SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND PERSONALITY, 2017, 45(9), 1573–1584

© 2017 Scientific Journal Publishers Limited. All Rights Reserved.

https://doi.org/10.2224/sbp.6754

ADOLESCENTS’ PERCEIVED PARENTAL PSYCHOLOGICAL

CONTROL AND TEST ANXIETY: MEDIATING ROLE OF
ACADEMIC SELF-EFFICACY

XIAOBO XU, LIANDI LOU, LIXIA WANG, AND WEIGUO PANG

East China Normal University

We examined the relationship between parental psychological control and their children’s
test anxiety in the Chinese cultural context, and tested the mediating role of the children’s
academic self-efficacy in this relationship. Chinese high-school students (N = 401, 158 boys
and 243 girls), aged between 15 and 18 years, completed a self-report survey assessing
parental psychological control, academic self-efficacy, and test anxiety. The results showed a
positive association between parental psychological control and the students’ test anxiety. The
students’ academic self-efficacy was negatively correlated with parental psychological control
and the students’ test anxiety. Additionally, results of structural equation modeling indicated
that the students’ academic self-efficacy partially mediated the effect of their perception of
parental psychological control on their test anxiety. These results reveal the negative influence
of parental psychological control on their children’s test anxiety and identify academic
self-efficacy as a mediating variable through which parental psychological control exerts
effects on their children’s test anxiety.

Keywords: parental psychological control, academic self-efficacy, test anxiety.

In Asian countries, academic achievement is a highly valued familial and

societal norm (Woo et al., 2004). It has been found that, compared with their
European counterparts, Asian students are more stressed and anxious when
facing academic test situations (Lee, 2009; Wilkins, 2004). Test anxiety refers
to the self-deprecating thoughts (cognitive response), feelings of worry, dread,

Xiaobo Xu, Liandi Lou, Lixia Wang, and Weiguo Pang, School of Psychology and Cognitive
Science, East China Normal University.
This study was supported by Shanghai Humanities and Social Sciences Key Research Base of Li De
Shu Ren (13200-412221-16059/002).
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Weiguo Pang, School of Psychology
and Cognitive Science, East China Normal University, No. 3663, North Zhong Shan Road, Shanghai
200062, People’s Republic of China. Email: wgpang@psy.ecnu.edu.cn

