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T H E H O W A N D W H Y W O N D E R B O O K O F

T h e ,

A N D W H A T Y<

W r i t t e n by M A R T I N KEEN

I l l u s t r a t e d by W A L T E R FERGUSON

Editorial Production: D O N A L D D. W O L F

E d i t e d u n d e r t h e s u p e r v i s i o n of
Dr. P a u l E. B l a c k w o o d
Specialist for Elementary Science
U. S. D e p a r t m e n t of H e a l t h , E d u c a t i o n a n d W e l f a r e
W a s h i n g t o n , D. C .

T e x t a n d i l l u s t r a t i o n s a p p r o v e d by
O a k e s A. W h i t e
Brooklyn Children's Museum
Brooklyn, New York

WONDER BOOKS • NEW YORK

 Introduction

The How and Why Wonder Book of the Microscope i n t r o d u c e s o n e of

the i n s t r u m e n t s that h a s b e e n m o s t i m p o r t a n t to scientists in their never-
e n d i n g search for a c c u r a t e k n o w l e d g e a b o u t o u r world. T h e i n s t r u m e n t
helps o u r eyes, wonderful as they are, to b e even m o r e wonderful, b y extend-
ing the sense of sight. It brings before o u r eyes the w o r l d of invisible life,
the world of tiniest p l a n t s a n d animals, t h e bacteria a n d protozoa. Indeed,
the m i c r o s c o p e m a k e s the " u n s e e n w o r l d " visible.
B u t to get full p l e a s u r e a n d benefit from this r e m a r k a b l e i n s t r u m e n t
requires k n o w l e d g e of h o w to o p e r a t e it carefully. It requires p r a c t i c e in
focusing light a n d in p r e p a r i n g specimens for e x a m i n a t i o n . T h i s b o o k will
help the beginning microscopist learn these things. A n d it gives directions for
using the m i c r o s c o p e to observe the details of m a n y c o m m o n things all
a r o u n d us. A p a g e of this b o o k suddenly b e c o m e s a m a s s of stringy fibers,
while the surface of a tree leaf b e c o m e s a m i r a c l e of designs w h e n viewed
through a microscope.
E v e r y y o u n g scientist h a s a h e a d of him m a n y exciting experiences explor-
ing t h e u n s e e n world. The How and Why Wonder Book of the Microscope,
like t h e o t h e r p u b l i c a t i o n s in the series, is a useful t e a c h e r a n d guide in
t h a t exploration.
Paul E. Blackwood
Specialist for Elementary Science
U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare
Washington, D. C.
ff

© 1961, by Wonder Books, Inc.

All rights reserved under International and Pan-American Copyright Conventions.
Published simultaneously in Canada. Printed in the United States of America.
 Contents

Page Page
AN UNSEEN WORLD 4 What is a Peranema? 28
What is an amoeba? 28
THE MICROSCOPE 5 How does an amoeba move? 28
What is a microscope? 5 What is a paramecium? 28
How does it work? 5 What is inside a protozoan? 29
What is a simple microscope? 6 How do protozoa collect wastes and water? 29
What can you see with a simple microscope? 7 How does the amoeba eat? 30
How can you keep a record of what you see? 8 How does a paramecium get its food? 30
What is a focus? 9 How can you feed protozoa? 30
How can you make a water-lens microscope? 10 How do bacteria and protozoa suspend life? 31
Who invented the microscope? 11 Where do hay-infusion bacteria and
What is a microscopist? 11 protozoa come from? 31
How was diamond dust used for a How do the number of bacteria and
microscope? 12 protozoa increase? 31
What objects did he study? 12 How do they reproduce? 32
What kind of microscopic plants live in
THE COMPOUND MICROSCOPE 12 "houses"? 33
What is a compound microscope? 12
What are the two systems of lenses? 13 MOLDS, MILDEW, YEAST BUDDING 34
What are some parts of a compound How can you grow plants on a slice of bread? 34
microscope? 13 What do molds look like? 35
How do you find out the magnifying power How are molds useful to man? 35
of a microscope? 14 What is mildew? 35
What are the other parts of a compound What is yeast budding? 37
microscope? 14 How else does yeast budding differ from
How do you use a laboratory compound cell division? 38
microscope? 15 How are yeasts useful to man? 38
How do you focus it? 17 How can you see fermentation? 39
How do you clean the equipment? 17
What equipment will you need to become INSECTS 39
a microscopist? 18 Where can you keep insects? 39
What kind of microscope should you get? 18 What does a fly's eye look like? 39
How can a fly walk upside down? 40
THE WORLD OF INVISIBLE L I F E -
BACTERIA AND PROTOZOA 19 FABRICS 40
What are the smallest plants in the world? 19 How is cotton thread made? 40
Where are bacteria found? 19 How do natural fibers differ from
How are bacteria useful? 19 man-made (artificial) ones?
What do bacteria look like? 20 How is muslin woven?
When do they thrive best? 20 How is knitted fabric made?
What is the process of pasteurization? 21 BLOOD
How fast do bacteria reproduce? 21 What does blood do?
How can you get bacteria? 21 What is blood made of?
How do you prepare bacteria for the How can you get a sample of your blood?
microscope? 22 How do you make a blood smear?
How can you stain bacteria? 23 What do blood cells look like?
How can you prepare a stained slide? 24 How can you see blood in circulation?
What is a hanging drop mount? 24 How can you observe the insides of living
How can you make your own hanging things?
drop mount? 25
What are the smallest animals in the world? 25 THE ELECTRON MICROSCOPE
What do the protozoa eat? 26 What are the limitations of optical
How can you examine protozoa? 26 microscopes?
How can you keep protozoa in place? 27 What is an electron microscope?
How do protozoa move about? 27 How does this microscope help man?
 A n U n s e e n W o r l d

T h e h u m a n e y e is a w o n d e r f u l organ. t h e r e a r e m a n y things t h e y c a n n o t en-

O u r e y e s tell u s m o r e a b o u t t h e w o r l d a b l e u s t o see. A m o n g t h e s e a r e v e r y
a r o u n d u s t h a n a n y of o u r o t h e r s e n s e small things. Usually, when we talk
o r g a n s d o . T h e size a n d s h a p e of t h i n g s , about small things, we mean things
their color, their distance from us, a n d a b o u t t h e size of t h e p e r i o d a t t h e e n d
w h e t h e r o n e o b j e c t is in f r o n t o r i n b a c k , of t h i s s e n t e n c e . N o w , y o u c a n s e e t h e
a b o v e o r b e l o w , a r e all t h i n g s w e l e a r n p e r i o d q u i t e e a s i l y , a n d if it w e r e o n l y
b y u s i n g o u r eyes. W e c a n see t h i n g s o n e - t e n t h i t s size, y o u c o u l d still see it.
t h a t a r e o n l y a f e w i n c h e s in f r o n t of B u t if t h e p e r i o d shrank to one-hun-
o u r eyes, a n d then w e c a n look o u t the d r e d t h of its p r e s e n t size, y o u would
w i n d o w a n d i n s t a n t l y see things m o r e p r o b a b l y l o s e s i g h t of it. Y e t , s m a l l a s
than a mile away. t h e s h r u n k e n p e r i o d m i g h t b e , it w o u l d
Y e t , r e m a r k a b l e as o u r eyes m a y be, still b e m u c h larger than millions of

Microorganisms are organisms of microscopic size.

1 FAIRY SHRIMP 5 NOCTILUCA

2 DINOFLAGEUATE 6 PLANARIAS
s * ; :'^pHffflf.
• 3 HYDROIDS 7 PROTOMYXA
4 NEMATODE 8 HAIOSPHAERA
different k i n d s of t h i n g s t h a t e x i s t in
your everyday world.
T h e r e are certain plants — which we
shall soon learn a b o u t — that are so
s m a l l y o u c o u l d p u t 2 5 0 , 0 0 0 of t h e m o n
t h e p e r i o d a t t h e e n d of t h i s s e n t e n c e .
And there are animals that are not
much bigger.
N o m a t t e r h o w closely you look at
t h e s h e e t of p a p e r o n w h i c h t h e s e w o r d s
a r e p r i n t e d , it will still l o o k like a f a i r l y
s m o o t h s u r f a c e , b u t if y o u r e y e s c o u l d
see m u c h s m a l l e r t h i n g s t h a n t h e y n a t u -
rally can, y o u w o u l d see t h a t t h e p a p e r learn about these details? W h a t can we
is r e a l l y a t w i s t e d m a s s of fibers. u s e t o a i d o u r e y e s in s e e i n g t h e u n s e e n
T h e r e a r e h u n d r e d s of d e t a i l s a b o u t w o r l d of v e r y s m a l l t h i n g s t h a t a r e all
the world that are t o o small for your a r o u n d us? W e can use an instrument
u n a i d e d e y e s t o see. H o w , t h e n , d o w e called a microscope.

T h e M i c r o s c o p e

A m i c r o s c o p e is a n i n s t r u m e n t for look- W h e n w e s e e a n y t h i n g , w e d o so b e -
ing at small things. cause light is reflected
What is a How does
The word microscope from the object to our
microscope? it work?
comes from two an- e y e s . If t h e r a y s of l i g h t
c i e n t G r e e k w o r d s , mikros, which means c o m e straight from the object to our
" s m a l l , " a n d skopein, which means "to eyes, w e see t h e o b j e c t in its n a t u r a l
look at." size. B u t if t h e r a y s of l i g h t c o m i n g t o
All microscopes have one thing in o u r e y e s a r e b e n t in a c e r t a i n w a y , t h e n
common: They contain one or more the object looks bigger. W h e n this hap-
p a r t s c a l l e d lenses. A l e n s is a n y c l e a r p e n s , w e s a y t h e o b j e c t is magnified. A
s u b s t a n c e t h a t h a s a definite s h a p e a n d l e n s of t h e p r o p e r s h a p e c a n b e n d l i g h t ,
will b e n d l i g h t r a y s a s t h e y p a s s t h r o u g h s o t h a t t h i n g s w e see t h r o u g h t h e l e n s
it. M o s t l e n s e s a r e m a d e of g l a s s , but a r e m a g n i f i e d . A n y l e n s t h a t d o e s t h i s is
a l e n s c o u l d b e m a d e of w a t e r , of oil, a microscope.
o r of c l e a r p l a s t i c . Y o u m a y w o n d e r if l e n s e s c a n a l s o
H

LINEN TESTER

m a k e things look smaller. T h e answer FINGERPRI

There are many kinds of
is " y e s . " Y o u c a n e a s i l y p r o v e t h i s b y instruments for looking
l o o k i n g t h r o u g h t h e l a r g e e n d of a h a n d at small things—used by
t e l e s c o p e o r a p a i r of field glasses. detectives and others.

M i c r o s c o p e s t h a t a r e m a d e of o n e , o r these are examples of simple micro-

p e r h a p s two, lenses are scopes. A s i m p l e m i c r o s c o p e is o n e t h a t
What is a
usually called magni- is m a d e u p of o n e o r m o r e l e n s e s t h a t
simple
fying glasses, or hand s h o w y o u a magnified object right-side-
microscope?
lenses. These are u p a n d in the s a m e place w h e r e you
p r o p e r n a m e s for them, but they are w o u l d s e e it w i t h o u t t h e l e n s . Y o u w i l l
also microscopes. H a v e y o u ever seen u n d e r s t a n d this definition better w h e n
t h e m a g n i f y i n g g l a s s u s e d b y s t a m p col- w e l e a r n a b o u t t h e o t h e r k i n d of m i c r o -
l e c t o r s ? I t is m a d e u p of j u s t o n e or scope.
t w o s m a l l l e n s e s fixed i n a m e t a l f r a m e Y o u c a n b u y a single- o r double-lens
a n d h e l d i n t h e h a n d of t h e p e r s o n u s i n g m i c r o s c o p e in almost a n y toy store or
ft it. H a v e y o u e v e r seen a j e w e l e r o r a five-and-ten-cent store. Such micro-
watchmaker looking at a gem or a s c o p e s r a n g e in p r i c e f r o m less t h a n a
watch through a black, snouty-looking dollar to three or four dollars. T h e very
o b j e c t h e l d a t o n e eye?" T h i s is a m i c r o - c h e a p ones m a y h a v e p o o r l y - m a d e glass
s c o p e c a l l e d a loupe. D i d y o u e v e r see a lenses or plastic lenses that scratch
picture of the detective Sherlock e a s i l y . A d o l l a r a n d a h a l f is p r o b a b l y
Holmes holding a round magnifying the price for w h i c h you can b u y a very
g l a s s fixed i n a c i r c u l a r b a n d of m e t a l useful h a n d lens, s u c h as is u s e d by
and attached to a short handle? All s t a m p collectors.
When you have obtained your simple will see t h a t t h e r e a r e m o r e r e d dots
microscope, you can c r o w d e d closer t o g e t h e r in o r d e r t o pro-
What can u s e it t o l e a r n things duce the redder color.
you see
a b o u t your daily world O p e n your handkerchief and look at
with a
that you never knew i t a s y o u h o l d it u p t o t h e l i g h t . You
simple
microscope? before. O b t a i n a mag- c a n e a s i l y s e e t h a t it is w o v e n of t h o u -
azine with a smooth, or
slick, p a p e r c o v e r t h a t b e a r s t h e c o l o r
p h o t o g r a p h of a p e r s o n . T h e majority
of the slick paper magazines have
covers like this. W i t h y o u r m i c r o s c o p e ,
t f i r n i j i
e x a m i n e t h e f a c e of t h e p e r s o n i n t h e
p i c t u r e . Y o u w i l l s e e t h a t t h e c o l o r of L -iSwfr mnjtj Hwni WKJJT—»

t h e flesh of t h e f a c e is m a d e u p of m a n y
t i n y d o t s o r s p e c k s of d i f f e r e n t colors. '**'*"" M&tfiji' >4 1 v-4
T h e r e are red, yellow, a n d green or blue , -J j j—I _ I 0||4.—
d o t s , a n d t h e w h i t e c o l o r of t h e p a g e
shows t h r o u g h in spaces n o bigger t h a n *i—I- -]—L t ~ r 1 — I •"
A swatch of wool under a microscope shows its weave.
the colored dots. T a k e the magnifying
lens a w a y a n d look at the p a g e with
Cotton gabardine twill as viewed under a microscope.
y o u r u n a i d e d eye. Y o u will see h o w t h e
c o m b i n a t i o n of t h e s e d o t s , t o o s m a l l t o
b e seen w i t h o u t the m i c r o s c o p e , b l e n d s
t o g e t h e r t o p r o d u c e t h e c o l o r of flesh.
W i t h the microscope, look at the red
a r e a of t h e c h e e k o r a t t h e l i p s . You

Newspaper print looks like this when it is magnified.

s a n d s of t h r e a d s . N o w u s e y o u r m i c r o -
scope to look at the handkerchief. Y o u
w i l l s e e h o w e a c h t h r e a d is w o v e n , first
under, then over, the threads near it.
N o t e t h a t all t h e t h r e a d s a r e n o t e q u a l l y
t h i c k . Y o u w i l l s e e t h a t m o s t of the
t h r e a d s look fuzzy b e c a u s e from their
sides tiny, frayed filaments of fiber s t i c k
out.
L o o k a t s e v e r a l d i f f e r e n t s a m p l e s of
m

* * • <

Amethyst crystal's form when magnified.

