CLIMATIC FACTORS :

Climates result from three factors :

- The cosmic factor (the source of solar energy : variation of solar activity) ;

- Global factors (distribution of this energy according to the sphericity of the Earth,
its movements ; the conditon, at the same time with the dynamism atmosphere) ;

- Geographical factors (lands, the relationship between the Ocean and the Atmosphere,
landforms, vegetation, volcanoes, human fittings) ;

As we have seen above : the climate system of Earth is composed of three groups
of factors. The engine of this system is the Sun, which is our own source of
energy. These factors cause a flow of air and oceans and control the process of
evaporation and precipitation, which are part of the water cycle.

Many factors, natural or man-made, determine the Earth's climate. The climate
depends on the redistribution of energy from the sun according atmospheric and
oceanic currents. Climates depend largely on the latitude, longitude and altitude.
They are also conditioned by the proximity of wide areas of water such as oceans
or inland seas. Generally speaking, our climate is defined by the complex
interaction of all factors : the sun, earth, sea, air, ice caps of Earth, wildlife and
other life forms. Many climate phenomenons disrupt the climate. Example : El
Niño or La Niña, the N.A.O. ... and the position of the Earth in relation to the
Sun, which is very important.

CLIMATE STANDARDS :
Climates on Earth are classified according to various parameters (humidity,
temperature, sunshine, wind speed ...). These parameters vary with geography so
the altitude, latitude, oceans around ... what influence climate.

The tropical climate is a climate found between the Cancer and Capricorn
Tropic, therefore, between 25° South and North latitude. Throughout the year
the average monthly temperature does not drop below 64,4°F (18°C).

There are generally two types of tropical climates :

o The humid tropical climate which is characterized by two seasons :

  the wet season with high temperatures and very heavy rain
(monsoon) but with a volume which decreases as the distance
from the equator ;
 the dry season with lower temperatures and precipitation
close to zero that lasts much longer than the distance from the
equator (7-10 months).

o The equatorial climate is characterized by a single season with

frequent and important rainfall of which the maxima of intensity
occur at the equinoxes (March and September). Temperatures are
warm with an average of about 80,6°F (27°C). The atmospheric
pressure is still low.

 DRY AND ARID CLIMAT

The dry climate is characterized by a high stability of the atmosphere what

makes very low or absent rainfall. It is found between 10 and 35° North and
South latitude.

There are two types of dry climates :

o The arid climate characterize desert regions like the Sahara, the
Australian desert, the Arabian Peninsula... The whole year
temperatures are high the day but low enough at night, with
occasional frosts, giving very large thermic gaps between day and
night (between 68 and 86°F (20 and 30°C) see sometimes over 122°F
(50 °C)). The annual rainfall is less than evaporation.

o The semi-arid climate or steppe climate is characterized by a dry

season the most of the time and a wet season. Precipitations are low
with an annual average between 250 and 500 mm which are
unevenly distributed throughout the year.

 TEMPERATE CLIMATE

The temperate climate is located between 30° and 50° latitude in the northern
and southern hemispheres and is characterized by two seasons, the cold season
(winter) and the hot season (summer).

There are several types of climates :

 o The oceanic climate characteristic of the western coasts of continents
(North West of the United States, the British Isles, on the Atlantic
coast of France, around the North Sea and English Channel, on the
Atlantic coast North and West Morocco). The climate is influenced
by the proximity of the oceans which lies west of the continent what
gives cool summers, mild and wet winters. 

o The humid climate subtroprical or Chinese is characterized by hot

and humid summers and cool winters. This climate is found on the
eastern side of continents between 30° and 50° latitude (Between
East and South-Eastern United States, from South America, Asia
and Australia).

o The Mediterranean climate is characterized by hot and dry

summers, mild winters, wet and heavy rains in spring and autumn.
We find the climate around the Mediterranean Sea, but other
regions on Earth have the same climatic conditions as the coastal
areas of California, South Africa and southern regions of Australia.

 CONTINENTAL CLIMATE

The continental climate is located at mid-latitudes in areas far from shore.

There are two types of continental climate :

o The humid continental climate is characterized by very hot summers

and very cold winters. The seasonal variations in temperature are
important, they are measuring range from 59 to 71,6°F (15 to 22°C)
but can rise to 91,4°F (33°C). More the area is far from the oceans
more that variation in temperature between summer and winter is
important. 

o The subarctic climate is characterized by mild summers where

temperatures can still exceed 86°F (30°C) but this season is short
and very harsh winters where temperatures can drop to -40°F (-
40°C). This climate is found between 50° to 70° north latitude much
of Asia and northern North America.