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1574 PARENTAL CONTROL, SELF-EFFICACY, AND TEST ANXIETY

and tension (affective responses), and physiological overarousal and somatic

symptoms (behavioral responses) that accompany individuals’ concerns about
possible failure in any test situations (Zeidner, 1998). In China, achieving
satisfactory scores in the college entrance examination and being admitted into
a good university (one of the 39 famous universities in the 985 project or one
of the 114 key universities in the 211 project) greatly shapes students’ career
prospects (Wang, Chan, & Lin, 2012). For this reason, test anxiety is prevalent
among Chinese high-school students (Sun & Chen, 2012; Zhang & Qu, 2010).
Along with placing an overemphasis on academic success, many Chinese
mothers and fathers take it as a central parental responsibility to help their
children perform well academically (Wu, 1996). This responsibility, often
accompanied by overemphasis on children’s academic achievements, may
cause parents to adopt controlling strategies in their rearing practice (Wang,
Pomerantz, & Chen, 2007). Psychological control is commonly used in parenting
and refers to a set of parenting behaviors that invade children’s integrity and
individuality, such as ridiculing, violation of privacy, and excessively high
expectations (Barber, Xia, Olsen, McNeely, & Bose, 2012). In the school context,
in numerous studies researchers have identified psychological control as a
significant situational factor through which parents undermine their adolescent
sons’ and daughters’ academic outcomes, such as academic performance (Aunola
& Nurmi, 2004; Pinquart, 2016). Filippello, Sorrenti, Buzzai, and Costa (2015)
found that parental psychological control would render adolescents insecure
about their capabilities, thus giving rise to lowered feelings of competence in
school activities and reducing self-efficacy at school, which resulted in increased
reported symptoms of learned helplessness. Particularly relevant to the present
study, parental psychological control has been found to correlate positively
with test anxiety in a sample of 79 Chinese students aged from 18 to 28 years
(Vansteenkiste, Zhou, Lens, & Soenens, 2005). In addition, studies in which the
researchers have uncovered positive associations between parental pressure and
children’s test anxiety (Putwain, Woods, & Symes, 2010; Raufelder, Hoferichter,
Ringeisen, Regner, & Jacke, 2015) could also be viewed as indirect evidence
supporting the association between parental psychological control and children’s
test anxiety as parental psychological control and parental pressure share char-
acteristics, such as excessively high expectations (Barber et al., 2012; Raufelder
et al., 2015).
Although scholars have established that there is a positive relationship
between parental psychological control and test anxiety, relatively few studies
have been conducted to investigate the mechanisms underlying this relationship.
Theoretically, the two-process developmental model of anxiety could shed light
on the above-mentioned relationship (Krohne, 1992, cited in Zeidner, 1998).
 PARENTAL CONTROL, SELF-EFFICACY, AND TEST ANXIETY 1575
According to this model, psychologically controlling parenting behaviors, such
as discouraging or restricting children’s actions to solve problems independently,
overcriticizing or ridiculing children’s failure, and ignoring children’s efforts in
the problem-solving process, would undermine the development of children’s
belief in their ability to deal with challenges and threats successfully in problem
situations (competence expectations), which, in turn, would lead to higher levels
of anxiety. This model has been empirically validated by Affrunti and Ginsburg
(2012), who found that children’s perceived competence completely mediated the
relationship between maternal overcontrol and the children’s anxiety symptoms.
Similarly, in the school context, it is possible that parental psychological control
may have a detrimental effect on children’s academic self-efficacy, which further
contributes to the development of test anxiety. In fact, in some studies empirical
support has been provided for the association between parental psychological
control and their children’s academic self-efficacy (Lakshmi & Arora, 2006;
Mattanah, 2001). For example, Lakshmi and Arora (2006) reported that there
was an inverse relationship between maternal psychological control and students’
perceived academic competence. According to Bandura (1988), individuals will
perceive an event as a challenge if they have a strong sense of efficacy, but as a
threat if they perceive themselves as not competent enough. Therefore, students
with high academic self-efficacy are less likely than are their peers to experience
anxiety when they are preparing for, or taking a test. Empirically, in numerous
studies the findings have confirmed an inverse relationship between academic
self-efficacy and test anxiety (Bonaccio & Reeve, 2010; Nie, Lau, & Liau, 2011).
For instance, in a national survey conducted by Nie et al. (2011) they found that
academic self-efficacy was inversely associated with test anxiety in a sample of
Singaporean Grade 9 students.
Our objective was to explore how Chinese parental psychological control
relates to the test anxiety of their adolescent sons and daughters. Furthermore,
we examined whether or not the adolescents’ academic self-efficacy mediated
the effect of parental psychological control on the adolescents’ test anxiety. We
proposed the following hypotheses:
Hypothesis 1: Psychological control of Chinese parents (both paternal and
maternal) will be positively associated with the test anxiety of their adolescent
sons and daughters, and the adolescents’ academic self-efficacy will be negatively
correlated with their test anxiety and with parental psychological control.
Hypothesis 2: Chinese adolescents’ academic self-efficacy will mediate the
association between parental psychological control and the students’ test anxiety.
Specifically, higher levels of perceived parental psychological control will lead
to lower academic self-efficacy among the students, which will further contribute
to increased test anxiety.
1576 PARENTAL CONTROL, SELF-EFFICACY, AND TEST ANXIETY

Method

Participants
With the support of the administrative staff of three high schools in Guangdong
(Southern China), Hubei (Central China), and Henan (Northern China), 416
students voluntarily participated in this study. After screening, the data from 15
participants were removed from the study because of extensive missing data.
Consequently, we used 401 completed surveys in the data analysis. There were
158 boys and 243 girls, aged from 15 to 18 years (M = 16.13, SD = 0.87).