When you look at this print of a

baby under a microscope, you can
see that it is made up of many dots.

cloth that have colored patterns. How Y o u will a d d g r e a t l y t o y o u r interest

c a n y o u tell w h i c h samples have the and knowledge
color printed on them and which have H o w can you w h e n w o r k i n g
keep a record . .,
the color woven into them? Y o u can - . _ with a micro-
of w h a t y o u s e e ?
d o this b y tracing a single t h r e a d w i t h
s c o p e , if y o u k e e p
y o u r m i c r o s c o p e . If, a s f a r a s y o u c a n
a r e c o r d of w h a t y o u see. Y o u c a n k e e p
follow t h e t h r e a d , it is o n e c o l o r , t h e n
such a record in a n o t e b o o k or o n file
the cloth has a woven pattern. O n the
c a r d s t h a t a r e five i n c h e s l o n g a n d t h r e e
o t h e r h a n d , if y o u t r a c e a s i n g l e t h r e a d
inches wide. B o t h the notebook and the
a n d find t h a t it is c o l o r e d d i f f e r e n t l y i n
c a r d s c a n b e b o u g h t i n a l m o s t a n y sta-
d i f f e r e n t p a r t s of t h e p a t t e r n , t h e n t h e
tionery or five-and-ten-cent store.
pattern was printed on the cloth.
H e r e are the things to p u t in y o u r
Your microscope will reveal hun- record book or cards:
d r e d s of n e w t h i n g s , if y o u carefully
Examination number . . .
e x a m i n e t h e o b j e c t s of y o u r d a i l y w o r l d .
Date of examination . . .
Examine a stone that has different
Object examined . . .
c o l o r s i n it. L o o k a t t h e s m a l l h a i r s o n
Where I found it . . .
t h e b a c k of y o u r h a n d . E x a m i n e a p i e c e
What I saw . . .
of w o o d a l o n g t h e s u r f a c e w h e r e a c a r -
Remarks . . .
p e n t e r h a s s a w e d it. L o o k a t t h e l e g of
a n insect. Under remarks, you might want to

8
 An image out of focus (left).

Image now in focus (right).

Diagram (left): light passing

through simple microscope.

write something like: "Compare this Y o u r eye h a s a lens. T h i s lens covers

with Examination n u m b e r " For
example, you m a y have just examined
t h e a n t e n n a of a b u t t e r f l y , a n d
time before, you h a d e x a m i n e d the an-
t e n n a of a m o t h . Y o u w o u l d p r o b a b l y
w a n t t o m a k e n o t e of t h e f a c t t h a t t h e
a n t e n n a s of t h e s e t w o k i n d s of i n s e c t s
are quite different. So, on the
b e a r i n g y o u r r e c o r d of t h e e x a m i n a t i o n
of t h e b u t t e r f l y ' s a n t e n n a , y o u r e f e r t o
t h e c a r d b e a r i n g t h e r e c o r d of t h e e x a m -
i n a t i o n of t h e m o t h ' s a n t e n n a ; a n d o n
the moth's card, you refer to the butter-
fly. C r o s s - r e f e r e n c e s l i k e t h i s w i l l g r e a t l y
i n c r e a s e y o u r k n o w l e d g e of t h e t h i n g s
you examine.
W h e n you were examining things with
u r
»A,L . • y° simple microscope,
y o u r o b a b l
a focus? P y noticed that
y o u c o u l d n o t see clearly
w h e n y o u h e l d t h e l e n s j u s t a n y o l d dis-
tance from the object. Y o u h a d to m o v e
the lens b a c k a n d forth until the object
b e c a m e clear. W h y w a s this necessary?
t h e p a r t of y o u r e y e t h a t is c o l o r e d a n d
also the d a r k spot, t h e pupil, at its cen-
some ter. L i k e all lenses, t h e o n e in y o u r eye
b e n d s r a y s of l i g h t . T h e l i g h t is b e n t s o
t h a t i t falls o n t h e b a c k of y o u r eye
w h e r e light-sensitive materials a r e lo-
cated. W h e n the lens in y o u r eye w o r k s
card j u s t r i g h t , it b e n d s l i g h t so t h a t each
light ray entering y o u r eye from a n ob-
ject falls e x a c t l y in t h e p r o p e r p l a c e t o
g i v e a s h a r p i m a g e of t h e o b j e c t o n t h e
b a c k of t h e e y e . A s l o n g a s t h e p o i n t
w h e r e the light rays form a s h a r p image
is e x a c t l y o n t h e b a c k of t h e e y e , w e
s e e t h e o b j e c t s h a r p l y a n d c l e a r l y . If t h i s
p o i n t is t o o f a r f o r w a r d o r t o o f a r b a c k ,
objects w e see are fuzzy a n d blurred.
T h i s is w h a t h a p p e n s t o n e a r - a n d far-
sighted persons. T h e point at which a
l e n s f o r m s a s h a r p i m a g e is c a l l e d t h e
focus of t h e l e n s .
T h e l e n s of y o u r m i c r o s c o p e a l s o h a s
a focus. Y o u h a d t o m o v e the micro-
s c o p e b a c k a n d f o r t h u n t i l t h e f o c u s of
its lens w a s exactly w h e r e it c o u l d w o r k
 w i t h t h e lens in y o u r eye, so as t o f o r m a water lens can also be m a d e . W i t h a
a s h a r p i m a g e o n t h e b a c k of y o u r e y e . h e a v y shears, cut a strip from a tin can.
W e c a l l t h e m o v i n g b a c k a n d f o r t h of a T h i s tin strip should b e a b o u t o n e inch
l e n s t o f o r m a s h a r p i m a g e focusing the w i d e a n d four inches long. B e careful
lens. n o t to cut yourself on the sharp edges
of t h e t i n . W h e n t h e s t r i p is c u t , d u l l
W i t h a p a i r of p l i e r s , s t r a i g h t e n o u t a t h e e d g e s w i t h a file, o r c o v e r t h e e d g e s
paper clip or a with adhesive tape.
H o w can you p i e c e of w k e of
M a r k t h e e x a c t c e n t e r of t h e t i n s t r i p .
make a water- . ., . . ,
, . „ similar thickness. P l a c e t h e s t r i p o n a p i e c e of w o o d , a n d
lens microscope?
A t o n e e n d of t h e drive a medium-size nail through the
wire, b e n d a complete loop a b o u t one- c e n t e r . D o n o t u s e a n a i l t h a t will m a k e
s i x t e e n t h of a n i n c h a c r o s s . R u b a l i t t l e a h o l e m o r e t h a n o n e - s i x t e e n t h i n c h in
g r e a s e o r c o o k i n g oil o n t h e l o o p . D i p diameter. R e m o v e the nail and the piece
t h e l o o p i n w a t e r a n d g e n t l y r e m o v e it. of w o o d .
W i t h i n t h e l o o p w i l l b e a d r o p of w a t e r B e n d t h e e n d s of t h e s t r i p d o w n w a r d ,
t h a t forms a lens. L o o k at t h e p r i n t o n so t h a t t h e strip will s t a n d . A s w i t h t h e
a p a g e t h r o u g h the w a t e r lens. T h e lens l o o p m i c r o s c o p e , r u b a little grease o r
will p r o b a b l y m a g n i f y t h e p r i n t t o twice oil a r o u n d t h e h o l e in t h e strip. S t a n d
i t s n a t u r a l size. E v e n t u a l l y , t h e water t h e strip o n its t w o e n d s . D i p a pencil
w i l l e v a p o r a t e , b u t it is e a s y t o m a k e i n w a t e r a n d c a r e f u l l y r e m o v e it. T r a n s -
a n o t h e r w a t e r lens. f e r a d r o p of w a t e r f r o m t h e e n d of t h e
A d i f f e r e n t k i n d of m i c r o s c o p e w i t h pencil t o t h e hole, so t h a t a d r o p h a n g s
in the hole, f o r m i n g a lens.
P l a c e a s m a l l p a n e of w i n d o w g l a s s
o n t h e t o p s of t w o t i n c a n s of t h e s a m e

WATER DROP
BENT TIN STRIP
WINDOW GLASS PANE

SALT CRYSTALS
MAGNIFIED

TIN CAN

LIGHT REFLECTED FROM MIRROR

10
The first microscopist was
Antony van Leeuwenhoek,
a cloth merchant from Hol-
land. He is pictured here
with the microscope of his
design, (b. 1632,d. 1723)

size. P l a c e t h e t i n s t r i p c a r e f u l l y o n t h e a l e n s a t o n e e n d . T h e s e w e r e c a l l e d flea
c e n t e r of t h e g l a s s . B e n e a t h t h e g l a s s , g l a s s e s o r fly g l a s s e s , a n d t h e s e n a m e s
p r o p a flat m i r r o r , s u c h a s is f o u n d in show pretty well what these micro-
l a d y ' s h a n d b a g s , s o t h a t l i g h t is r e f l e c t e d scopes w e r e u s e d for.
u p w a r d t h r o u g h the glass a n d the water
lens. Although we do not know who invented
B e n e a t h the lens, place a few grains the microscope, we do
What is a
of p e p p e r , s a l t , o r s u g a r , a n d l o o k d o w n k n o w w h o w a s t h e first
microscopist?
through the lens. F o c u s the lens by microscopist. A micro-
gently pressing o n the strip. H o w m a n y s c o p i s t is a p e r s o n w h o u s e s a m i c r o -
times d o you think the w a t e r lens mag- s c o p e t o s t u d y small t h i n g s in a careful
nified t h e g r a i n s ? a n d s y s t e m a t i c w a y . If y o u s t u d y t h i n g s
carefully with y o u r simple microscope
W e don't k n o w just w h o m a d e the first a n d k e e p a r e c o r d of y o u r findings, you
microscope. In the a r e a m i c r o s c o p i s t . T h e first m i c r o s c o -
Who
thirteenth century, pist w a s A n t o n y van L e e u w e n h o e k .
invented
a monk named V a n L e e u w e n h o e k was a cloth mer-
the microscope?
R o g e r B a c o n c h a n t w h o lived in Delft, H o l l a n d d u r -
learned h o w to g r i n d glass to m a k e spec- i n g m o s t of t h e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y a n d
tacles. A little while a f t e r w a r d , gentle- p a r t of t h e e i g h t e e n t h . H e l i v e d a q u i e t
men carried about with them a small life a s a t r a d e s m a n , b u t h e w a s , i n h i s
m i c r o s c o p e t h a t - c o n s i s t e d of a metal s p a r e t i m e , o n e of t h e w o r l d ' s great
t u b e , a b o u t t h e size of y o u r t h u m b , w i t h scientific d i s c o v e r e r s .

11
 He obtained diamond dust from the H e s t u d i e d t h e e y e s of a s h r i m p , c o d f i s h ,
diamond cutters whale, rabbit, cow,
How was diamond What objects
of Delft with a n d beetle. H e studied
dust used for did he study?
which he ground t h e e g g s of a n t s a n d
a microscope?
a nearly-spheri- lice. Seeds, b l o s s o m s , fruits, a n d other
cal lens. H e m o u n t e d t h e lens o n a de- p a r t s of t h e p l a n t ; t h e c i r c u l a t i o n of
vice that included a metal rod into b l o o d i n t h e t a i l of a fish; t h e t a r t a r o n
which a screw-thread was cut. B y turn- t h e t e e t h of a n e i g h t - y e a r - o l d b o y and
ing the rod, he could m a k e very fine t w o ladies; v i n e g a r eels, crabs, a n d oys-
focusing a d j u s t m e n t s for his lens. T h e ter eggs — all t h e s e w e r e a m o n g the
lens a n d the focusing device w e r e b o t h things van Leeuwenhoek placed be-
attached to a metal plate that h a d a n e a t h his microscope.
h o l e i n it, j u s t b e l o w t h e l e n s . B y p l a c - W h e n h e w a s eighty-five, h e discov-
ing objects b e n e a t h the hole, v a n Leeu- ered that "some hundreds of nerves
wenhoek could magnify them as m u c h e q u a l t h e size of a s i n g l e h a i r of a m a n ' s
a s 3 0 0 t i m e s t h e i r n a t u r a l size. beard!" A n d when he was past ninety,
H e w a s f a s c i n a t e d b y t h e w o r l d of he w a s studying "the wonderful perfec-
tiny things that his microscope o p e n e d t i o n s a n d f o r m a t i o n s " i n t h e e y e of a fly.
u p for him, a n d spent h o u r s examining W i t h his simple microscope, his care-
a l l s o r t s of t h i n g s a r o u n d h i m a n d w r i t - ful w o r k , a n d h i s e n t h u s i a s m , Antony
ing careful reports on w h a t he saw. H e van Leeuwenhoek opened up a world
p u t m a n y of h i s r e p o r t s i n t o l e t t e r s t h a t t h a t e v e n t u a l l y l e d t o t h e c o n q u e s t of
h e s e n t t o t h e R o y a l S o c i e t y of L o n d o n , m a n y d i s e a s e s a n d a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g of
a n a s s o c i a t i o n m a d e u p of scientists. h o w the m a n y things in t h e w o r l d a r e
The scientists m a r v e l e d at w h a t van constructed.
Leeuwenhoek wrote. They honored him
by making their own microscopes a n d
imitating his observations.
H e h i r e d a n illustrator, called a lim-
ner, w h o joined him in his observations T h e C o m p o u n d

a n d t h e n m a d e d r a w i n g s of w h a t they M i c r o s c o p e
both saw. O n e time van L e e u w e n h o e k
p u t a louse u n d e r his microscope. T h i s W h e n m o s t people h e a r the w o r d "mi-
little a n i m a l w a s t o o active t o o b s e r v e croscope," they usually
What is a
LOUSE well, so v a n L e e u w e n h o e k r e m o v e d its t h i n k of t h e k i n d t h a t
compound
head. However, t h e louse's legs kept microscope? is s e e n i n l a b o r a t o r i e s .
kicking for m o r e t h a n a n h o u r . M e a n - This microscope, as
while, as v a n L e e u w e n h o e k w r o t e in seen from the outside, h a s a heavy metal
his notes, "the L i m n e r could n o t a d m i r e foot, a platform o n w h i c h to place w h a t
t h e s i g h t e n o u g h , a n d it t o o k h i m a l o n g is b e i n g e x a m i n e d , a nosepiece that
time to p u t his h a n d to p a p e r . " points at the platform, and a long tube
GRASS
SPIKELET
ANTHERS OF FLOWERS
 EYEPE
I CE

[ (CONVEX LENS) COARSE ADJUSTMENT

Part of a feather mag-
nified (below); how light
rays pass through a com- L
pound microscope FIRST
(right); a compound IMAGE
microscope (far right)
with its parts indicated.

(CONVEX LENS) C0NDENSER

SUBSTAGE
NCLINATION
JOINT

PILLAR

second system can greatly magnify the

i m a g e a n d l o c a t e it j u s t a t t h e p l a t f o r m
of t h e m i c r o s c o p e .

