By the 18th century, universities published their own research journals and by the 19th century, the

German and the French university models had arisen. The German, or Humboldtian model, was
conceived by Wilhelm von Humboldt and based on Friedrich Schleiermacher's liberal ideas
pertaining to the importance of freedom, seminars, and laboratories in universities.[citation needed] The
French university model involved strict discipline and control over every aspect of the university.
Until the 19th century, religion played a significant role in university curriculum; however, the role of
religion in research universities decreased in the 19th century, and by the end of the 19th century,
the German university model had spread around the world. Universities concentrated on science in
the 19th and 20th centuries and became increasingly accessible to the masses. In the United States,
the Johns Hopkins University was the first to adopt the (German) research university model; this
pioneered the adoption by most other American universities. In Britain, the move from Industrial
Revolution to modernity saw the arrival of new civic universities with an emphasis
on science and engineering, a movement initiated in 1960 by Sir Keith Murray (chairman of the
University Grants Committee) and Sir Samuel Curran, with the formation of the University of
Strathclyde.[72] The British also established universities worldwide, and higher education became
available to the masses not only in Europe.
In 1963, the Robbins Report on universities in the United Kingdom concluded that such institutions
should have four main "objectives essential to any properly balanced system: instruction in skills; the
promotion of the general powers of the mind so as to produce not mere specialists but rather
cultivated men and women; to maintain research in balance with teaching, since teaching should not
be separated from the advancement of learning and the search for truth; and to transmit a common
culture and common standards of citizenship." [73]

Tampere University in the city of Tampere, Finland is well known for its highly modern look. The buildings (part
of central campus of university) in picture are from 2003.
In the early 21st century, concerns were raised over the increasing managerialisation and
standardisation of universities worldwide. Neo-liberal management models have in this sense been
critiqued for creating "corporate universities (where) power is transferred from faculty to managers,
economic justifications dominate, and the familiar 'bottom line' eclipses pedagogical or intellectual
concerns".[74] Academics' understanding of time, pedagogical pleasure, vocation, and collegiality
have been cited as possible ways of alleviating such problems. [75]

National universities[edit]
A national university is generally a university created or run by a national state but at the same time
represents a state autonomic institution which functions as a completely independent body inside of
the same state. Some national universities are closely associated with
national cultural, religious or political aspirations, for instance the National University of Ireland,
which formed partly from the Catholic University of Ireland which was created almost immediately
and specifically in answer to the non-denominational universities which had been set up in Ireland in
1850. In the years leading up to the Easter Rising, and in no small part a result of the Gaelic
Romantic revivalists, the NUI collected a large amount of information on the Irish language and Irish
culture.[citation needed] Reforms in Argentina were the result of the University Revolution of 1918 and its
posterior reforms by incorporating values that sought for a more equal and laic [further explanation needed] higher
education system.

Intergovernmental universities[edit]
Universities created by bilateral or multilateral treaties between states are intergovernmental. An
example is the Academy of European Law, which offers training in European law to lawyers, judges,
barristers, solicitors, in-house counsel and academics. EUCLID (Pôle Universitaire Euclide, Euclid
University) is chartered as a university and umbrella organisation dedicated to sustainable
development in signatory countries, and the United Nations University engages in efforts to resolve
the pressing global problems that are of concern to the United Nations, its peoples and member
states. The European University Institute, a post-graduate university specialised in the social
sciences, is officially an intergovernmental organisation, set up by the member states of
the European Union.

Organization[edit]

The University of Sydney is Australia's oldest university.

Although each institution is organized differently, nearly all universities have a board of trustees; a
president, chancellor, or rector; at least one vice president, vice-chancellor, or vice-rector; and deans
of various divisions. Universities are generally divided into a number of academic departments,
schools or faculties. Public university systems are ruled over by government-run higher education
boards[citation needed]. They review financial requests and budget proposals and then allocate funds for
each university in the system. They also approve new programs of instruction and cancel or make
changes in existing programs. In addition, they plan for the further coordinated growth and
development of the various institutions of higher education in the state or country. However, many
public universities in the world have a considerable degree of financial, research
and pedagogical autonomy. Private universities are privately funded and generally have broader
independence from state policies. However, they may have less independence from business
corporations depending on the source of their finances.