Procedure
Participants were informed that all data was confidential and only used for
research purposes, and that they could remove themselves from the study at any
time. The test battery of measures of parental psychological control, academic
self-efficacy, and test anxiety was administered collectively in classrooms
after obtaining informed consent from the students. All of the procedures were
conducted under a teacher’s supervision. It took about 10 minutes for the students
to complete all of the scales.

Measures
The students completed three scales in the present study: the Psychological
Control—Disrespect Scale (PCDS), the Academic Self-Efficacy Scale (ASES),
and the Test Anxiety Scale (TAS).
Psychological Control—Disrespect Scale. The PCDS, developed by Barber
et al. (2012), was translated into Chinese following the translation/back
translation method (Brislin, 1986). First, two doctoral students majoring in
educational psychology translated the PCDS into Chinese, separately, and then
revised the scale together. Next, two college English teachers translated the
Chinese scale back into English. Finally, two doctoral students reviewed the
semantic and content equivalence between the original English scale and the
translated Chinese scale, and made further revisions. This scale consists of eight
items regarding types of parenting behaviors that invade children’s individuality,
such as “expects too much of me,” and “often unfairly compares me to someone
else.” Participants were asked to rate their fathers and mothers separately on a
6-point Likert scale (ranging from 1 = definitely disagree to 6 = definitely agree).
The Cronbach’s  was acceptable for both paternal psychological control (.73)
and maternal psychological control (.83). In order to perform the structural
equation modeling (SEM) analyses, three parcels (each composed of two or
three randomly selected items) were created for paternal control and maternal
psychological control separately.
Academic Self-Efficacy Scale. We adopted the ASES, developed by Liang
(2000). The scale has two dimensions. The first 11 items relate to academic
 PARENTAL CONTROL, SELF-EFFICACY, AND TEST ANXIETY 1577
competence efficacy (i.e., students’ confidence in successfully mastering
academic subjects and achieving high scores), and the remaining 11 items
relate to academic behavior efficacy (i.e., students’ confidence in regulating
their own studying and learning activities). Participants answer these 22 items
on a 6-point Likert scale (ranging from 1 = definitely disagree to 6 = definitely
agree). Additionally, the mean scores of academic competence efficacy and
academic behavior efficacy were computed as two indicators for SEM analyses.
In previous studies the results have demonstrated good reliability and validity
of the ASES (Liang, 2000; Shi, Chen, Hou, & Gao, 2013). In our study, the
Cronbach’s  for the academic competence efficacy subscale and the academic
behavior efficacy subscale were .89 and .71, respectively. The Cronbach’s  of
the whole scale was .89.
Test Anxiety Scale. We employed the Chinese version of the TAS (Wang,
2001), originally developed by Sarason (1978), to assess participants’ attitudes
and feelings about test anxiety. There are 37 items in this scale, with seven
items reverse scored. Participants answered the items on a 6-point Likert scale
(ranging from 1 = definitely disagree to 6 = definitely agree). The average score
is calculated as an indicator of test anxiety. Furthermore, three parcels (each
composed of 12 or 13 randomly selected items) were created for the SEM
analyses. The TAS had satisfactory reliability and validity in the Chinese sample
(Wang, 2001). Cronbach’s  of this scale was .88 in the current study.