Let us examine the compound labora-

a t t h e t o p of w h i c h t h e microscopist tory microscope in
What are some Q r d e r t Q l e a r n i t §
p l a c e s h i s e y e . T h i s k i n d of m i c r o s c o p e
is c a l l e d a biological microscope, or a . pr a r t s . First, let us
compound
laboratory microscope. I t is a l s o a com- microscope? examine the part
pound microscope. t h r o u g h w h i c h light
passes. R i g h t above the platform, which
In a compound microscope, there are i s p r o p e r l y c a l l e d t h e stage, is a n a r r o w
m a n y lenses. These t u b e t h a t c o n t a i n s l e n s e s . T h i s t u b e is
What are the
lenses a r e g r o u p e d in- c a l l e d t h e objective. The microscope
two systems
of lenses? to two systems. One m a y have only one objective that fits
system does exactly into a wider tube, called the nosepiece.
what a simple microscope does — it However, most laboratory microscopes
shows an upright image, just as the eye h a v e two or three objectives attached to
w o u l d s e e it, o n l y l a r g e r . T h e f o c u s of a rotating nosepiece. W i t h this arrange-
t h i s set of l e n s e s is a t a p o i n t w h e r e t h e ment, the microscopist need only turn

13
 the nosepiece to the right location in T h e p a r t s of t h e m i c r o s c o p e y o u h a v e
order to bring into use the objective he just learned are the
What are the
wants. most important, but
other parts of
Y o u may wonder why a microscope it w o u l d b e h a r d to
a compound
would have more than one objective. use them without the
microscope?
E a c h objective h a s a different magnify- o t h e r p a r t s of a m o d -
ing power. T h e microscopist chooses e r n m i c r o s c o p e . A t t h e b o t t o m of t h e
the objective which magnifies that m i c r o s c o p e , is a b r o a d , h e a v y m e t a l
a m o u n t w h i c h best enables h i m to ob- base, s o m e t i m e s c a l l e d t h e foot. This
s e r v e w h a t h e is l o o k i n g a t . If y o u l o o k base holds the working parts of the
c l o s e l y a t t h e o b j e c t i v e s of a l a b o r a t o r y microscope steady. Rising from the
m i c r o s c o p e , y o u will see m a r k e d o n o n e b a c k of t h e b a s e is t h e pillar. This, too,
lOx, on the second 43x, a n d o n the third holds the microscope steady, but at the
97x. T h e "x" means "times" and stands t o p of t h e p i l l a r is a j o i n t , t h e inclination
f o r j u s t w h a t it d o e s in m u l t i p l i c a t i o n . joint, t h a t a l l o w s t h e u p p e r p a r t of t h e
A n o b j e c t i v e w i t h 4 3 x o n it m e a n s t h a t m i c r o s c o p e to be tilted b a c k w a r d and
its lenses will m a g n i f y 4 3 t i m e s n a t u r a l forward. T h e large curved part that
size. d o e s t h e t i l t i n g is c a l l e d t h e arm. The
u p p e r e n d of t h e a r m h o l d s t h e t u b e ,

A b o v e t h e n o s e p i e c e , is a w i d e tube. It while the lower end holds the stage.

is u s u a l l y e m p t y , but A f f i x e d t o t h e s t a g e a r e t w o s t r i p s of
How do you s p r i n g y s t e e l . T h e y a r e c a l l e d clips, and
sometimes one or two
find out the t h e i r t a s k is t o h o l d s p e c i m e n s o n t h e
special lenses are
magnifying s t a g e , e s p e c i a l l y w h e n t h e s t a g e is t i l t e d .
power of a within the tube. Fitting
On more expensive microscopes, the
microscope? i n t o t h e u p p e r p a r t of
s t a g e is m a d e i n t w o l a y e r s . T h e u p p e r
it is a n a r r o w e r tube
layer can be moved forward or back-
c a l l e d t h e extension tube. T h i s one con-
w a r d , o r t o t h e r i g h t o r left, b y t u r n i n g
tains lenses. T h e lenses in t h e upper
p a i r s of k n o b s .
portion together make u p the eyepiece,
o r ocular. O n t h e o c u l a r , y o u will see its W h e r e t h e t u b e m e e t s t h e a r m is a
magnifying p o w e r m a r k e d . Usually, this very important mechanism — the ad-
i s 5 x o r l O x . If y o u u s e a l O x o c u l a r justment. T h e r e is a coarse adjustment
with a 43x objective, the microscope a n d a fine adjustment. You remember
h a s a t o t a l m a g n i f y i n g p o w e r of 1 0 x 4 3 , the screw-threaded rod that van Leeu-
w e n h o e k fitted t o h i s s i m p l e m i c r o s c o p e .
GLOEOCAPSA o r 4 3 0 . I n s h o r t , t o k n o w w h a t t h e
m a g n i f y i n g p o w e r of a m i c r o s c o p e is, The coarse and the fine adjustments
y o u m u l t i p l y t h e p o w e r of t h e o c u l a r b y both consist of very accurately ma-
t h e p o w e r of t h e o b j e c t i v e . chined screw threads, by means of

EUGLENA

SCENADESMUS
which the tubes a n d objectives can be o n t h e b a l s a m a v e r y t h i n p i e c e of g l a s s ,
raised a n d l o w e r e d , in o r d e r t o focus about one inch square, called a cover
the microscope. glass o r cover slip. If y o u s e e b u b b l e s
A t the very bottom of t h e a r m , a b e n e a t h t h e c o v e r glass, gently press
mirror is affixed, s o t h a t a b e a m of l i g h t d o w n u p o n the cover glass with the tip
can b e shined u p , t h r o u g h a h o l e in t h e of a p a i r of t w e e z e r s o r a t o o t h p i c k .
s t a g e , t o t h e b o t t o m of t h e objective, This should help to expel the bubbles.
and from there, through the tubes to the N o w t h e h a i r is p r o p e r l y mounted.
eyepiece. B e t w e e n the m i r r o r a n d the N e x t , t a k e c a r e of t h e l i g h t i n g . To
stage, s o m e m i c r o s c o p e s h a v e a third d o this, l o o k a t the stage from t h e side,
s y s t e m of l e n s e s t o b e t t e r concentrate and with the coarse adjustment, move
the light from the m i r r o r . T h i s system t h e b o t t o m of t h e o b j e c t i v e t o a p o i n t
is c a l l e d a substage condenser. a b o u t o n e - s i x t e e n t h of a n i n c h above
t h e c o v e r g l a s s . If t h e m i c r o s c o p e has
Suppose you wish to examine a hair m o r e t h a n one objective, use the one
from your head. with the lowest magnifying power.
How do you use
First, place on the W h e n t h e o b j e c t i v e is p o s i t i o n e d c l o s e
a laboratory
s t a g e a glass slide, t o t h e slide, l o o k i n t o t h e eyepiece. W i t h
compound
w h i c h is a p i e c e of o n e h a n d , m o v e the m i r r o r a b o u t until
microscope?
clear glass o n e inch you see a bright, evenly-lit circle of
wide a n d three inches long, a n d a b o u t light, n o t glaring, not dim. N o w you
half as t h i c k as w i n d o w glass. P u s h t h e are r e a d y to focus.
slide u n d e r t h e c l i p s , s o t h a t it is h e l d
firmly. T h e n c u t a o n e - i n c h l e n g t h of
h a i r a n d p l a c e it o n t h e s l i d e r i g h t a b o v e
t h e h o l e in t h e s t a g e . Y o u r b r e a t h m i g h t
e a s i l y b l o w t h e h a i r a w a y , s o fix it i n
p l a c e . T h i s is b e s t d o n e w i t h a m a t e r i a l
c a l l e d Canada balsam. H o w e v e r , if y o u
h a v e n o b a l s a m , u s e c l e a r h o u s e h o l d ce-
ment or clear fingernail polish.
P u t a s m a l l d r o p of b a l s a m o n top Preparing a slide for the
of t h e h a i r . W a i t a f e w m o m e n t s in microscope properly will
make viewing easier.
the h o p e t h a t a n y tiny b u b b l e s in t h e
b a l s a m will rise t o t h e s u r f a c e a n d b u r s t .
D o n ' t wait t o o long, for C a n a d a b a l s a m
(and household cement and fingernail
polish) h a r d e n in air. So g e n t l y p l a c e

ZYGNEMA

SYNURA
 HARVEST MITE

GNAT
BURNET
BUTTERFLY
SWALLOWTAILIL
BUTTERFLY

EMPEROR MOTH
1? ij ?» | : i , i
WATER MITE
COMMON
BLUE BUTTERFLY

AZURE BLUE
BUTTERFLY

WATER MITE
I
CABBAGE
RED SPIDER WHITE BUTTERFLY
HAIRSTREAK
BUTTERFLY
INSECT SCALES

kIT CHEESE MITE WORM

WATER M ITFE
MITES

DIATOMS

PROTOZOAN COPEPOD
L

MEDUSA JELLYF
OSTRACOD
GASTROTRICHAS
I

DAPHNIA COPEPOD

WHITING LARVA

MARINE PLANKTON
WATER BEAR
CYCLOPS
nDA
HYDRA
•
FRESH-WATER PLANKTON COPEPOD
W h e n f o c u s i n g , y o u m u s t always keep If t h e m i c r o s c o p e has a nosepiece
in mind this rule: with two objectives, simply turn the
How d o you Ar , ,
l o w e r p a r t of t h e n o s e p i e c e a r o u n d s o
, ( . , Never focus down-
t h a t t h e o t h e r o b j e c t i v e is i n l i n e w i t h
ward. Always focus up-
the tube. If the microscope is well
ward. If y o u f o c u s d o w n w a r d , y o u w i l l
made, changing the objective should not
surely, s o o n e r o r later, p u s h t h e front
change the focus very m u c h . However,
of t h e o b j e c t i v e t h r o u g h t h e s l i d e . T h i s
s o m e f o c u s i n g w i t h t h e fine a d j u s t m e n t
will n o t o n l y b r e a k t h e s l i d e , a n d p e r -
will p r o b a b l y b e n e c e s s a r y . A l s o , y o u
h a p s r u i n a v a l u a b l e s p e c i m e n , b u t it
will h a v e t o a d j u s t t h e l i g h t i n g a g a i n .
m a y a l s o b r e a k t h e f r o n t l e n s of the
If t h e m i c r o s c o p e h a s a t h i r d o b j e c -
objective. Mindful of t h i s , t u r n slow-
t i v e , m o v e it i n t o p l a c e j u s t a s y o u d i d
ly t h e c o a r s e a d j u s t m e n t t o w a r d y o u r -
the second one. However, you cannot
self, so t h a t t h e t u b e r i s e s f r o m t h e s l i d e .
use this objective simply b y focusing.
W h e n the hair comes clearly into view,
T h i s objective, usually the one m a r k e d
change from the coarse adjustment to
9 7 x , i s a n oil immersion lens. I t h a s t h i s
t h e fine o n e . A l t h o u g h y o u m u s t turn
name because t o u s e it, y o u usually
the c o a r s e a d j u s t m e n t o n l y in o n e direc-
put the foremost l e n s of t h e objec-
tion w h e n focusing, y o u m a y t u r n the
t i v e i n t o a d r o p of oil p l a c e d u p o n t h e
fine a d j u s t m e n t in e i t h e r d i r e c t i o n , as
cover glass. Again you will h a v e to
long as you do not turn it more than
focus, and this time b e very careful,
half a turn. T h u s , w i t h t h e fine a d j u s t -
because the front of t h e o b j e c t i v e is
ment, you can bring the hair into clear
n e a r l y t o u c h i n g t h e c o v e r glass. T h e oil
f o c u s . Y o u w i l l p r o b a b l y find t h a t y o u
y o u u s e m u s t b e cedarwood oil. This
have to adjust the mirror again.
oil c a n b e o b t a i n e d f r o m microscope
After you have studied the hair for a
dealers.
w h i l e , y o u m a y w a n t t o m a g n i f y it m o r e .
If t h e m i c r o s c o p e h a s o n l y o n e n o s e -
A f t e r e x a m i n i n g t h e h a i r , y o u will h a v e
piece, raise t h e objective far a b o v e t h e
to clean the equipment.
slide, u n s c r e w t h e o b j e c t i v e t o t a k e it
H o w d o you T u m t h e c o a r s e adjust.
o u t of t h e n o s e p i e c e , a n d t h e n p u t a n -
' m e n t k n o b to raise the
other, higher-power, objective into the e q u i p m e n tx?0
nosepiece. T h e n focus in t h e s a m e w a y oil immersion lens
as y o u did w h e n using t h e low-power f r o m t h e slide. T h e n w e t a special k i n d
objective. of t i s s u e , c a l l e d lens tissue, in a liquid
c a l l e d xylol. With the wetted tissue,
Illustrated on the left are other specimens which may
w i p e a l l t h e o i l off t h e o i l immersion
be viewed under the microscope. Mites belong to a
family of tiny animals related to spiders and scor- lens. I t is w e l l t o use two separate
pions. They often infest other animals, including hu- p i e c e s of t i s s u e f o r t w o w i p i n g s . The
mans, plants, and foods. Protozoa, along with other
tiny animals, as well as plants, make up the plankton, xylol e v a p o r a t e s quickly, b u t m a y leave
which floats on the surface of oceans and lakes. a f o g g y d e p o s i t o n t h e l e n s , so w i p e
Plankton serves as the food for many forms of sea life. t h e l e n s w i t h a d r y p i e c e of l e n s t i s s u e .

17
 If y o u w i s h t o k e e p t h e s l i d e w i t h t h e m i c r o s c o p e will n o t m a g n i f y m o r e t h a n
m o u n t e d h a i r , w i p e off w i t h x y l o l a n y 1 Ox, a n d t h e v e r y b e s t w i l l m a g n i f y o n l y
excess b a l s a m that has oozed o u t from 20x. In order to really do interesting
u n d e r t h e c o v e r glass, label t h e slide, w o r k in m i c r o s c o p y , y o u n e e d a com-
a n d s t o r e it. If, o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , y o u pound microscope.
d o n o t w i s h t o k e e p t h e slide m o u n t ,
p l a c e a d r o p o r t w o of x y l o l around A laboratory, or biological, c o m p o u n d
t h e e d g e s of t h e c o v e r g l a s s . T h i s w i l l microscope is a
What kind of
w o r k i t s w a y u n d e r t h e g l a s s a n d dis- very expensive in-
microscope
solve t h e b a l s a m so t h a t y o u c a n r e m o v e strument that costs
should you get?
t h e c o v e r g l a s s . N o w all y o u h a v e t o d o several hundred
is w i p e t h e c o v e r g l a s s a n d t h e slide d o l l a r s . H o w e v e r , it is p o s s i b l e t o p u r -
w i t h s o m e xylol o r lens tissue. c h a s e a s o - c a l l e d amateur microscope
w h i c h is m u c h l e s s e x p e n s i v e . T h i s is a
If y o u w a n t t o m a k e m i c r o s c o p y y o u r s m a l l e r m o d e l of t h e l a b o r a t o r y m i c r o -
hobby, you will scope. It lacks some refinements that
What equipment only a highly-trained scientist would
have to start with
will you need
certain basic n e e d for his w o r k , b u t in y o u r micros-
% to become a
microscopist? equipment: a mi- c o p y , y o u will n o t miss t h e m a t all.
croscope; glass T h e s e a m a t e u r microscopes are not toys
slides ( a t least a d o z e n t o begin w i t h ) ; — they are real c o m p o u n d microscopes
cover glasses ( a b o u t t w o dozen, since t h a t will p r o d u c e a clear i m a g e magni-
these b r e a k very easily); tweezers (or fied 3 0 0 t o 5 0 0 t i m e s . Y o u c a n b u y s u c h
forceps); a medicine dropper; a probe a m i c r o s c o p e for $ 1 1 to $20. T h i s m a y
(made by sticking the eye-end of a s e e m l i k e q u i t e a l o t of m o n e y , b u t if
needle into an eraser removed from a you begin immediately to put away
p e n c i l ) ; a sharp knife, or single-edge nickels and dimes that you find you
razor blade; sharp-pointed scissors; r e a l l y d o n o t h a v e t o s p e n d , y o u will
Canada balsam (or fingernail polish); have saved u p the needed m o n e y sooner
a n d xylol ( o r a c e t o n e ) . W h i l e a simple t h a n n o w seems likely. W h e n y o u a r e
m i c r o s c o p e will reveal m a n y wonders r e a d y t o b u y y o u r m i c r o s c o p e , y o u will
of t h e w o r l d a r o u n d y o u , t h i s i n s t r u - b e wise t o c o n s u l t a science t e a c h e r in
m e n t h a s its limits. Y o u c a n n o t b u y o n e y o u r school. H e c a n give y o u advice o n
t h a t w i l l g i v e t h e 3 0 0 x p o w e r of v a n h o w to go about buying the microscope.
Leeuwenhoek's. Even a good simple O n e g o o d p l a c e to b u y a n a m a t e u r mi-

18
 SNOW CRYSTALS MAGNIFIED
it
EEZERS
PROBING NEEDLE

c r o s c o p e is f r o m a mail-order house.
C o n s u l t its c a t a l o g carefully before
y o u o r d e r . M a k e s u r e t h e r e is a g u a r a n -
tee t h a t t h e m i c r o s c o p e will b e r e p l a c e d
if it is d e f e c t i v e w h e n y o u g e t it.

