18th and 19th centuries[edit]

The Sultan's Palace in Zanzibar, which was once Oman's capital and residence of its sultans

After the decolonization of Oman from the Persians, Ahmed bin Sa'id Albusaidi in 1749 became the
elected Imam of Oman, with Rustaq serving as the capital. Since the Yaruba dynasty, the Omanis
kept the elective system but, provided that the person is deemed qualified, gave preference to a
member of the ruling family.[61] Following Imam Ahmed's death in 1783, his son, Said bin Ahmed
became the elected Imam. His son, Seyyid Hamed bin Said, overthrew the representative of the
Imam in Muscat and obtained the possession of Muscat fortress. Hamed ruled as "Seyyid".
Afterwards, Seyyid Sultan bin Ahmed, the uncle of Seyyid Hamed, took over power. Seyyid Said bin
Sultan succeeded Sultan bin Ahmed.[62][63] During the entire 19th century, in addition to Imam Said
bin Ahmed who retained the title until he died in 1803, Azzan bin Qais was the only elected Imam of
Oman. His rule started in 1868. However, the British refused to accept Imam Azzan as a ruler. The
refusal played an instrumental role in deposing Imam Azzan in 1871 by a sultan who Britain deemed
to be more acceptable.[64]

Oman's Imam Sultan, defeated ruler of Muscat, was granted sovereignty over Gwadar, an area of
modern-day Pakistan. This coastal city is located in the Makran region of what is now the far
southwestern corner of Pakistan, near the present-day border of Iran, at the mouth of the Gulf of
Oman.[note 1][65] After regaining control of Muscat, this sovereignty was continued via an
appointed wali ("governor").s

British de facto colonisation[edit]

The British empire was keen to dominate southeast Arabia to stifle the growing power of other
European states and to curb the Omani maritime power that grew during the 17th century.[66][49] The
British empire over time, starting from the late 18th century, began to establish a series of treaties
with the sultans with the objective of advancing British political and economic interest in Muscat,
while granting the sultans military protection.[49][66] In 1798, the first treaty between the British East
India Company and Albusaidi family was signed by Sultan bin Ahmed. The treaty was to block
commercial competition of the French and the Dutch as well as obtain a concession to build a British
factory at Bandar Abbas.[67][42][68] A second treaty was signed in 1800, which stipulated that a British
representative shall reside at the port of Muscat and manage all external affairs with other states.
[68]
 The British influence that grew during the nineteenth century over Muscat weakened the Omani
Empire.[57]
A British naval squadron in Muscat.[69]

In 1854, a deed of cession of the Omani Kuria Muria islands to Britain was signed by the sultan of
Muscat and the British government.[70] The British government achieved predominating control over
Muscat, which, for the most part, impeded competition from other nations.[71] Between 1862 and
1892, the Political Residents, Lewis Pelly and Edward Ross, played an instrumental role in securing
British supremacy over the Persian Gulf and Muscat by a system of indirect governance.[64] By the
end of the 19th century, the British influence increased to the point that the sultans became heavily
dependent on British loans and signed declarations to consult the British government on all
important matters.[66][72][73][74] The Sultanate thus became a de facto British colony.[73][75]

Zanzibar was a valuable property as the main slave market of the Swahili Coast, and became an
increasingly important part of the Omani empire, a fact reflected by the decision of the 19th century
sultan of Muscat, Sa'id ibn Sultan, to make it his main place of residence in 1837. Sa'id built
impressive palaces and gardens in Zanzibar. Rivalry between his two sons was resolved, with the
help of forceful British diplomacy, when one of them, Majid, succeeded to Zanzibar and to the many
regions claimed by the family on the Swahili Coast. The other son, Thuwaini, inherited Muscat and
Oman. Zanzibar influences in the Comoros archipelago in the Indian Ocean indirectly introduced
Omani customs to the Comorian culture. These influences include clothing traditions and wedding
ceremonies.[76] In 1856, under British direction, Zanzibar and Muscat became two different
sultanates.[59]

Treaty of Seeb[edit]

The split between the interior region (orange) and the coastal region (red) of Oman and Muscat.

