter design the goal is to find values for controllable settings that minimize the
negative effects of the uncontrollable settings. Experiments are used to determine the impact of
particular settings on both the controllable and uncontrollable factors. The idea here is that by
observing changes in a controllable factor (such as the thickness of boards), a value can be found
for that factor that reduces the effect (warping) of something that can’t be controlled (the
humidity outside). The ultimate goal is to find the optimal settings to minimize cost by
minimizing variation.

When setting up these experiments, the factors that effect the product need to be determined.
Then the factors can be separated into controllable factors and uncontrollable factors and
experiments can be set up to test the effects of changing the values of each factor. There are
many ways to set up these experiments. Taguchi’s method involves finding correlation between
variables. He uses orthogonal arrays, with the inner array consisting of control factors and the
outer array consisting of "noise" factors. Each inner array is to be run with each outer array. (If
six control factor experiments and three "noise" factor experiments are needed, there will have to
be (six times three) eighteen experimental trials to get all the combinations). Another method for
conducting these experiments is to make no attempt to control the "noise" factors, but repeatedly
run the trials for combinations of control factors. (Lochner and Matar, 152) This type of
experiment allows the operator to measure process variability. The trials should be taken in an
environment similar to the one in which the actual use or manufacturing of the product is going
to take place. A third experimental design is to identify all the control and "noise" factors (adding
the control and noise factors yields k) and run an analysis using at least k +1 trials based on
eight-run experiments. (You could use an eight run experiment for up to k=7, and a sixteen run
experiment for up to k=15.) This will allow the interaction between variable to be seen running
fewer tests than using Taguchi's method. Further instruction as to how to use this method is
found in chapter four of "Designing for Quality" by Lochner and Matar.

The data found from the experimental trials is then analyzed. The analysis will depend on the
method of experimentation. Plot the effect that the variables had on your variation and/or the
correlation between factors. Using this data find settings for the controllable factors that are
found to lower the variation caused by uncontrollable factors.

Then after the initial experiment trails are run and "optimal" settings are found confirmation
experimentation is needed. By performing a series of replica experiments at the levels that were
picked, we can see if the values achieved matched that of the values the model predicted. If there
is disparity, there may be an interaction or noise that we didn’t see and thus our experiment must
be redeveloped. 
  
 

What are the advantages of robust design?

Robust design has many advantages. For one, the effect of robustness on quality is great.
Robustness reduces variation in parts by reducing the effects of uncontrollable variation. More
consistent parts equals better quality.

Another advantage is that lower quality parts or parts with higher tolerances can be used and a
quality product can still be made. This saves the company money, because the less variable the
parts can be the more they cost.

A third advantage is that the product will have more appeal to the customer. Customers demand
a robust product that won't be as vulnerable to deterioration and can be used in a variety of
situations.

This method is also good, because you are designing the robustness into the product and process
instead of trying to fix variation problem after they occur.

What are the disadvantages of robust design?

One of the disadvantages of robust design is that to effectively deal with the noise, the designer
must be aware of the noise. If there is a noise factor that is affecting the product and the
experiments run do not address it (intentionally or not), the only way that the product will be
robust to that variation is by luck.

Another disadvantage to robust design done Taguchi’s way is that the problem becomes large
quickly. If you had a lot of different things to consider as control variables and/or noise
variables, it would take a great deal of time to run all the experimental trials. Controlling noise
variables is expense, and when lots of trials are required the dollars add up.

Another disadvantage is that by using orthogonal arrays, it assumes the noise factors are
independent, which may be helpful in setting up the experiment, but is not necessarily a good
assumption (Lochner and Matar, 153). 
  
 

What are some examples of why robust design is important?

Consider this example adapted from "Creating Quality" by Kolarik; the designers of a radio had
built and tested a breadboard. After the radio was considered a success, the specifications were
passed to production and the radios began being manufactured. The first production unit’s radios
went into test and failed to meet marketing’s product performance requirements, as did the
second unit. Analysis of why the process failed produced no results. They had been following
procedure and using standard acceptable parts. Next the breadboard of the original design was
inspected. It was found that the designers had hand-tested and picked all the component parts.
They worked much better than the manufacturer’s standard acceptable parts. After review of the
design it was found that there was no way to economically fix the problem without massive
redesign, so personnel were assigned the task of manually sorting the components, costing the
company additional time.

In this example the design of the radio needed to be robust so that it could handle the amount of
variation in the set of standard acceptable parts. Because the design didn’t allow for that amount
of variability, it cost the company lost time. They had to stop the production process and
investigate and then they had to expend further manpower in screening the parts.