T h e W o r l d of Invisible Life —

Bacteria a n d P r o t o z o a

A l l a r o u n d u s a r e b i l l i o n s of t i n y l i v i n g B a c t e r i a m a y b e f o u n d all a r o u n d u s —
things that are too in t h e e a r t h , in w a t e r a n d
What are the s m a U tQ b e §een w i t h Where are
in t h e air. T h e r e a r e mil-
smallest plants , . , , bacteria
• .L 1-10 the u n a i d e d eyes. l i o n s of b a c t e r i a o n y o u r
J
found?
in the world? skin, in y o u r m o u t h , y o u r
A m o n g the smallest nasal passages, and elsewhere inside
of t h e s e l i v i n g t h i n g s a r e p l a n t s c a l l e d y o u r b o d y . T h e r e a r e t h o u s a n d s of dif-
bacteria. A s i n g l e o n e of t h e s e p l a n t s is f e r e n t k i n d s of b a c t e r i a . T h e y a r e m a n ' s
a bacterium. S o m e b a c t e r i a a r e so small invisible friends a n d foes. T h e y a r e b o t h
t h a t 1 0 , 0 0 0 of t h e m c o u l d b e p l a c e d o n useful a n d harmful to m a n .
t h e p e r i o d a t t h e e n d of t h i s s e n t e n c e .
E a c h b a c t e r i u m is a s i n g l e l i v i n g cell. Among the useful bacteria are those
T h i s m e a n s t h a t it is a s e p a r a t e b i t of that produce buttermilk
living m a t t e r t h a t c a n live a n d g r o w b y How are
a n d vinegar, age cheese,
bacteria
itself. I t c a n t a k e i n t o itself f o o d and a n d h e l p i n t h e c u r i n g of
useful?
oxygen. It uses t h e food for nourish- leather. Probably the most
m e n t , a n d t h e o x y g e n t o h e l p it n o u r i s h v a l u a b l e service t h a t b a c t e r i a give to
itself, g r o w a n d m o v e .
19
 a n d forth rapidly a n d push the bacte-
rium t h r o u g h the liquid. Some bacteria
h a v e c i l i a g r o w i n g o u t f r o m a l l p a r t s of
t h e cell wall. O t h e r s h a v e just a single
t h r e a d a t o n e o r b o t h e n d s . Still o t h e r s
h a v e a t u f t of c i l i a a t o n e e n d .

Since bacteria are so i m p o r t a n t to m a n ,

it is useful t o k n o w in
n When do they w h a t c o n d i t i o n s b a c .
thrive best? ,. ,
t e n a live a n d g r o w .
M o s t bacteria thrive best at the tem-
p e r a t u r e of t h e h u m a n b o d y — a l i t t l e

Bacilli are rod-shaped bacteria which need oxygen.

m a n is t o c a u s e d e c a y . If d e c a y b a c t e r i a
were not constantly at work, the earth
would b e c o m e littered with the dead
b o d i e s of a n i m a l s a n d p l a n t s .
Harmful bacteria are those that cause
disease in animals a n d plants. Among
the diseases caused in m a n b y bacteria
are p n e u m o n i a , typhoid fever a n d tuber-
culosis. Fortunately, there are more
harmless bacteria t h a n harmful ones.

B a c t e r i a m a y h a v e a n y o n e of three
shapes. Some are round
What do like a ball. A bacterium
bacteria
of t h i s s h a p e is c a l l e d a
look like? Spirilla are threadlike and spiral-shaped bacteria.
coccus. A n o t h e r k i n d of
b a c t e r i u m is s h a p e d like a r o d , a n d is
c a l l e d a bacillus. T h e t h i r d k i n d of b a c - less t h a n 9 9 d e g r e e s F a h r e n h e i t . Both
t e r i u m h a s a s p i r a l s h a p e , a n d is c a l l e d lower a n d higher temperatures slow the
a spirillum. g r o w t h of b a c t e r i a . F r e e z i n g a n d b o i l -
Some bacteria can move when they ing will kill m o s t b a c t e r i a . Y o u c a n n o w
a r e i n a l i q u i d . A b a c t e r i u m of t h i s k i n d see t h a t p u t t i n g f o o d in t h e refrigerator
has extremely thin threads of living s l o w s t h e g r o w t h of b a c t e r i a t h a t m a y
m a t t e r g r o w i n g o u t f r o m i t s cell w a l l . be on the food, a n d thereby prevents
T h e s e t h r e a d s , c a l l e d cilia, lash back the food from b e c o m i n g spoiled. Also,

20
 Bacteria reproduce themselves very rap-
idly. It t a k e s only a b o u t
How fast d o t h i r t y m m u t e s f o r o n e
bacteria , ,
_ bacterium to become
reproduce? .
t w o . If a l l t h e o f f s p r i n g
of o n e b a c t e r i u m c o u l d g o o n r e p r o d u c -
ing for twelve hours, there w o u l d be
s e v e n t e e n m i l l i o n of t h e m . If t h i s p r o c -
ess c o n t i n u e d for five days, bacteria
w o u l d fill a l l t h e o c e a n s t o a d e p t h of
o n e mile. Of course, n o t h i n g like this
can take place, because most bacteria
d o n o t find t h e n o u r i s h m e n t o r favor-

Cocci are ball-like, or spherically-shaped, bacteria.

c o o k i n g f o o d n o t o n l y m a k e s it e a s i e r
a n d tastier t o eat, b u t also kills h a r m f u l
b a c t e r i a t h a t m a y b e o n it.
B a c t e r i a n e e d m u c h m o i s t u r e in o r d e r
t o t h r i v e . T h u s , if w e k e e p f o o d dry,
w e k e e p it f r o m s p o i l i n g b y t h e g r o w t h
of b a c t e r i a u p o n it. D a r k n e s s is a n o t h e r
condition in w h i c h bacteria thrive. A
s t r o n g l i g h t w i l l s l o w t h e g r o w t h of b a c -
teria o r kill t h e m . N o w y o u c a n see
w h y a s u n n y r o o m is a h e a l t h y r o o m .

I n m o s t c i v i l i z e d c o u n t r i e s , t h e l a w re-
quires that bacteria
What is the
in milk b e killed b y
process of Cocci may also grow in pairs, clusters or in chains.
raising the tempera-
pasteurization?
t u r e of t h e m i l k to
1 4 5 d e g r e e s F a h r e n h e i t a n d k e e p i n g it a b l e c o n d i t i o n s in w h i c h t o g r o w and
at this t e m p e r a t u r e for thirty minutes. reproduce.
T h i s p r o c e s s f o r k i l l i n g b a c t e r i a is c a l l e d
pasteurization and was discovered by O n e of t h e b e s t w a y s t o g e t h a r m l e s s
the great F r e n c h bacteriologist Louis b a c t e r i a is t o m a k e a hay
P a s t e u r . A b a c t e r i o l o g i s t is a s c i e n t i s t How c a n infus[orii pjH a two-quart
w h o studies a n d w o r k s with bacteria — . . , g l a s s j a r a l m o s t full of w a -
bacteria?
o r t h e s c i e n c e of b a c t e r i o l o g y . t e r . If y o u c a n g e t w a t e r

21
 Many bacteria repro-
duce by splitting in two
— a half hour process.
9:00 A.M. 9:20 A.M. 9:40 A.M. 10:00 A.M. Some split in 20 min.

from a stream or lake, you can proceed c a r e f u l l y a n d a d j u s t t h e m i r r o r i n sev-

i m m e d i a t e l y w i t h t h e r e s t of t h e e x p e r i - eral different positions as y o u seek for
m e n t . If y o u t a k e w a t e r f r o m a tap, b a c t e r i a i n t h e field of y o u r m i c r o s c o p e .
allow the jar to stand uncovered for If y o u s e e n o t h i n g b u t a b l u r r y blob
t h r e e d a y s , s o t h a t e x c e s s o x y g e n t h a t is of material, it m e a n s that you have
p r o b a b l y dissolved in the water may p l a c e d t o o l a r g e a n a m o u n t of s c u m o n
e s c a p e . P a s t e a l a b e l o n t h e o u t s i d e of t h e slide. M a k e a n e w slide, u s i n g o n l y
GfiXfe one-tenth as m u c h scum. In trying to
t h e j a r a t t h e l e v e l of t h e s u r f a c e of t h e
1
w a t e r , so t h a t y o u m a y a d d m o r e w a t e r find b a c t e r i a , t h e l i g h t i n g is v e r y i m p o r -
t o t h e j a r , if n e e d e d . A d d o n l y w a t e r t a n t . S p e n d c o n s i d e r a b l e t i m e in m a n i p -
that y o u h a v e allowed to stand for a u l a t i n g t h e m i r r o r . I n y o u r r e p o r t , de-
while, like t h e original jar. s c r i b e t h e s h a p e s of t h e b a c t e r i a you
2 C u t a h a n d f u l of h a y o r d r y grass see.
i n t o s h o r t l e n g t h s a n d p u t it i n t o the T h e r e a r e m a n y o t h e r s o u r c e s of b a c -
w a t e r in the jar. C o v e r t h e j a r a n d p l a c e teria a m o n g everyday things. Imitate
it w h e r e d a y l i g h t , b u t n o t d i r e c t sun- L e e u w e n h o e k by scraping with a tooth-
l i g h t , w i l l r e a c h it. I n a b o u t t h r e e o r
f o u r d a y s , y o u will n o t i c e a s c u m on An organism continues to reproduce in a new culture.
t h e s u r f a c e of t h e w a t e r a n d a n a c c o m -
p a n y i n g u n p l e a s a n t o d o r . T h e s c u m is
f o r m e d b y b i l l i o n s of b a c t e r i a .
REMOVE DROPLETS
FROM HAY INFUSION
AND PLACE ON SLIDE
P l u n g e t h e t i p of y o u r m e d i c i n e d r o p p e r
beneath the scum, and
How do you d r a w u p some clear wa-
prepare
t e r . P l a c e a d r o p of t h i s
| i \ V bacteria
w a t e r o n a glass slide.
for the
microscope? Using your probe, pick \ h
u p a very small a m o u n t PICK UP ORGANISM
WITH DROPPER AND
of s c u m — just e n o u g h to cover the PLACE IN NEW
CULTURE MEDIUM
p o i n t of t h e n e e d l e — a n d d i p t h e n e e d l e t
into the drop of w a t e r o n t h e slide.
Place a cover glass over the drop. F o c u s
k
I

(1) Streptococci. (2) Sfaphy/occi. (3) Tetanus bacilli.

(4) Typhoid bacilli. (5) Tuberculosis bacilli. (6) Chol-
era vibrio. All are disease-causing bacteria in man.

22
p i c k a t i n y b i t of t h e w h i t e material preparing bacteria that makes them
from y o u r teeth, just at the gum-line. m u c h e a s i e r t o see.
P l a c e t h i s w h i t e m a t e r i a l i n a d r o p of
w a t e r , o n a slide. M a k e a few c u t s in a Y o u c a n p r e p a r e a s l i d e of b a c t e r i a s o
p e a c h o r a n a p p l e , a n d let t h e fruit s t a n d that they will b e easily
How can §een^ •£ y Q U sfa^n ^ ^ac_
in a w a r m , d a m p p l a c e for a few d a y s .
P l a c e a b i t of t h e m a t e r i a l f r o m t h e c u t you s a m ^ ^ Q\faeT recj o r blue.
bacteria?
i n a d r o p of w a t e r o n a s l i d e , a n d e x a m -
F i r s t , of c o u r s e , y o u w i l l
i n e it f o r b a c t e r i a . M i x a p i n c h of soil
n e e d t h e s t a i n . T h e b l u e s t a i n is c a l l e d
in a l i t t l e w a t e r . P l a c e a d r o p of t h i s
methylene blue, and the red stain is
m i x t u r e o n a s l i d e a n d e x a m i n e it f o r
eosin. Y o u c a n b u y b o t h of t h e m f r o m
bacteria.
a pharmacist. They are cheap, and you
P l a c i n g b a c t e r i a i n a d r o p of w a t e r n e e d v e r y l i t t l e of e a c h . If y o u b u y t h e
o n a slide m a k e s a p r e p a r a t i o n t h a t re- s t a i n s in d r y f o r m , d i s s o l v e i n h a l f a
q u i r e s m u c h m a n i p u l a t i o n of t h e m i r r o r tumblerful of w a t e r j u s t a s m u c h of
in o r d e r t o b e a b l e t o s e e t h e b a c t e r i a e i t h e r a s y o u c a n p i c k u p o n t h e e n d of
at all. T h i s m e t h o d h a s t h e a d v a n t a g e a knife b l a d e . T h i s will give y o u e n o u g h
o f . p r e s e n t i n g for e x a m i n a t i o n live bac- t o l a s t f o r m o n t h s . I t is w i s e t o k e e p
t e r i a , s o m e of w h i c h m a y b e moving. t h e stains in s t o p p e r e d bottles, so t h a t
T h e r e is, h o w e v e r , a n o t h e r m e t h o d of the water does not evaporate.

Many microorganisms flourish in a hay infusion. Shown are the co/poda, hay bacillus, and vo/vox, all magnified.
 If y o u c a n n o t b u y t h e s e t w o s t a i n s , ter, a n d spread the m i x t u r e into a b r o a d
you can use ink. F o r the blue stain use s m e a r . G r a s p t h e slide b y the edges n e a r
t h e " p e r m a n e n t " k i n d of b l u e f o u n t a i n one end, and hold it several inches
pen ink, which contains methylene blue. above a candle flame until the water
F o r r e d s t a i n u s e a n y k i n d of r e d i n k . e v a p o r a t e s . H o l d t h e slide sufficiently
h i g h a b o v e t h e flame s o t h a t t h e w a t e r
P r e p a r e t h e stained slide in this m a n n e r : does n o t boil. Y o u d o n o t w a n t to cook
P l a c e a d r o p of w a t e r the bacteria.
H o w can you Q n & d e a n s H d e Ug_
W h e n a l l of t h e w a t e r h a s e v a p o r a t e d
prepare a , , ,
m o u r r o b e a d d a a n d t h e s l i d e is t h o r o u g h l y d r y , p a s s t h e
s t a i n e d slide? ^ y P '
s m a l l a m o u n t of t h e slide t h r o u g h t h e c a n d l e flame rapidly
bacteria-containing material to the wa- t h r e e o r f o u r t i m e s . T h i s a c t i o n is c a l l e d
fixing the smear.
Picture-instructions for preparing a stained slide: When the slide has cooled thor-
oughly, d r o p a stain from your medicine
d r o p p e r o n t h e fixed s m e a r . S o m e b a c -
teria stain better with blue dye and
i> others stain better with red dye. You
2. HOLD HIGH ABOVE FLAME
TO EVAPORATE WATER will h a v e t o e x p e r i m e n t w i t h b o t h colors
t o s e e w h i c h o n e b e s t s t a i n s t h e k i n d of
1. PLACE MATERIAL ON
SMEAR OF WATER bacteria you are working with.
Leave the stain on the smear for
a b o u t a m i n u t e . S o m e b a c t e r i a will n e e d
C M )
^ \ m o r e t h a n a m i n u t e to stain thoroughly.
A g a i n , y o u will h a v e t o l e a r n this b y
experience. After the stain has been on
PASS SLIDE THROUGH FLAME t h e s m e a r f o r t h e p r o p e r l e n g t h of t i m e ,
THREE TIMES TO "FIX" SMEAR
wash i t off with running tap water.
4. ADD STAIN
TO SMEAR T h e n , p l a c e t h e slide, s m e a r - s i d e u p , o n
a p a p e r towel. F o l d the towel over and
b l o t t h e slide carefully. D o n o t r u b t h e
towel o n t h e s m e a r . T h i s will destroy
t h e s m e a r . N o w , e x a m i n e t h e slide un-
\
der the microscope.