The Al Hajar Mountains, of which the Jebel Akhdar is a part, separate the country into two distinct
regions: the interior, known as Oman, and the coastal area dominated by the capital, Muscat.[77] The
British imperial development over Muscat and Oman during the 19th century led to the renewed
revival of the Imamate cause in the interior of Oman, which has appeared in cycles for more than
1,200 years in Oman.[49] The British Political Agent, who resided in Muscat, owed the alienation of
the interior of Oman to the vast influence of the British government over Muscat, which he
described as being completely self-interested and without any regard to the social and political
conditions of the locals.[78] In 1913, Imam Salim Alkharusi instigated an anti-Muscat rebellion that
lasted until 1920 when the Imamate established peace with the Sultanate by signing the Treaty of
Seeb.The treaty was brokered by Britain, which had no economic interest in the interior of Oman
during that point of time. The treaty granted autonomous rule to the Imamate in the interior of
Oman and recognized the sovereignty of the coast of Oman, the Sultanate of Muscat.[66][79][80][81] In
1920, Imam Salim Alkharusi died and Muhammad Alkhalili was elected.[42]

On 10 January 1923, an agreement between the Sultanate and the British government was signed in
which the Sultanate had to consult with the British political agent residing in Muscat and obtain the
approval of the High Government of India to extract oil in the Sultanate.[82] On 31 July 1928, the Red
Line Agreement was signed between Anglo-Persian Company (later renamed British Petroleum),
Royal Dutch/Shell, Compagnie Française des Pétroles (later renamed Total), Near East Development
Corporation (later renamed ExxonMobil) and Calouste Gulbenkian (an Armenian businessman) to
collectively produce oil in the post-Ottoman Empire region, which included the Arabian peninsula,
with each of the four major companies holding 23.75 percent of the shares while Calouste
Gulbenkian held the remaining 5 percent shares. The agreement stipulated that none of the
signatories was allowed to pursue the establishment of oil concessions within the agreed on area
without including all other stakeholders. In 1929, the members of the agreement established Iraq
Petroleum Company (IPC).[83] On 13 November 1931, Sultan Taimur bin Faisal abdicated.[84]

Reign of Sultan Said (1932–1970)[edit]

Sultan Said bin Taimur ruled from 1932 to 1970.

Said bin Taimur became the sultan of Muscat officially on 10 February 1932. The rule of sultan Said
bin Taimur, who was backed by the British government, was characterized as
being feudal, reactionary and isolationist.[81][49][73][85] The British government maintained vast
administrative control over the Sultanate as the defence secretary and chief of intelligence, chief
adviser to the sultan and all ministers except for one were British.[73][86] In 1937, an agreement
between the sultan and Iraq Petroleum Company (IPC), a consortium of oil companies that was
23.75% British owned, was signed to grant oil concessions to IPC. After failing to discover oil in the
Sultanate, IPC was intensely interested in some promising geological formations near Fahud, an area
located within the Imamate. IPC offered financial support to the sultan to raise an armed force
against any potential resistance by the Imamate.[87][88]

In 1955, the exclave coastal Makran strip acceded to Pakistan and was made a district of

its Balochistan province, while Gwadar remained in Oman. On 8 September 1958, Pakistan
purchased the Gwadar enclave from Oman for US$3 million.[note 2][89] Gwadar then became a tehsil in
the Makran district.

Jebel Akhdar War[edit]

Further information:  Jebel Akhdar War

Nizwa Fort attacked by British Royal Air Force strike aircraft during Jebel Akhdar War.

Sultan Said bin Taimur expressed his interest to the British government in occupying the Imamate
right after the death of Imam Alkhalili and take advantage of potential instability that may occur
within the Imamate when elections were due.[90] The British political agent in Muscat believed that
the only method of gaining access to the oil reserves in the interior was by assisting the sultan in
taking over the Imamate.[91] In 1946, the British government offered arms and ammunition, auxiliary
supplies and officers to prepare the sultan to attack the interior of Oman.[92] In May 1954, Imam
Alkhalili died and Ghalib Alhinai became the elected Imam of the Imamate of Oman.[93] Relations
between the sultan of Muscat, Said bin Taimur, and Imam Ghalib Alhinai frayed over their dispute
about oil concessions. Under the terms of the 1920 treaty of Seeb, the Sultan, backed by the British
government, claimed all dealings with the oil company as his prerogative. The Imam, on the other
hand, claimed that since the oil was in the Imamate territory, anything concerning it was an internal
matter.[77]

In December 1955, sultan Said bin Taimur sent troops of the Muscat and Oman Field Force to occupy
the main centres in Oman, inclu