Making a product robust is also a concern for companies that manufacture products for an ever-
expanding market. If products are sold nation wide or even globally, the differences in the
environments, conditions, and uses have to be considered for them to be a success. For example,
a manufacturer of a certain type of gas grill that is sold nationally must consider the robustness
of the materials used to make the grill. The people in Minnesota may use the grill in the summer
only and it is stored in the garage in the winter where the temperature falls to freezing. The
consumers in Arizona use the grill year round and it is stored on the deck where it is subject to
sunlight, rain and higher temperatures. The manufacturer must make sure that the grill can
withstand both conditions. If the freezing temperature cracks the valve connection or if the heat
cause the lid to deform, they will lose the potential buyers in the respective area. 
  
 
What can be said in conclusion ?

Robust design is designing a way to make the final product consistent when the process is
subject to a variety of "noise". This can be done through a variety of experimentation methods.
The results are capable of showing how to develop a product/process that will be robust. The
advantages of robust design are that the products are of good quality, cheaper, and more
customer friendly than their non-robust counterparts. Although there are disadvantages, having a
robust product design can give companies a large competitive edge. 

What is FMEA?

It is a technique to try to improve system performance, or to try to design systems that would
resist failure.

Also called: potential failure modes and effects analysis; failure modes, effects and criticality
analysis (FMECA)

Begun in the 1940s by the U.S. military, failure modes and effects analysis (FMEA) is a step-by-
step approach for identifying all possible failures in a design, a manufacturing or assembly
process, or a product or service. It is a common process analysis tool.

 "Failure modes" means the ways, or modes, in which something might fail. Failures are
any errors or defects, especially ones that affect the customer, and can be potential or
actual.

 "Effects analysis" refers to studying the consequences of those failures.

Failures are prioritized according to how serious their consequences are, how frequently they
occur, and how easily they can be detected. The purpose of the FMEA is to take actions to
eliminate or reduce failures, starting with the highest-priority ones.

Failure modes and effects analysis also documents current knowledge and actions about the risks
of failures, for use in continuous improvement. FMEA is used during design to prevent failures.
Later it’s used for control, before and during ongoing operation of the process. Ideally, FMEA
begins during the earliest conceptual stages of design and continues throughout the life of the
product or service.

When To Use FMEA?

 When a process, product, or service is being designed or redesigned, after quality

function deployment (QFD)

 When an existing process, product, or service is being applied in a new way

  Before developing control plans for a new or modified process

 When improvement goals are planned for an existing process, product, or service

 When analyzing failures of an existing process, product, or service

 Periodically throughout the life of the process, product, or service

FMEA Procedure

Note: This is a general procedure. Specific details may vary with standards of organization or
industry. Before undertaking an FMEA process, learn more about standards and specific methods
in your organization and industry through other references and training.

1. Assemble a cross-functional team of people with diverse knowledge about the process,

product or service, and customer needs. Functions often included are: design,
manufacturing, quality, testing, reliability, maintenance, purchasing (and suppliers),
sales, marketing (and customers), and customer service.

2. Identify the scope of the FMEA. Is it for concept, system, design, process, or service?
What are the boundaries? How detailed should we be? Use flowcharts to identify the
scope and to make sure every team member understands it in detail.

3. Fill in the identifying information at the top of your FMEA form. The remaining steps
ask for information that will go into the columns of the form.

4. Identify the functions of your scope. Ask, "What is the purpose of this system, design,
process, or service? What do our customers expect it to do?" Name it with a verb
followed by a noun. Usually one will break the scope into separate subsystems, items,
parts, assemblies, or process steps and identify the function of each.

5. For each function, identify all the ways failure could happen. These are potential failure
modes. If necessary, go back and rewrite the function with more detail to be sure the
failure modes show a loss of that function.

6. For each failure mode, identify all the consequences on the system, related systems,
process, related processes, product, service, customer, or regulations. These are potential
effects of failure. Ask, "What does the customer experience because of this failure? What
happens when this failure occurs?"

7. Determine how serious each effect is. This is the severity rating, or S. Severity is usually
rated on a scale from 1 to 10, where 1 is insignificant and 10 is catastrophic. If a failure
mode has more than one effect, write on the FMEA table only the highest severity rating
for that failure mode.
8. For each failure mode, determine all the potential root causes. Use tools classified
as cause analysis tools, as well as the best knowledge and experience of the team. List all
possible causes for each failure mode on the FMEA form.

9. For each cause, determine the occurrence rating, or O. This rating estimates the
probability of failure occurring for that reason during the lifetime of your scope.
Occurrence is usually rated on a scale from 1 to 10, where 1 is extremely unlikely and 10
is inevitable. On the FMEA table, list the occurrence rating for each cause.