5. WASH OFF EXCESS T h e r e is a n o t h e r w a y t o p r e p a r e a s l i d e

STAIN
of b a c t e r i a , s o t h a t
a t is a yOU c a n 0 b s e r v e thern

demount? a l i v e . T h i s is c a l l e d t h e
hanging drop m e t h o d .
6. BLOT DRY
T h e r e is a k i n d of t h i c k g l a s s s l i d e t h a t

fi 1
h a s a little well g r o u n d i n t o its center.
T h i s slide is u s e d t o set u p a h a n g i n g
drop mount. Such slides a r e expen- 1. LINE RIM OF COVER
SLIP WITH VASELINE
2. ADD DROP OF CULTURE
sive, so y o u w o u l d p r o b a b l y d o best TO CENTER
if y o u m a k e y o u r o w n h a n g i n g drop
apparatus.

C u t a p i e c e of c a r d b o a r d e x a c t l y the
s i z e of a g l a s s slide.
How can you Y o u can d o this best
make your
by tracing the outline
own hanging ^ W , BUILD A WELL OUT OF
drop mount? of t h e s l i d e o n the THREE CARDBOARD WASHERS
cardboard. Now, cut
the cardboard into three equal lengths.
W i t h y o u r p o i n t e d scissors, c u t a hole,
n o bigger t h a n half a n inch, in t h e cen-
t e r of e a c h of t h e t h r e e p i e c e s of c a r d -
board. G l u e the three pieces together, 4. TURN UPSIDE DOWN AND
PLACE AGAINST COVER SLIP
o n e o n t o p of t h e o t h e r , s o t h a t t h e r e i s
a single h o l e t h r o u g h all t h r e e . C e m e n t
this c a r d b o a r d " w a s h e r " to the center
5. TURN RIGHT SIDE UP QUICKLY
of a g l a s s s l i d e . C o v e r o n e of y o u r fin-
gers lightly w i t h p e t r o l e u m jelly — like U = i ^ t = j
Vaseline. H o l d i n g a cover glass in y o u r
SIDE VIEW OF SLIDE, WELL, HANGING DROP
h a n d , s c r a p e t h e j e l l y off y o u r finger,
u s i n g a l l t h e e d g e s of t h e c o v e r g l a s s ,
u n t i l t h e r e is a r i m of j e l l y a l l a r o u n d
t h e e d g e s of t h e c o v e r g l a s s . P l a c e t h e Picture-directions for preparing hanging drop mount.
glass o n t h e table, jelly-side u p . U s i n g
y o u r p r o b e , p l a c e a m i x t u r e of water will b e h a n g i n g d o w n f r o m t h e cover
a n d a d r o p of t h e bacteria-containing glass. E x a m i n e t h e d r o p u n d e r t h e mi-
material you want to examine on the c r o s c o p e , f o c u s i n g it c a r e f u l l y .
c e n t e r of t h e c o v e r g l a s s .
H o l d t h e glass slide so t h a t t h e c a r d - Perhaps, when you were looking at bac-
board washer is u n d e r n e a t h and the teria from your
What are the
h o l e i n t h e w a s h e r is r i g h t o v e r t h e cen- h a y infusion, you
smallest animals
t e r of t h e c o v e r g l a s s . L o w e r t h e s l i d e , saw a large object
in the world?
a n d p r e s s t h e w a s h e r firmly o n t h e j e l l y swim across your
r i m of t h e c o v e r g l a s s . T h e n , w i t h a field of v i e w . T h i s l a r g e o b j e c t w a s a
quick m o t i o n , t u r n t h e slide over. A one-celled animal of the kind called
d r o p of t h e m i x t u r e y o u a r e t o e x a m i n e protozoa. This name means "earliest

25

•»K__i
 easier to find protozoa and a little
h a r d e r to find bacteria. Also, the
a m o u n t of s c u m s e e m e d t o l e s s e n . T h i s
was because the protozoa were feeding
o n t h e b a c t e r i a . T h e y i n c r e a s e d in n u m -
ber as they ate u p the bacteria.
Protozoa are interesting to watch
under a microscope because they have
so m a n y different f o r m s a n d t h e y m o v e
a b o u t in m a n y different ways. Y o u c a n
see t h e m hunting and catching their
f o o d , w h i c h is u s u a l l y b a c t e r i a , b u t m a y

The whips of flagellated bacteria

help them to swim.

Foul water teems with harm-

ful disease-causing bacteria.

f o r m of a n i m a l s " a n d r e f e r s t o t h e f a c t
that protozoa were probably the first CHRYSAMOEBA
a n i m a l s t o a p p e a r i n t h e o c e a n s of t h e GONYAULAX
e a r t h h u n d r e d s of m i l l i o n s of y e a r s a g o .
T h e y a r e still w a t e r a n i m a l s , a n d are b e j u s t b i t s of o n c e - l i v i n g p l a n t o r a n i
f o u n d in t h e seas, lakes a n d streams. mal material floating a b o u t in the water
A s i n g l e o n e of t h e s e a n i m a l s i s c a l l e d — o r it m a y b e o t h e r p r o t o z o a .
a protozoan.
A p r o t o z o a n , l i k e a b a c t e r i u m , is a T h e h a n g i n g d r o p m e t h o d is o n e of t h e
s e p a r a t e b i t of l i v i n g m a t t e r t h a t can b e s t w a y s of p r e p a r i n g
How can you
t a k e i n a n d u s e f o o d , g e t r i d of w a s t e s , a slide for t h e exami-
examine
move, grow and reproduce. There are n a t i o n of protozoa.
protozoa?
t h o u s a n d s of k i n d s . M o s t a r e h a r m l e s s , The main difficulty
b u t a few are harmful to m a n . A m o n g w i t h t h i s m e t h o d is t h a t t h e d r o p p r o -
the harmful ones are those that cause vides the tiny animals with such a large
such diseases as malaria, dysentery a n d ocean to swim in that they swim either
sleeping sickness. a b o v e o r b e l o w t h e level o n w h i c h y o u r
m i c r o s c o p e is f o c u s e d . O n e b i g a d v a n -
If y o u w o r k e d w i t h y o u r h a y infusion t a g e of t h e h a n g i n g d r o p m o u n t f o r p r o -
for several days, you t o z o a is t h a t t h e w a t e r d o e s n o t e v a p o -
What do the
may have noticed that r a t e easily, a n d y o u c a n w a t c h t h e tiny
protozoa eat?
it b e c a m e c o n t i n u a l l y animals for a long time.

26
 A n o t h e r w a y t o p r e p a r e a slide for O n e w a y to k e e p the protozoa in place
t h e o b s e r v a t i o n of p r o t o z o a is s i m p l y is t o t r a p t h e m i n t h e fibers of a p i e c e
t o p l a c e a d r o p of w a t e r f r o m a h a y of t h r e a d . Fray a half-inch piece of
i n f u s i o n o n a g l a s s s l i d e a n d c o v e r it t h r e a d so t h a t the fibers make a mat.
gently w i t h a cover glass. W h e n obtain- Flatten t h i s m a t , a n d p l a c e it i n the
ing the drop, p o k e y o u r medicine drop- d r o p of w a t e r o n t h e s l i d e , b e f o r e y o u
p e r b e n e a t h t h e s c u m o n t h e s u r f a c e of p u t o n t h e cover glass. T h e fibers will
the infusion. form a " n e t " t h a t will e n t a n g l e and
T h e cover glass flattens t h e d r o p of hold, or slow d o w n , the p r o t o z o a in the
w a t e r so m u c h t h a t t h e r e is v e r y little water.
r o o m for the p r o t o z o a to swim u p a n d
down. Once you have focused on one You may see o n e or m o r e protozoa
of t h e m , i t w i l l u s u a l l y r e m a i n i n f o c u s move around under
for a long time. T h e m a i n d i s a d v a n t a g e How do y Q u r microscope, and,
protozoa , .
of t h i s m e t h o d of m o u n t i n g is t h a t t h e , ._ unless y o u k n o w lust
move about? , , ,
water evaporates quite rapidly. While
w h a t t o l o o k for, y o u
you are looking at a particularly inter-
m a y b e u n a b l e t o tell j u s t h o w they
esting p r o t o z o a n , the slide m a y d r y u p
move. Some protozoa move through the
right u n d e r y o u r eyes. Y o u c a n p r e v e n t
w a t e r b y m e a n s of c i l i a a l o n g t h e s i d e s
this from h a p p e n i n g b y p u t t i n g a r i m
of t h e i r b o d i e s . S o m e p r o t o z o a n s h a v e
of p e t r o l e u m j e l l y a r o u n d t h e e d g e s of
a t o n e e n d a t h r e a d of l i v i n g matter
t h a t is l o n g e r a n d t h i c k e r t h a n a c i l i u m .
T h i s t h r e a d is c a l l e d a flagellum, a Latin
Ciliated bacteria have fringed
hairs which vibrate.
The tsetse fly
carries the par-
asite (left) of
human sleep-
ng sickness.

DIDIDIUM

STYLONICHIA

t h e c o v e r g l a s s , after it is p l a c e d u p o n
t h e d r o p of w a t e r . The anopheles
mosquito, which
carries the mala-
Y o u w i l l find t h a t m a n y p r o t o z o a are ria parasite (right),
simply t o o active t o en- transmits malaria.
How can able you to get a good
you keep
look at them, especially
protozoa
when you are using the
in place?
high-power objective.
word that means "whip." Some proto- a half d o z e n r a g g e d projections stick-
zoa pull themselves through the water ing out from t h e c e n t r a l m a s s of its
by beating these whips d o w n to their body.
sides. O t h e r s use t h e w h i p as a tail a n d
p u s h themselves t h r o u g h t h e w a t e r in Y o u m u s t w a t c h a n a m o e b a for s o m e
the same way you can push a small boat t i m e in o r d e r to see
How does an
along b y m o v i n g a single o a r b a c k a n d h o w it m o v e s . I n t h e
amoeba move?
forth in t h e w a t e r b e h i n d the boat's first p l a c e , i t s p e n d s
stern. a g r e a t p a r t of its t i m e resting, or, a t
least, n o t moving. Secondly, an a m o e b a
T h e only whip-bearing protozoan that m o v e s very slowly. A s y o u w a t c h , you
y o u a r e l i k e l y t o find i n w i l l s e e t h a t a p r o j e c t i o n of l i v i n g m a t e -
W h a t is a , . - .
_ . a h a y i n f u s i o n is o n e rial slowly m o v e s outward from the
Peranema? * m a i n p a r t of i t s b o d y . T h i s p r o j e c t i o n
called Peranema. You is c a l l e d a pseudopod, o r false foot.
will r e c o g n i z e this o n e b e c a u s e it h a s T h e n , y o u will see m o r e living mate-
two whips, a long one a n d a short one, rial s t r e a m i n g i n t o t h e false foot, w h i c h
a t o p p o s i t e e n d s of t h e b o d y . Y o u m a y will grow larger. Eventually, all of
be puzzled to understand what makes the amoeba will h a v e streamed into
Peranema m o v e , w h e n its w h i p s s e e m what was a pseudopod, and the whole
t o b e s t a n d i n g still. If y o u l o o k c l o s e l y a m o e b a will n o w b e at t h e p l a c e to
a t t h e t i p of t h e l o n g o n e , y o u w i l l s e e w h i c h t h e p s e u d o p o d first r e a c h e d o u t .
that it is vibrating back and forth
v e r y r a p i d l y . A l s o , Peranema is a l w a y s
O n e of t h e m o s t c o m m o n k i n d of p r o -
c h a n g i n g s h a p e . S o m e t i m e s it l o o k s like
t o z o a is a paramecium.
a radish, sometimes like a bulging po- What is a
I t is s h a p e d s o m e t h i n g
t a t o . T o s e e Peranema well, y o u m u s t Paramecium?
like a long slipper. Its
use a high-power objective a n d a rather
b o d y is c o v e r e d w i t h c i l i a t h a t b e a t b a c k
d i m light.
a n d forth very rapidly. Since there are
If you scrape the inside of your
h u n d r e d s of c i l i a o n t h e b o d y , a n d a l l
mouth with a toothpick and make a
are acting like tiny oars, the p a r a m e -
s l i d e of t h e m a t e r i a l o b t a i n e d , y o u m a y
c i u m is m o v e d t h r o u g h t h e w a t e r v e r y
b e a b l e t o see o t h e r w h i p - b e a r e r s . Sev-
r a p i d l y . A p a r a m e c i u m is a l s o o n e of
e r a l k i n d s live in t h e h u m a n b o d y , a n d
t h e l a r g e s t of t h e p r o t o z o a . I t m a y r e a c h
a l m o s t a l l of t h e m a r e e n t i r e l y h a r m l e s s .
a d i a m e t e r of m o r e t h a n 1 / 1 0 0 of a n
Y o u r h a y infusion m a y yield a m o r e or i n c h . If y o u s e e o n e u n d e r y o u r m i c r o -
less shapeless p r o t o z o a n scope, it m i g h t b e i n t e r e s t i n g t o r e m o v e
What is an
c a l l e d a n amoeba. This t h e slide f r o m t h e clips a n d see w h e t h e r
amoeba?
protozoan has n o partic- y o u c a n see t h e p a r a m e c i u m w i t h y o u r
u l a r s h a p e . S o m e t i m e s it m a y b e n e a r l y n a k e d eye. T o d o this p l a c e t h e slide o n
r o u n d , a n d a t o t h e r t i m e s it m a y h a v e a b l a c k b a c k g r o u n d , a n d shine a light

28
directly d o w n u p o n t h e cover glass. T h e
p a r a m e c i a will b e seen a s b r i g h t m o v i n g
specks.