Data Analysis
Similar to the method used in previous research (Baron & Kenny, 1986;
Filippello et al., 2015), we used SEM to test the mediation effect separately
for paternal and maternal data in three steps. In the first step, we examined the
direct path from parental psychological control to students’ test anxiety (Model
1). In the second step, the fully mediated path model (Model 2), with students’
academic self-efficacy as the mediating variable, was evaluated (with no direct
path from parental psychological control to students’ test anxiety). In the third
step, we compared the fully mediated model (Model 2) and a partially mediated
model (Model 3) in which the direct path from parental psychological control
to students’ test anxiety was added. If Model 3 outperformed Model 2 in the
fit indices, this would support partial mediation. We used four indices to assess
the structural model fit (McDonald & Ho, 2002): the 2 value, the comparative
fit index (CFI), the Tucker-Lewis index (TLI), and the root mean square error
of approximation (RMSEA) with a 90% confidence interval (CI). According to
McDonald and Ho, an acceptable model fit is achieved with a CFI/TLI > .90, and
a RMSEA < .08. Mplus v 7.0 was used to perform the SEM analyses, and SPSS
18.0 was employed to conduct the descriptive analyses.
1578 PARENTAL CONTROL, SELF-EFFICACY, AND TEST ANXIETY

Results

The descriptive statistics and correlations for the study variables are shown in
Table 1. Both paternal and maternal psychological control were positively related
to student test anxiety and negatively related to student academic self-efficacy.
Additionally, students’ test anxiety was inversely associated with their academic
self-efficacy.

Table 1. Means, Standard Deviations, and Zero Order Correlations of all Variables
Range M SD 1 2 3

1. Psychological control: father 1-6 2.84 .89 –

2. Psychological control: mother 1-6 2.75 .94 .69*** –
3. Adolescents’ academic self-efficacy 1-6 3.87 .57 -.21*** -.16** –
4. Adolescents’ test anxiety 1-6 3.40 .57 .27** .26*** -.35***

Note. N = 401, **p < .01, ***p < .001.

As already described, we employed a three-step SEM analysis to test whether

or not the students’ academic self-efficacy functioned as a mediator in the
association between parental psychological control and the students’ test anxiety.
Table 2 provides a clear comparison between the models testing direct effect
and indirect effect and full versus partial mediation effects. It should be noted,
the estimation of the partial mediation model outperformed the full mediation
model for both the paternal and the maternal data (2[1] = 14.32, p < .001; 2[1]
= 17.59, p < .001). This indicates that the partial mediation model fits the data
best (see Figure 1).

Table 2. Comparison of Fit Indices and Standardized Path Coefficients of Models

Model 1: Model 2: Model 3:

Direct path Fully mediated path Partially mediated path

paternal maternal paternal maternal paternal maternal

2 1.94 2.99 2.61 3.08 1.92 2.23

CFI .99 .99 .98 .97 .99 .99
TLI .99 .98 .97 .96 .98 .98
RMSEA .05 .07 .06 .07 .05 .06
PC-TA .31*** .30*** – – .22** .24**
PC-ASE – – -.28*** -.22** -.25*** -.18*
ASE-TA – – -.41*** -.42*** -.35*** -.36***
Note. N = 401, * p < .05, ** p < .01, *** p < .001. PC = psychological control, ASE = academic
self-efficacy, TA = test anxiety. CFI = comparative fit index, TLI = Tucker-Lewis index, RMSEA =
root mean square error of approximation.
 AC AB

.84/.87 .80/.77

Parcel 1 Parcel 2 Parcel 3

.77/.82 .84/.83 .77/.75 Academic self-efficacy Parcel 1 Parcel 2 Parcel 3

.85/.85 .85/.85 .83/.83

-.25/-.18 -.36/-.37

Paternal/maternal .22/.23
psychological control Test anxiety

Figure 1. Academic self-efficacy as a partial mediator in the associations between parental psychological control and test anxiety.
Note. All path coefficients are standardized. The first/second coefficient refers to the paternal/maternal psychological control model. Parcels (paternal/
maternal psychological control and test anxiety) represent the mean score of randomly aggregated items. AC = academic competence efficacy; AB =
PARENTAL CONTROL, SELF-EFFICACY, AND TEST ANXIETY

academic behavior efficacy.