10. For each cause, identify current process controls. These are tests, procedures or
mechanisms that you now have in place to keep failures from reaching the customer.
These controls might prevent the cause from happening, reduce the likelihood that it will
happen or detect failure after the cause has already happened but before the customer is
affected.

11. For each control, determine the detection rating, or D. This rating estimates how well the
controls can detect either the cause or its failure mode after they have happened but
before the customer is affected. Detection is usually rated on a scale from 1 to 10, where
1 means the control is absolutely certain to detect the problem and 10 means the control
is certain not to detect the problem (or no control exists). On the FMEA table, list the
detection rating for each cause.

12. Optional for most industries: Ask, "Is this failure mode associated with a critical
characteristic?" (Critical characteristics are measurements or indicators that reflect safety
or compliance with government regulations and need special controls.) If so, a column
labeled "Classification" receives a Y or N to show whether special controls are needed.
Usually, critical characteristics have a severity of 9 or 10 and occurrence and detection
ratings above 3.

13. Calculate the risk priority number, or RPN, which equals S × O × D. Also calculate
Criticality by multiplying severity by occurrence, S × O. These numbers provide
guidance for ranking potential failures in the order they should be addressed.

14. Identify recommended actions. These actions may be design or process changes to lower
severity or occurrence. They may be additional controls to improve detection. Also note
who is responsible for the actions and target completion dates.

15. As actions are completed, note results and the date on the FMEA form. Also, note new S,
O, or D ratings and new RPNs.
What is Product reliability analysis?

Product Reliability is defined as the probability that a device will perform its required function,
subjected to stated conditions, for a specific period of time. Product Reliability is quantified as
MTBF (Mean Time Between Failures) for repairable product and MTTF (Mean Time To
Failure) for non-repairable product.

Most products can fail in different ways. Automobile failures, for example, may be due to
malfunctions in the engine, transmission system or brake system. Within the transmission system
alone, you might have bearing, seal, gear and other failures. Different kinds of failures are often
referred to as competing failure modes. You can frequently determine the failure mode that
actually brought on the failure. In such cases, it is often advantageous to perform separate
analyses for each mode and combine the results, as opposed to doing a single omnibus analysis
that treats all failures together.

Product reliability analysis includes a complex of procedures related to quantitative

assessments of developed product at every stage of its life cycle.

Conducing a reliability analysis of a product helps you spot problems before you introduce it into
the marketplace, preventing public relations problems. If publications and website review your
product and find flaws, it might take months or years to recover. Making sure your product is
reliable can also help you spot design or production flaws that can cause failure and potential
injuries to users. Just one successful lawsuit can put you out of business. Even if you find a
simple defect in your product that won’t cause injury or prevent customers from using your
product, you can still lose money from a recall, high return rates, increased customer service
calls, retailers dropping you and bad public relations. Reliability analysis includes reliability
calculations performed at the stages of preliminary design and detailed design, failure data
analysis based on the results of special and operational tests as well as data received from a
customer/user. Performing quantitative assessments of different aspects of maintenance,
including spare supply, is often a part of reliability analysis.

Based on reliability analysis, product developers and manufacturers can take real efforts to
improve reliability and maintenance quality.

At the preliminary design stage, reliability analysis includes:

1. Selecting product reliability indexes that specify this product
2. Assigning quantitative reliability standards (requirements)
3. Developing a preliminary mathematical model to describe product operation
4. Performing quantitative calculations to verify a compliance with product reliability
requirements

Following the results of the 1st phase of reliability analysis, the developer carries out necessary
changes in component selection; modifying system structure (adding necessary backup, for
example) and operational procedures (e.g. use of continuous/intermittent availability
monitoring).

At the stage of detailed design, reliability analysis includes:

1. Implementing all recommendations for improving reliability, obtained as results of reliability
analysis at the previous stage, as design solutions
2. Developing a detailed mathematical model of the system then incorporates statistical
reliability data for applied components
3. Calculating frequency of preventive actions and optimal spare parts provisioning

After building of an experimental model, reliability determination tests are performed to verify
results of reliability analysis calculations.  Depending on results of reliability tests, necessary
efforts are undertaken to improve reliability and carry out maintenance and repair works.

At the stage of experimental operation, the following steps must be performed:

1. detailed analysis of system operation

2. Additional reliability analysis based on statistical data obtained due to final adjustment of
design and engineering solutions before serial production.

During field operation of a product by its customer/user, the system of statistical reliability data
collection should be established (this requirement is mandatory for any military-oriented
system). These data together with the claims received from operational sites, are used by system
developers to perform current reliability analysis, resulting in new recommendations for
maintenance optimization. On the basis of such reliability analysis the developer generates the
requirements for the following system modification and modernization if necessary.