Protozoa, such as the amoeba and

paramecia, are large
What is inside
enough so that we
a protozoan?
not only can study
their general form, b u t w e c a n e x a m i n e
w h a t is inside t h e m .
S i n c e e a c h p r o t o z o a n is a s i n g l e liv-
i n g cell, i t p o s s e s s e s s o m e o f t h e c h a r a c -
t e r i s t i c s of a l l l i v i n g c e l l s . I t is sur-
r o u n d e d b y a m e m b r a n e t h a t h o l d s it
together. The living m a t e r i a l that is
w i t h i n t h e cell m e m b r a n e is c a l l e d cyto-
plasm. If y o u e x a m i n e t h e cytoplasm
carefully, you will see that it looks
g r a i n y , a s if it w e r e m a d e u p of g r a i n s
of c o l o r l e s s s a n d . I t i s t h i s g r a i n i n e s s
that enables the cytoplasm in the
a m o e b a t o s t r e a m i n t o its false feet,
just as s a n d in a sack c a n b e m a d e t o
flow a r o u n d b y m o v i n g t h e s a c k .
W i t h i n t h e c y t o p l a s m is a l a r g e d a r k
d o t . T h i s i s t h e c e l l ' s nucleus. All the
m o v e m e n t s a n d a c t i v i t i e s of t h e p r o t o -
z o a n a r e d i r e c t e d b y it. I t is s o m e w h a t
as t h o u g h the nucleus w e r e the cell's
brain.

Somewhere in the cytoplasm of an

a m o e b a or a Para-
How do protozoa
mecium, you will
collect wastes
see o n e o r t w o ( o r
and water?
m o r e ) large clear
circles. I n t h e p a r a m e c i u m , y o u may

Peranema changes shape by contracting, expanding.

29
 see a clear, s t a r - s h a p e d spot. T h e s e a r e m e m b r a n e b e t w e e n t h e m dissolves, a n d
contractile vacuoles. They move about t h e f o o d p a r t i c l e is i n s i d e t h e a m o e b a .
within the cytoplasm collecting waste
materials a n d excess water. W h e n they A p a r a m e c i u m h a s a t o u g h e r cell m e m -
r e a c h t h e m e m b r a n e of t h e p r o t o z o a n , brane, and cannot,
they suddenly contract a n d expel their How does a therefore, p u t out pseu-
paramecium , , ,
b u r d e n o u t s i d e t h e cell wall. A f t e r this » •» t M d o pr o d s t o s u r r o u n d a
g e t its food? .
happens, the vacuole becomes very b i t of f o o d . I n s t e a d , t h e
small, b u t as it m o v e s a b o u t p i c k i n g u p P a r a m e c i u m h a s a m o u t h a n d a gullet
waste materials and water, it grows i n t o w h i c h n o u r i s h m e n t is t a k e n . If y o u
larger. l o o k closely a t a p a r a m e c i u m , y o u will
see a g r o o v e a l o n g o n e side, n e a r t h e
Also within the cytoplasm, you will
f r o n t e n d . T h i s is t h e oral groove. Focus
p r o b a b l y see small
How does the very carefully, a n d y o u m a y be able to
d a r k dots with lighter
amoeba eat? s e e t h a t t h e o r a l g r o o v e is l i n e d w i t h
circles a r o u n d them.
cilia. W h e n a p a r a m e c i u m c o m e s u p o n
T h e s e a r e b i t s of f o o d t h a t t h e p r o t o -
food particles, usually bacteria, the
b e a t i n g of t h e c i l i a s h o v e t h e p a r t i c l e s
CYTOPLASM NUCLEUS
CELL along the oral groove to a point near
SSSSSk/ / MEMBRANE
t h e m i d d l e of t h e b o d y w h e r e t h e r e is a
* f t
/ ^W k J k £ r / t u b e . T h e o p e n i n g of t h i s t u b e is t h e
PSEUDOPOD mouth, a n d t h e t u b e , i t s e l f , is t h e gullet.
When food particles reach the lower
'~*'•••'irk ' " " - ^
e n d of t h e g u l l e t , t h e y c o l l e c t i n t o a
ball, a n d this ball, a l o n g w i t h a little
4 water, floats into the cytoplasm. You

: %
see t h e f o o d as a d a r k d o t , a n d t h e w a t e r
M i i i - ^
as the light circle a r o u n d the dot. T o -
\ FOOD PARTICLE
g e t h e r , t h e y m a k e u p a food vacuole.

VP CONTRACTILE VACUOLE
S i n c e t h e f e e d i n g a c t i o n s of protozoa
The amoeba is a microscopic, single-celled animal. are so interesting,
H o w can you
Its name comes from the Greek word for change. you may want to
feed protozoa?
p r o v i d e f o o d in or-
z o a n h a s t a k e n i n t o itself, a n d i t is i n t e r - d e r t o w a t c h t h e m t a k e it i n t o t h e i r b o d -
e s t i n g t o w a t c h h o w t h i s is d o n e . W h e n ies. P i c k off f r o m a c a k e of y e a s t a p i e c e
a n a m o e b a c o m e s u p o n a b i t of f o o d , a b o u t t h e size of t h e e y e of a n e e d l e .
it r e a c h e s o u t t w o p s e u d o p o d s t o sur- M a s h t h e s p e c k of y e a s t i n a d r o p of
r o u n d the food particle. W h e n the pseu- w a t e r . P l a c e a l i t t l e of t h i s m i x t u r e i n
dopods have curved completely around t h e c e n t e r of a d r o p of w a t e r t h a t c o n -
t h e p i e c e of f o o d , t h e y m e e t . T h e n t h e t a i n s p r o t o z o a . P l a c e a c o v e r slip o n t h e

30
The illustrations show
how the pseudopods of
an amoeba engulf a
particle of food, until
the food is completely
inside the protozoan.

w a t e r . D i p t h e e n d of a t o o t h p i c k i n t o fore it e n c o u n t e r e d u n f a v o r a b l e condi-
r e d i n k a n d t r a n s f e r a s m a l l d r o p of i n k tions.
t o t h e e d g e of t h e c o v e r g l a s s . T h e r e d
d y e in t h e i n k will m a k e it easier for Since t h e grass y o u used for m a k i n g a
y o u t o see t h e f o o d - t a k i n g a c t i v i t i e s . hay infusion was
Where do hay-
dry, you m a y won-
infusion bacteria
W h e n bacteria or protozoa find them- der where water-
and protozoa
selves in c o n d i t i o n s come from? living creatures
H o W d0 baCteria t h a t a r e t o
° dl7, like bacteria and
i
and protozoa
they temporarily p r o t o z o a c a m e from after the grass h a d
suspend life?
suspend their living soaked for a few days. Bacteria and
processes, without actually dying. To p r o t o z o a t h a t h a d been living o n the
a c c o m p l i s h this, they s u r r o u n d them- h a y - i n f u s i o n g r a s s b e f o r e it d r i e d f o r m e d
selves w i t h a v e r y t o u g h c o v e r i n g t h a t spores and cysts w h e n drying took
protects them from completely drying place. W h e n y o u p l a c e d t h e g r a s s in
out, a n d also from s u d d e n c h a n g e s in w a t e r , t h e w a l l s of t h e s p o r e s a n d c y s t s
t e m p e r a t u r e . A b a c t e r i a in this condi- dissolved.
t i o n is c a l l e d a spore, and a protozoan
is a cyst. Spores a n d cysts are very light A few days after you p u t the dry grass
a n d c a n b e easily c a r r i e d b y even t h e into the water,
How do trie number
lightest breezes. a scum made
of bacteria and
W h e n a spore or cyst a g a i n h a p p e n s u p of bacteria
protozoa increase?
upon wet conditions, the thick covering appeared in
dissolves a n d the b a c t e r i u m or the pro- y o u r h a y infusion. F o r a few days, the
t o z o a n g o e s o n l i v i n g j u s t a s it d i d b e - a m o u n t of s c u m i n c r e a s e d , thereby

31
I The common bread mold, Rhizopus nigricans, ire-
quently grows on old bread, and is magnified above

Molds, Mildew, Yeast B u d d i n g

S p r i n k l e w a t e r o n f o u r o r five s l i c e s of terial p e p p e r e d with black dots. This

bread. Wipe the d a m p m a t e r i a l is t h e t h i c k g r o w t h of a p l a n t
How can you
side of these slices c a l l e d common bread mold.
grow plants
across the floor, tak- T o e x a m i n e this m o l d , place a small
on a slice
of bread? ing care not to crum- p i e c e of b r e a d o n t h e s t a g e of your
ble the bread. P u t the m i c r o s c o p e . Shine a bright light d o w n
b r e a d into a closet o r s o m e o t h e r w a r m , o n the m o l d . B e sure t h a t the light does
dark place. T w o days later, examine n o t a l s o s h i n e in, y o u r e y e s a n d h i n d e r
t h e slices. Y o u w i l l p r o b a b l y find on y o u r viewing. U s e the low-power objec-
t h e m p a t c h e s of a w h i t e c o t t o n y m a - tive to e x a m i n e the b r e a d m o l d .

34
N o t e t h a t t h e w h i t e c o t t o n y m a t e r i a l is Having examined the mold on the
a tangled mass of b r e a d b y m e a n s of t h e l o w - p o w e r o b -
What do molds
filaments. This is jective, e x a m i n e it in a different way.
look like?
called a mycelium. S c r a p e s o m e m o l d off t h e b r e a d and
T h e t h r e a d l i k e g r o w t h s a r e m a d e of liv- p l a c e i t o n a g l a s s s l i d e . A d d a d r o p of
i n g m a t t e r . T r a c e o n e of t h e filaments. w a t e r a n d a d r o p of a l c o h o l . T h e n c o v e r
Y o u will see t h a t it r u n s horizontally it w i t h a c o v e r glass. L i g h t t h e slide in
f o r a s h o r t d i s t a n c e , t h e n it b r a n c h e s t h e u s u a l w a y ; t h a t is, b y m e a n s of l i g h t
into several vertical filaments. O n the reflected u p w a r d from the microscope
t o p of e a c h of t h e s e v e r t i c a l g r o w t h s is mirror. First examine the mold with the
a b l a c k k n o b . T h e s e a r e sporangia, or low-power objective. T h e n use the high-
spore cases. W i t h i n e a c h o n e of t h e s e p o w e r objective. Y o u will see t h a t e a c h
cases are a large n u m b e r of spores. m o l d p l a n t is m a d e of m a n y cells. Y o u
S o o n e r o r later, t h e k n o b s will burst m i g h t e v e n b e a b l e t o see a n u c l e u s in
o p e n . T h e spores a r e so light t h a t t h e y o n e of t h e s e cells.
w i l l e a s i l y float a w a y i n t h e a i r . W h e n I t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t a l o n g w i t h , o r in-
a spore alights on some material that s t e a d of, c o m m o n b r e a d m o l d , y o u will
the m o l d c a n use for food, t h e spore find an orange, black, green, or pink
will g r o w i n t o a w h o l e n e w m o l d p l a n t . mold growing on your bread. Each
It was spores wiped u p from the floor c o l o r r e p r e s e n t s a d i f f e r e n t s p e c i e s of
that grew into mold on your bread. mold. Examine each one and make a
Directly beneath the vertical fila- c o m p a r i s o n of t h e s h a p e s a n d c o l o r s of
ments are others that branch downward t h e d i f f e r e n t p a r t s of e a c h m o l d .
into the bread. These filaments act like
roots by obtaining from the bread the H a v e you ever seen a whitish, p o w d e r y
nourishment the mold plant needs in material on shoes or leather
What is
o r d e r to live a n d g r o w . j a c k e t s t h a t w e r e s t o r e d in
mildew?
a damp place? Or, per-
Most molds are harmless to man, though haps, during a d a m p summer, you have
a few may cause seen the s a m e k i n d of w h i t i s h spots
How are molds
diseases. One such on curtains or fabric furniture cover-
useful to man?
d i s e a s e is "athlete's ings. Or, you may have seen black
foot." S o m e m o l d s a r e useful, such as streaks on sheets or pillow cases that
the ones which give flavor to certain y o u r m o t h e r s t o r e d w h i l e t h e y w e r e still
k i n d s of c h e e s e . B y f a r t h e m o s t im- damp. B o t h the white spots a n d the
p o r t a n t u s e of m o l d s is t o p r o v i d e t h e black streaks were caused by mildew,
basis for the d r u g s called antibiotics. w h i c h is t h e g e n e r a l n a m e f o r a g r o u p
SPORE
These drugs have helped to conquer of p l a n t s v e r y m u c h l i k e t r u e molds.
CASE OF
c e r t a i n d i s e a s e s t h a t t o o k t h o u s a n d s of Mildews have a mycelium and sporan- BREAD
lives b e f o r e a n t i b i o t i c s w e r e d i s c o v e r e d . gia. M i l d e w s not only stain and rot MOLD
S o m e antibiotics are penicillin, strepto- leather a n d cloth, b u t they also destroy
mycin, and aureomycin. m a n y useful plants, a m o n g t h e m roses,

35
 Rotifers are tiny, multi-celled marine
animals, and abound in fresh-water
ponds that have become stagnant.

>
 OOLINA

GLOBIGERINA

Radiolaria are marine protozoa noted for threadlike

pseudopods. The related Foraminifera have pseudo-
pods which protrude through holes in their shells.

lilacs a n d willow, plum, cherry and RAGWEED A

POLLEN A *Z
p e a c h trees. T h e m i l d e w covers these
SPORES OF SCOURING RUSH
plants with a mycelium through which
it d r a w s n o u r i s h m e n t f r o m t h e p l a n t ' s Pollen are the tiny spores, or microspores, in seed
cells. This destroys these cells, and plants. They are usually tiny specks of yellow dust.

t h e r e f o r e , kills t h e p l a n t .
O b s e r v e m i l d e w p l a n t s in t h e same m a y have noticed that the yeast cells
way that you observed molds. h a d m a n y curious shapes. L e t us again
observe yeast. A s before, mix a tiny
W h e n you were feeding protozoa, you s p e c k of y e a s t i n a d r o p of w a t e r . P l a c e
made a mixture of a cover glass on the mixture. M a n i p u -
. L JJ. i Jyeast and water. A l - l a t e t h e m i r r o r of y o u r m i c r o s c o p e s o
yeast budding?
as to cut d o w n t h e light, a n d focus care-
t h o u g h y o u w e r e pri-
fully o n t h e yeast.
marily interested in the p r o t o z o a , you