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1580 PARENTAL CONTROL, SELF-EFFICACY, AND TEST ANXIETY

Discussion

Our results were consistent with the literature in which it has been suggested
that parental psychological control is related to their sons’ and daughters’ test
anxiety and that adolescents with test anxiety tend to have a decreased level of
academic self-efficacy (Nie et al., 2011; Vansteenkiste et al., 2005). Moreover,
we incorporated these factors into a comprehensive model and found that the
adolescents’ academic self-efficacy partially mediated the relationship between
parental psychological control and the students’ test anxiety.
The first purpose of this study was to test whether or not parental psychological
control is positively related to their children’s test anxiety. Although researchers
have revealed previously a negative effect of parental psychological control on
their children’s academic performance (Aunola & Nurmi, 2004; Pinquart, 2016),
less research has been conducted in which the role of parental psychological
control in the development of children’s emotional maladjustment has been
directly investigated. Consistent with Vansteenkiste et al. (2005), our results
provide evidence for a positive relationship between parental psychological
control and the test anxiety of their sons and daughters, thus supporting our first
hypothesis. As we have pointed out, the parental emphasis on academic success
is usually accompanied by psychologically controlling behaviors (Wang et al.,
2007), such as high academic expectations for their children (Whang & Hancock,
1994), and unfair comparison of their sons and daughters with others (Lee, 2009).
Under these circumstances, the children become more likely to regard academic
achievement as high-stakes activities and, thus, they will experience higher
anxiety arousal in academic test situations.
In parallel with previous studies in which inverse relationships have been
uncovered between parental psychological control and their children’s academic
competence (Lakshmi & Arora, 2006; Soenens & Vansteenkiste, 2010), we
further revealed a negative effect of parental psychological control on their sons’
and daughters’ academic self-efficacy. Similarly, in a recent study conducted
by Filippello et al. (2015), parental psychological control also functioned as
a negative predictor for their children’s school self-efficacy. Additionally, in
the present study we revealed a negative association between the students’
academic self-efficacy and their test anxiety. In the learning context, students
with high self-efficacy can organize their learning activities more efficiently than
others can, will pursue their academic goals more persistently, and will initiate
help-seeking more easily (Caprara et al., 2008; Filippello et al., 2015). In other
words, compared to their peers, students with high self-efficacy have a greater
ability to employ effective coping strategies to solve academic problems and,
thus, would experience a lower level of test anxiety.
 PARENTAL CONTROL, SELF-EFFICACY, AND TEST ANXIETY 1581
Consistent with our second hypothesis, we demonstrated that the students’
academic self-efficacy partially mediated the relationship between parental
psychological control and the students’ test anxiety. As already pointed out
(Krohne, 1992, cited in Zeidner, 1998), controlling parental child-rearing
practices (e.g., parental restriction, parental pressure) place children at risk
for developing test anxiety through a negative influence on the children’s
competence expectancy (Putwain et al., 2010). Based on our findings, it could be
assumed that parents who adopt psychologically controlling behaviors in regard
to their children’s learning activities will restrict the children’s opportunities to
solve academic problems independently, and will render their children doubtful
about their own ability to deal with academic challenges successfully. This would
hinder the development of the children’s academic self-efficacy and will lead to
increased test anxiety.
Our findings have implications for test anxiety reduction among students
in China. For instance, parents could learn to identify and change specific
destructive parenting behaviors by attending family therapy programs, such as
didactic training sessions and role-playing programs (Filippello et al., 2015).
In addition, parents can also eliminate children’s test anxiety by facilitating the
successful formation of academic self-efficacy. Specifically, they can help their
children to set achievable learning goals, provide timely and specific feedback
on their children’s learning activities, and foster the children’s mastery of
self-regulatory skills (Caprara et al., 2008; Pajares & Urdan, 2006).
There are three limitations in our study. First, we could not establish a causal
order of these variables in our work because of the cross-sectional design.
Future longitudinal research is warranted to extend the present findings. Another
possible limitation is that we only used self-report measures to assess the study
variables; future research including multiple types of assessments is encouraged.
Finally, we explored only the hypothesized relationships among adolescents
aged from 15 to 18 years. Therefore, caution is warranted when applying these
findings to younger children or older adolescents.

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