37
 Y e a s t is a p l a n t . T h e r o u n d , or A n o t h e r w a y i n w h i c h t h e b u d d i n g of
n e a r l y - r o u n d , cells t h a t y o u see a r e e a c h yeast cells differs
a separate yeast plant. T w o things that How else does
f r o m m o s t cell divi-
yeast budding
will p r o b a b l y c a t c h y o u r a t t e n t i o n im- s i o n is i n t h e fact
differ from
m e d i a t e l y a r e t h a t s o m e yeast cells seem that the new cell
cell division?
t o h a v e l u m p s s t i c k i n g o u t of t h e m , a n d which grows from
t h a t y e a s t cells a r e seen in c h a i n s . T h e s e the b u d does not necessarily separate
t w o facts a r e closely related. f r o m t h e p a r e n t cell. A l t h o u g h t h e p a r -
e n t cell a n d t h e b u d d e d cell l i v e a s s e p a -
rate plants, they m a y remain attached
t o e a c h o t h e r . A s b o t h t h e s e cells b u d in
t u r n , a n d t h e b u d s g r o w t o full size, a
chain of f o u r cells is f o r m e d . Even
longer chains of y e a s t cells m a y be
formed. However, the connection be-
t w e e n t h e c e l l s is n o t v e r y s t r o n g , a n d ,
eventually, the chain breaks.
If y o u s e a r c h a b o u t a m o n g t h e y e a s t
c e l l s o n y o u r s l i d e , y o u m a y find c e l l s
that have more than one bud. When
Yeast cells reproduce by a division called "budding." t h i s k i n d of b u d d i n g t a k e s p l a c e , Y-
shaped chains m a y be formed.
L i k e o t h e r cells, y e a s t p l a n t s r e p r o -
d u c e b y cell division. B u t i n s t e a d of T h e r e a r e t h o u s a n d s of d i f f e r e n t k i n d s
dividing in t w o in the middle, a yeast of yeasts. C e r t a i n
How are yeasts , . ,
cell g r o w s a b u d . T h i s b u d i s t h e l u m p , , . _ kinds are v e r y use-
useful to man? ;L
t h a t y o u c a n s e e a t t a c h e d t o s o m e cells. ful t o m a n . T h e s e
J u s t a s i n o t h e r k i n d s of cell d i v i s i o n , a r e t h e o n e s u s e d i n t h e p r o c e s s of fer-
t h e n u c l e u s s p l i t s i n t w o . O n e p a r t of mentation. M o s t yeasts live a n d grow
the nucleus moves into the bud, and the on sugar. A s they obtain their nourish-
other p a r t remains in the p a r e n t cell. m e n t f r o m s u g a r , t h e y c h a n g e it i n t o
T h e b u d is s m a l l a t first, b u t s o o n g r o w s a l c o h o l a n d c a r b o n d i o x i d e g a s . T h i s is
t o b e t h e s a m e size a s t h e cell from t h e p r o c e s s c a l l e d fermentation. Alco-
w h i c h it b u d d e d . A s y o u w i l l r e m e m b e r , h o l is a v e r y u s e f u l c h e m i c a l .
t h i s is q u i t e d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h e t y p e of When y e a s t is m i x e d with baking
cell d i v i s i o n y o u h a v e o b s e r v e d . T h e r e , dough, the yeast plants grow on the
t h e cell p i n c h e d i n t w o , f o r m i n g two s u g a r i n t h e d o u g h . T h a t is, t h e y e a s t
c e l l s e a c h h a l f t h e s i z e of t h e c e l l t h a t ferments the sugar in the d o u g h to form
d i v i d e d . E a c h of t h e t w o n e w c e l l s t h e n alcohol a n d carbon dioxide. This gas
g r e w t o t h e size of t h e cell f r o m w h i c h forms b u b b l e s in t h e d o u g h , a n d the
they came. d o u g h swells. W h e n this h a p p e n s we

38
 say t h a t the d o u g h "rises." D o u g h t h a t C a t c h a fly in y o u r h a n d . W h e n y o u
r i s e s b e c o m e s l i g h t a n d fluffy. W h e n t h e s e e a fly r e s t i n g o n s o m e o b j e c t , s l o w l y
b r e a d is b a k e d , t h e h e a t d r i v e s off b o t h m o v e y o u r c u p p e d h a n d close to the
the carbon dioxide and the alcohol. All insect. T h e n , with a sudden quick move-
t h e h o l e s a n d i n d e n t a t i o n s i n a slice of m e n t , g r a b t h e fly. Y o u w i l l p r o b a b l y
b r e a d a r e t h e r e m a i n s of b u b b l e s of c a r - h a v e to try this m o r e t h a n once. H o l d
bon dioxide. t h e fly g e n t l y i n y o u r h a n d , a n d then
p o p it i n t o t h e c o l l e c t i n g b o t t l e . After
D i s s o l v e a t e a s p o o n f u l of s u g a r i n h a l f t h e fly is d e a d , u s e y o u r t w e e z e r s to
a tumbler of r e m o v e it f r o m t h e b o t t l e . P l a c e it o n a
How can you see •» , ,
, J „ water. M a k e u p a g l a s s s l i d e a n d m a n i p u l a t e it w i t h y o u r
r
fermentation? p r o b e so t h a t y o u c a n o b t a i n a good
fresh mixture of v i e w of o n e of i t s e y e s b e n e a t h t h e l o w -
y e a s t a n d w a t e r . P l a c e a d r o p of the p o w e r o b j e c t i v e of y o u r m i c r o s c o p e .
mixture on a cover glass a n d a d d a d r o p
of s u g a r - w a t e r . M a k e a hanging-drop D o y o u s e e t h a t t h e w h o l e s u r f a c e of
p r e p a r a t i o n of t h e c o v e r g l a s s a n d i t s t h e e y e is composed
mixture. Leave the hanging-drop slide What does a
of tiny hexagonal
fly's eye
in a w a r m place. A n h o u r later, p l a c e (six-sided) spaces?
look like?
t h e slide u n d e r y o u r m i c r o s c o p e . Do These spaces are
y o u s e e t h e m a n y b u b b l e s of carbon c a l l e d facets. E a c h o n e g i v e s t h e fly a
dioxide formed by the yeast's ferment- s e p a r a t e i m p r e s s i o n of l i g h t a n d c o l o r .
ing action on the sugar? In other words, each facet acts as
t h o u g h it w e r e a s e p a r a t e e y e . A n e y e
m a d e u p of f a c e t s is c a l l e d a c o m p o u n d
Insects
eye. M a n y insects h a v e such eyes.

Obtain a small wide-mouth bottle with

a lid. C o v e r t h e inside
Where can
bottom with blotting
'.* you keep
paper, paper towels or
insects?
absorbent cotton. Then
wet the material with household ammo-
nia. ( D o not hold y o u r face close to the
bottle when you are pouring ammonia,
for it will c a u s e y o u r eyes a n d n o s e t o
smart painfully.) C a p the wide-mouth
bottle. N o w y o u h a v e a n insect collec-
t o r ' s b o t t l e . If y o u p l a c e a n i n s e c t i n it,
t h e a m m o n i a will q u i c k l y kill t h e speci-
m e n w i t h o u t d a m a g i n g it a s swatting
might do. Insect eggs come in many different shapes and sizes.

39
 N o t e h o w the fly's eye bulges out-
, w
w a r d o n a l l s i d e s of t h e h e a d . I n f a c t
t h e e y e s m a k e u p t h e l a r g e s t p a r t of t h e
h e a d . B e c a u s e t h e eyes b u l g e o u t so far,
t h e y e n a b l e t h e fly t o s e e i n a l l d i r e c t i o n s
a t o n c e . T h i s is w h y it is s o h a r d to
c a t c h a fly, f o r it c a n s e e a s w e l l b e h i n d
a s i n f r o n t of i t s e l f .

L o o k a t t h e fly's f o o t . N o t e t h e h a i r y
pads between
How can a fly
two curving
walk upside down?
Orion acrylic fiber, as seen under a microscope. claws. The
p a d s secrete a sticky s u b s t a n c e t h a t en-
a b l e t h e fly t o c l i n g t o s m o o t h s u r f a c e s .
T h i s is w h y a fly c a n w a l k u p s i d e d o w n
o n t h e c e i l i n g . L o o k a t t h e w i n g s of a
fly. T h e " v e i n s " i n t h e w i n g a r e r e a l l y
dried-up air tubes that connect with the
fly's breathing organs.
T h e r e a r e m o r e k i n d s of i n s e c t s t h a n
a n y o t h e r k i n d of a n i m a l . A s insects
h a v e a n a l m o s t i n f i n i t e v a r i e t y of f o r m s
and oddly-shaped organs, a collection
of s e v e r a l d i f f e r e n t k i n d s w i l l p r o v i d e
you with enough material for many
h o u r s of i n t e r e s t i n g m i c r o s c o p i c exami-
A filament of rayon yarn as seen under a microscope. nation.

Fabrics

You may already know that cotton

t h r e a d is m a d e f r o m
H o w is cotton ., .. , rp,
. . _ the cotton plant. T h e
thread m a d e r
fruit of the cotton
p l a n t is a w h i t e fluffy material much
l i k e a b s o r b e n t c o t t o n . T h i s is c l e a n e d
and spun into thread. B u t just what
goes on in the spinning process? You
Nylon stocking weave as seen under microscope. c a n find t h i s o u t b y e x a m i n i n g a p i e c e

40
 HOUSEFLY

, COMPOUND EYE
<V

ANTENNA

of cotton thread under your micro- pick the strands apart into the smaller
scope. fibers of w h i c h t h e y a r e m a d e . When
M a k e another p r o b e by sticking the you have taken the whole piece of
e y e - e n d of a n e e d l e i n t o t h e e r a s e r f r o m t h r e a d a p a r t , y o u can easily r e c o n s t r u c t
a p e n c i l . C u t a h a l f - i n c h l e n g t h of c o t - w h a t w e n t o n in the spinning process.
t o n t h r e a d , w e t i t , a n d p l a c e it o n a s l i d e The fibers that m a k e u p the cotton as
b e n e a t h t h e l o w - p o w e r o b j e c t i v e of y o u r it c o m e s f r o m t h e p l a n t w e r e p u l l e d o u t
microscope. N o t e that the whole length into strands which were then twisted
of t h e t h r e a d h a s a s p i r a l t w i s t . into a thread.
Using both your probes, pick the S i n c e i t is s o e a s y t o p i c k a p a r t a
t h r e a d apart. First u n d o the spiral, then p i e c e of c o t t o n , y o u m a y w o n d e r w h a t

41
 gives a t h r e a d its s t r e n g t h . U s e a high- glass on the balsam. D o the same with
p o w e r objective to look at the smallest t h e f o u r k i n d s of m a n - m a d e fibers.
fibers. D o y o u see h o w c r o o k e d and
twisted they are? W h e n a n u m b e r of L o o k at a muslin sheet or pillowcase
these fibers are b r o u g h t in close con- w i t h the low-power objec-
How is
tact with o n e a n o t h e r , as in the cotton- tive. N o t e h o w evenly t h e
muslin
spinning process, the crooked parts and threads are woven into a
woven?
b e n d s of o n e fiber c a t c h i n t h e c r o o k e d square pattern. T h e weav-
p a r t s of a n o t h e r a n d h o l d t h e s e p a r a t e i n g is d o n e b y s t r e t c h i n g a l a r g e n u m b e r
fiber together. of t h r e a d s p a r a l l e l t o e a c h o t h e r . T h e s e
t h r e a d s m a k e t h e warp. A n equal num-
O b t a i n a s h o r t l e n g t h of w o o l y a r n , silk b e r of p a r a l l e l t h r e a d s a r e w o v e n o v e r
thread a n d linen and under, over and under the threads
How do natural t h read. Examine of t h e w a r p . The second group of
fibers differ , , ,_, ,
, . e a c h u n d e r the low- threads is c a l l e d the woof, or weft.
from m a n - m a d e Sometimes the over-and-under pattern
a n d
(artificial) o n e s ? high-power ob- of w e a v i n g is m o d i f i e d b y h a v i n g the
jectives of your woof go over two, three or m o r e threads
microscope. Use direct lighting from of t h e w a r p , b e f o r e g o i n g u n d e r one
above. N o t e that the wool fibers are t h r e a d . T r y t o o b t a i n e x a m p l e s of r e p
straight, thick a n d scaly. C o m p a r e these a n d g a b a r d i n e twill fabrics t o e x a m i n e
w o o l fibers w i t h a h a i r f r o m y o u r h e a d . u n d e r y o u r m i c r o s c o p e . N o t e h o w dif-
N o t e t h a t t h e silk fibers are straight, f e r e n t f r o m m u s l i n t h e w e a v e of t h e s e
b u t h a v e r o u g h surfaces. L i n e n fibers f a b r i c s is.
h a v e very jagged surfaces. D o you think
t h a t t h e r e is a n y c o n n e c t i o n between E x a m i n e a jersey, T-shirt, or w o m a n ' s
t h e j a g g e d s u r f a c e of l i n e n fibers and
stocking. T h e fabric
t h e s t r e n g t h of l i n e n t h r e a d ? How is knitted
from which these
A l l t h e fibers y o u h a v e e x a m i n e d s o fabric made?
items are made is
far are natural fibers. F r o m the edges
n o t w o v e n , b u t is k n i t t e d . E x a m i n e a
of t h e i n s i d e of a r a y o n , n y l o n , O r i o n o r
p i e c e of felt f r o m a m a n ' s h a t o r s o m e
D a c r o n garment, obtain a few threads.
o t h e r source. C a n y o u see a weaving
T h e s e a r e artificial o r m a n - m a d e fibers.
p a t t e r n h e r e ? T h e r e is n o n e , f o r felt is
Examine them under your microscope.
n o t a w o v e n c l o t h . I t is m a d e f r o m a
N o t e h o w smooth they are w h e n com-
l a r g e n u m b e r of s h o r t f u r fibers that
pared to natural fibers.
are mixed with water. T h e water is
Y o u can keep an interesting record
d r a i n e d off, a n d t h e r e s u l t i n g m a t is
of w h a t y o u h a v e l e a r n e d b y placing
pressed flat.
h a l f - i n c h l e n g t h s of t h e f o u r k i n d s of
n a t u r a l fibers o n a g l a s s s l i d e , c a r e f u l l y
c o v e r i n g t h e m w i t h a t h i n c o a t i n g of
Canada balsam and placing a cover

42

L
 You can obtain a blood sample from the index
finger of your hand with a sterilized needle.

Below are three steps in making a blood

smear on a slide as indicated on page 44.

B l o o d "

O n e of t h e m o s t i n t e r e s t i n g t h i n g s y o u
can examine under a
What does
blood d o ? m i c r o s c o p e is y o u r
o w n b l o o d . B l o o d is a
m o s t r e m a r k a b l e fluid. I t h a s b e e n c a l l e d
" t h e r i v e r of l i f e , " a n d t h i s i s a n e x c e l -
lent description, for blood supplies the
c e l l s of t h e b o d y w i t h t h e m a t e r i a l s t h e y platelets. The word corpuscle is the
n e e d f o r n o u r i s h m e n t a n d r e p a i r , a n d it L a t i n w o r d for "little b o d y . " C o r p u s c l e s
r e m o v e s w a s t e s f r o m t h e cells. A l s o , t h e a r e cells. M o r e t h a n n i n e - t e n t h s of t h e
b l o o d c o n t a i n s cells t h a t fight disease b l o o d c o n s i s t s of r e d c o r p u s c l e s . T h e s e
and substances that repair cut or bruised c e l l s a r e s o s m a l l t h a t a l a r g e d r o p of
p a r t s of t h e b o d y . blood contains m o r e t h a n 2 5 0 million
of t h e m . T h e y a r e d i s c - s h a p e d a n d c o n -
B l o o d i s m a d e u p of b o t h l i q u i d and c a v e o n e a c h side, a n d c o n t a i n a sub-
s o l i d p a r t s . T h e liq- s t a n c e c a l l e d hemoglobin. W h e n hemo-
What is blood
u i d is c a l l e d plasma. g l o b i n c o m b i n e s w i t h o x y g e n , it t u r n s
made of?
T h e solid p a r t s are b r i g h t r e d . T h i s is w h y f r e s h b l o o d o u t -
red corpuscles, white corpuscles, and s i d e t h e b o d y is a l w a y s r e d .

43
L e t u s e x a m i n e s o m e r e d cells. S e t o u t bite. Squeeze y o u r finger in o r d e r to
two clean glass f o r m a l a r g e d r o p of b l o o d a b o v e t h e
How can you
slides, some absor- puncture. Before you go about taking
get a sample
bent cotton, a bottle a d r o p of y o u r o w n b l o o d , h o w e v e r , b e
of your blood?
of a l c o h o l , a c a n d l e , sure to get permission from y o u r p a r e n t
and a sharp needle. Light the candle. o r g u a r d i a n . I t is also recommended
Be sure to keep the alcohol away from that a n adult supervise the entire pro-
t h e flame, a s a l c o h o l is i n f l a m m a b l e a n d cedure.
is e a s i l y set o n fire. S c r u b t h e t i p of t h e
index finger of y o u r left h a n d ( i f y o u W i t h y o u r r i g h t h a n d , p i c k u p o n e of
a r e r i g h t - h a n d e d ) w i t h a s w a b of a l c o - the clean slides
H o w d o you m a k e , , ..
hol-soaked cotton. Be thorough about . . . _ and t o u c h it,
a blood smear?
this, so as t o kill all b a c t e r i a o n y o u r
near one end, to
finger tip. H o l d this finger firmly be-
t h e d r o p of b l o o d . P l a c e t h i s s l i d e o n a
tween the thumb and middle finger of
t a b l e , w i t h t h e d r o p of b l o o d upper-
t h e s a m e h a n d . S t e r i l i z e t h e p o i n t of t h e
m o s t . H o l d t h i s s l i d e firmly b e t w e e n t h e
n e e d l e b y p a s s i n g it b a c k and forth
thumb and middle finger of y o u r left
through the candle flame a few times.
h a n d . P i c k u p the o t h e r slide in y o u r
W h e n t h e n e e d l e h a s c o o l e d , g r a s p it
r i g h t h a n d . H o l d it n e a r l y v e r t i c a l a n d
near, b u t n o t at, the point. Quickly j a b
t o u c h i t s b o t t o m e d g e t o t h e d r o p of
t h e n e e d l e i n t o t h e i n d e x finger of y o u r
blood on the first slide. R a p i d l y and
left h a n d — t h e o n e y o u h a v e c l e a n e d .
s m o o t h l y m o v e t h e nearly-vertical slide
T h i s will h u r t n o m o r e t h a n a m o s q u i t o
along the surface of t h e o t h e r slide,

44

A microscopic view of red and white
blood cells are shown (left). The red
corpuscles outnumber the white ones.
A white corpuscle (a phagocyte) de-
stroys a germ by engulfing it (above).
cells s t a n d i n g o n e d g e a n d r e s e m b l i n g
dumbbells. T h e r e m a y be several red
c e l l s s t a c k e d o n e o n t o p of a n o t h e r l i k e
a p i l e of c o i n s .
H e r e a n d t h e r e a m o n g t h e r e d cells,
y o u will see a m u c h larger, colorless
cell. T h e s e a r e w h i t e c o r p u s c l e s . T h e r e
is o n l y o n e w h i t e c o r p u s c l e for a p p r o x i -
mately every 800 red corpuscles. M o s t
of t h e s e c e l l s h a v e a g e n e r a l l y round
shape, b u t they m a y b e in a l m o s t a n y
shape, looking very m u c h like an
a m o e b a . I n fact, they are able to m o v e
t h r o u g h t h e b o d y ' s tissues in m u c h t h e
same m a n n e r as an a m o e b a moves.
W h i t e cells a r e t h e b o d y ' s disease fight-
e r s , a n d d i s e a s e is c a u s e d b y a n o v e r -
a b u n d a n c e of h a r m f u l b a c t e r i a within

pulling t h e b l o o d in a n even s m e a r a l o n g
b e h i n d t h e m o v i n g s l i d e . S t u d y t h e il-
lustration to u n d e r s t a n d clearly h o w to
d o this. Y o u m u s t d o all this q u i c k l y ,
s o t h a t t h e d r o p of b l o o d o n t h e s l i d e
d o e s n o t c l o t b e f o r e y o u s p r e a d it o u t
into a smear.
When you have finished making the
b l o o d s m e a r , s w a b off y o u r left index
finger with alcohol-soaked cotton. One red blood cell, or corpuscle, shown magnified.

Examine the blood smear under the t h e b o d y . I t is t h e t a s k of w h i t e c o r -

low-power objective. puscles to destroy bacteria. T o destroy
What do blood
The red cells will a b a c t e r i u m , a w h i t e cell e n g u l f s it, j u s t
cells look like?
look barely pink. a s a n a m o e b a e n g u l f s a b i t of food.
M o v e t h e slide b a c k a n d f o r t h in o r d e r I n s i d e t h e w h i t e c e l l , t h e b a c t e r i u m is
t o g e t a n i d e a of h o w m a n y t h o u s a n d s digested.
of r e d c e l l s a r e i n t h e s m a l l d r o p of A s p e c i a l k i n d of s t a i n is n e e d e d t o
b l o o d y o u p u t o n t h e slide. p r o p e r l y stain a w h i t e cell, b u t y o u c a n
N o w , use the high-power objective. d o a fairly g o o d j o b b y using " p e r m a -
Y o u c a n e a s i l y s e e t h a t r e d c e l l s a r e cir- nent" blue fountain pen ink. W h e n you
cular with a c o n c a v e depression in the h a v e fixed a n d s t a i n e d y o u r b l o o d s m e a r ,
m i d d l e of e a c h s i d e . Y o u m a y s e e s o m e y o u will see t h a t w h i t e c o r p u s c l e s h a v e

45
very irregularly-shaped nuclei. The absorbent cotton a b o u t five b y ten
nucleus m a y be round, somewhat horse- inches. G e n t l y w r a p a live goldfish in
shoe-shaped, or made up of several this p a d , so t h a t o n l y its tail sticks o u t .
s m a l l b i t s h e l d t o g e t h e r b y t h r e a d s of P u t t h e fish o n t h e b o a r d i n s u c h a p o s i -
n u c l e a r m a t e r i a l . I t is b e c a u s e of the t i o n t h a t t h e tail-fin is d i r e c t l y o v e r t h e
s h a p e of t h e n u c l e u s , t h a t a w h i t e cell hole. Place a handkerchief over the up-
is c a l l e d a polymorphonuclear leuco- p e r p a r t of t h e fish a n d fix t h e h a n d k e r -
cyte. Poly means "many" in Greek; chief to the board with thumbtacks.
morphos m e a n s " f o r m " ; leuco means Place two other thumbtacks at the edges
" w h i t e " ; a n d cytos m e a n s "cell." T h u s , of t h e h o l e s o t h a t t h e e d g e s of t h e t a c k s
t h e big w o r d m e a n s " w h i t e cell with p r e s s o n t h e t w o o u t e r p o i n t s of the
many-formed nucleus." fish's tail. B e careful n o t t o stick t h e
t a c k s t h r o u g h t h e tail.
G e t a p i e c e of t h i n w o o d a b o u t t h r e e P l a c e t h e b o a r d o n t h e s t a g e of y o u r
inches long and two microscope, with the tail directly u n d e r
How can you
inches wide. A piece the objective. F o c u s with low power.
see blood in
of p l y w o o d w i l l d o , o r A s y o u e x a m i n e t h e t a i l , w e t it f r o m
circulation?
a shingle. Near one time to t i m e w i t h a little w a t e r from
e n d , drill a h o l e a b o u t a half-inch in your fingers.
d i a m e t e r . M a k e a p a d of w e t c l o t h o r Y o u will see l a r g e b l o o d vessels t h a t
r u n p a r a l l e l t o t h e r a y s of t h e t a i l . N o t e
h o w these large vessels divide into
smaller branches, a n d these branches
i n t o t i n y o n e s , c a l l e d capillaries. If y o u
f o l l o w t h e flow of b l o o d c e l l s f r o m t h e
HEART
large b l o o d vessels to the capillaries,
y o u will see t h a t f r o m t h e capillaries,
t h e b l o o d flows i n t o l a r g e r b r a n c h e s t h a t
j o i n still l a r g e r b l o o d v e s s e l s , a s the
b l o o d flows b a c k t o t h e fish's h e a r t .
D o n o t k e e p t h e fish o u t of w a t e r f o r
m o r e t h a n t e n m i n u t e s . If, w h e n you
r e t u r n t h e fish t o w a t e r , it s e e m s slug-
g i s h a n d u n a b l e t o s w i m w e l l , p i c k it u p
b y t h e t a i l a n d d i p it i n a n d o u t of t h e
w a t e r a few times. T h i s should h e l p the
fish t o b e g i n b r e a t h i n g p r o p e r l y a g a i n .

The flow of blood may be viewed in a frog's foot as

it travels from the heart, through the arteries and
capillaries and back to the heart through the veins.
S u p p o s e y o u a r e i n t e r e s t e d in l e a r n i n g
a b o u t t h e h e a r t of a
How can you
frog, the stem of a
observe the
flower, o r t h e e g g of
insides of
living things? an insect. After you
have examined these
objects with the low- a n d high-power
o b j e c t i v e s of y o u r m i c r o s c o p e , y o u c a n
still l e a r n m u c h m o r e a b o u t t h e m by You can obtain several
cross sections of a leaf
s t u d y i n g t h e i r i n s i d e s . W h a t is t h e b e s t by cutting slices of the
w a y to d o this? specimen after it has
been sealed in paraffin.
O b t a i n a b o l t t h a t is a t l e a s t one-
q u a r t e r i n c h in d i a m e t e r , a n d a n u t t o
fit t h e b o l t . S c r e w t h e b o l t a b o u t o n e -
quarter way into the nut. P r o p the bolt slice of p a r a f f i n . If t h i s slice c o n t a i n s a
i n a v e r t i c a l p o s i t i o n , so t h a t t h e o p e n - portion of y o u r specimen, place the
i n g i n t h e b o l t is u p p e r m o s t . P l a c e t h e slice o n a s l i d e a n d e x a m i n e it u n d e r
object you wish to study inside this t h e m i c r o s c o p e . If n o t , t h e n p u s h out
o p e n i n g . M e l t s o m e paraffin — the m a - another 1 / 6 4 of a n i n c h of paraffin.
terial u s e d t o seal j a m a n d jelly j a r s — C o n t i n u e t h i s u n t i l o n e of t h e s l i c e s c o n -
i n a s p o o n , u s i n g a c a n d l e flame f o r a t a i n s a p i e c e of t h e s p e c i m e n . T h e n , g o
s o u r c e of h e a t . P o u r t h e m e l t e d p a r a f f i n o n m a k i n g m o r e slices u n t i l y o u have
into the hole in the bolt. p a s s e d f r o m o n e e n d t o t h e o t h e r of t h e
When the paraffin has cooled and s p e c i m e n . E a c h slice s h o w s y o u a c r o s s
h a r d e n e d , slowly screw the bolt farther s e c t i o n , r e v e a l i n g w h a t is i n s i d e t h e o b -
into the nut, thereby pushing out some ject u n d e r study.
p a r a f f i n . W h e n a b o u t 1 / 6 4 of a n i n c h If y o u r s p e c i m e n is t o o l a r g e t o b e
( o r l e s s ) of p a r a f f i n h a s b e e n pushed p u t i n t o t h e h o l e in a bolt, u s e some
out, move a razor blade down along the other small container, such as a m a t c h
f a c e of t h e b o l t , s o a s t o c u t off a t h i n box.

T h e Electron M i c r o s c o p e

Both the simple a n d c o m p o u n d micro- s c o p e s a r e m a d e , t h e r e is a l i m i t t o t h e

scopes are called opti- s m a l l n e s s of t h e o b j e c t t h a t t h e y can
What are the
cal m i c r o s c o p e s . T h e y magnify. W e learned t h a t light m u s t b e
limitations
b o t h use light to pre- r e f l e c t e d f r o m a n o b j e c t i n o r d e r f o r it
of optical
microscopes? sent an enlarged to b e seen. Objects also c a n b e seen
i m a g e to the eye. B u t w h e n t h e y s t o p t h e p a s s a g e of l i g h t , a s
no matter how powerful optical micro- when they m a k e a shadow; and also

47
w h e n t h e y p a r t i a l l y s t o p t h e p a s s a g e s of
light, as w h e n light passes u p from a
microscope's mirror through the body
of a p r o t o z o a n . L i g h t r a y s h a v e a c e r t a i n
definite size, a n d t h e y cannot be re-
flected from or stopped by objects that
are smaller than the rays themselves. T o
t r y t o see o b j e c t s t h a t a r e smaller t h a n
t h e l i g h t r a y s is l i k e t r y i n g t o c a t c h m i n -
nows with a mackerel net.

If w e c o u l d h a v e s o m e k i n d of r a y , o r
b e a m , t h a t c o u l d b e re- A scientist operates a powerful electron microscope.
What is an
flected from objects
electron
too small to reflect i t is u s u a l l y f o u n d only in university
microscope?
light, we could see and industrial research laboratories.
these objects. T h e r e are tiny particles,
called electrons, that are sufficiently O n e of t h e g r e a t t r i u m p h s of t h e e l e c -
small for o u r purpose. Scientists h a v e tron microscope has
How does this
w o r k e d o u t a w a y t o u s e a b e a m of e l e c - been t o r e v e a l vi-
microscope ,« „
t r o n s in a m i c r o s c o p e . T h i s m i c r o s c o p e . . _ ruses, the smallest
help m a n ?
is c a l l e d a n electron microscope. living things. Viruses
B y h e a t i n g a c e r t a i n k i n d of w i r e , a cause m a n y diseases, a m o n g which are
large number of electrons may be measles, m u m p s , chickenpox, smallpox,
obtained. Electrons are electrically rabies a n d polio. T h e electron micro-
c h a r g e d particles. B y using m a g n e t s in scope m a y help us to conquer disease
exactly the same way an optical micro- b y enabling us to w o r k with viruses.
scope uses lenses, the electrons o b t a i n e d Y o u have learned something about
from the wire can be formed into a t h e w o r l d of v e r y s m a l l t h i n g s t h a t e x i s t
beam, to be directed and magnified. all a r o u n d us. Y o u h a v e l e a r n e d a b o u t
Since eyesight requires light, w e can- a wonderful instrument, the micro-
not look into an electron microscope as scope, that has enabled m a n to enter
w e d o a n o p t i c a l o n e . B u t t h e b e a m of this tiny world. Y o u h a v e learned h o w
electrons can form an image on photo- to use a microscope and h o w to obtain
graphic film. W h e n t h e film is d e v e l - a n d prepare very small specimens so
o p e d , w e see w h a t w a s b e n e a t h t h e elec- t h a t y o u c a n observe t h e m w i t h this im-
tron microscope's objective. portant instrument.
With this instrument, we can get B u t if w h a t y o u h a v e l e a r n e d has
m a g n i f i c a t i o n s of m o r e t h a n 2 0 0 t h o u - aroused an interest in the "unseen
sand times, b u t b e c a u s e a n electron mi- w o r l d , " t h e n a h e a d of y o u a r e e n d l e s s ,
croscope costs several t h o u s a n d dollars, i n v a l u a b l e h o u r s of f u n a n d learning.

48
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HOW AND WHY WONDER BOOKS

Produced and approved by noted authorities, these books

answer the questions most often asked about science, na-
ture and history. They are presented in a clear, readable
style, and contain many colorful and instructive illus-
trations. Readers will want to explore each of these
fascinating subjects and collect these volumes as an
authentic, ready-reference, basic library.

5001 DINOSAURS 5017 THE CIVIL WAR

5002 WEATHER 5018 MATHEMATICS
5003 ELECTRICITY 5019 FLIGHT
5004 ROCKS AND MINERALS 5020 BALLET
5005 ROCKETS AND MISSILES 5021 CHEMISTRY
5006 STARS 5022 HORSES
5007 INSECTS 5023 EXPLORATIONS AND
5008 REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS DISCOVERIES
5009 BIRDS 5024 PRIMITIVE MAN
5010 OUR EARTH 5025 NORTH AMERICA
5011 BEGINNING SCIENCE 5026 PLANETS AND
5012 MACHINES INTERPLANETARY TRAVEL
5013 THE HUMAN BODY 5027 WILD ANIMALS
5014 SEA SHELLS 5028 SOUND
5015 ATOMIC ENERGY 5029 LOST CITIES
5016 THE MICROSCOPE 5030 ANTS AND BEES /

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