 POLAR CLIMATE
The polar climate is located at high latitudes.

There are two types of polar climate :

o ice cap polar climate is characterized by cold temperatures

throughout the year that descend very low in winter and are still
below -40°F (-40°C) during this season. Winds are strong and
regular. In summer the average temperatures are negative. Rainfall
is low and falling in snow storm. The ground never thaws and
nothing grows there.

o The tundra is a climate found at the border of the ice cap in the
northern hemisphere. The winters are long and cold, with an
average temperature of about -18,4°F (-28°C) and with an often
violent wind (blizzard). Summers are short and cool.

 MOUNTAIN CLIMATE

The mountain climate depends on the mountains. Temperatures, air pressure

and air density decrease with altitude (about 32,9°F to 33,8°F (0,5°C to 1°C)
every 100m). Winters are cold and summers are cool and wet. Rainfall is most
important according to altitude.

Factors that Influence Climate

There are lots of factors that influence our climate
Elevation or Altitude effect climate 
Normally, climatic conditions become colder as altitude increases. “Life zones” on a
high mountain reflect the changes, plants at the base are the same as those in
surrounding countryside, but no trees at all can grow above the timberline. Snow
crowns the highest elevations.
Prevailing global wind patterns
There are 3 major wind patterns found in the Northern Hemisphere and also 3 in the
Southern Hemisphere. These are average conditions and do not essentially reveal
conditions on a particular day. As seasons change, the wind patterns shift north or
south. So does the intertropical convergence zone, which moves back and forth across
the Equator. Sailors called this zone the doldrums because its winds are normally weak.
Latitude and angles of the suns rays
As the Earth circles the sun, the tilt of its axis causes changes in the angle of which
sun’s rays contact the earth and hence changes the daylight hours at different latitudes.
Polar regions experience the greatest variation, with long periods of limited or no
sunlight in winter and up to 24 hours of daylight in the summer.
Topography
The Topography of an area can greatly influence our climate. Mountain ranges are
natural barriers to air movement. In California, winds off the Pacific ocean carry
moisture-laden air toward the coast. The Coastal Range allows for some condensation
and light precipitation. Inland, the taller Sierra Nevada range rings more significant
precipitation in the air. On the western slopes of the Sierra Nevada, sinking air warms
from compression, clouds evaporate, and dry conditions prevail.
Effects of Geography
The position of a town, city or place and its distance from mountains and substantial
areas of water help determine its prevailing wind patterns and what types of air masses
affect it. Coastal areas may enjoy refreshing breezes in summer, when cooler ocean air
moves ashore. Places south and east of the Great Lakes can expect “lake effect” snow
in winter, when cold air travels over relatively warmer waters.
In spring and summer, people in Tornado Alley in the central United States watch for
thunderstorms, these storms are caused where three types of air masses frequently
converge: cold and dry from the north, warm and dry from the southwest, and warm and
moist from the Gulf of Mexico - these colliding air masses often generate tornado
storms.
Surface of the Earth
Just look at any globe or a world map showing land cover, and you will see another
important factor which has a influence on climate: the surface of the Earth. The amount
of sunlight that is absorbed or reflected by the surface determines how much
atmospheric heating occurs. Darker areas, such as heavily vegetated regions, tend to
be good absorbers; lighter areas, such as snow and ice-covered regions, tend to be
good reflectors. The ocean absorbs and loses heat more slowly than land. Its waters
gradually release heat into the atmosphere, which then distributes heat around the
globe.
Climate change over time
Cold and warm periods punctuate Earth’s long history. Some were fairly short; others
spanned hundreds of thousands of years. In some cold periods, glaciers grew and
spread over large regions. In subsequent warm periods, the ice retreated. Each period
profoundly affected plant and animal life. The most recent cool period, often called the
“Little Ice Age,” ended in western Europe around 1850.
Since the turn of the 20th century, temperatures have been rising steadily throughout
the world. But it is not yet clear how much of this global warming is due to natural
causes and how much derives from human activities, such as the burning of fossil fuels
and the clearing of forests.

Factors affecting climate

Factors affecting climate tutorial
There are many different factors that affect climate around the world. It is the varying influence of these factors that

lead to different parts of the Earth experiencing differing climates. The most important natural factors are:

 distance from the sea

 ocean currents

 direction of prevailing winds

 shape of the land (known as 'relief' or 'topography')

 distance from the equator

 the El Niño phenomenon.

It is now widely accepted that human activity is also affecting climate, and that the impact is not the same

everywhere. For example, changes appear to be happening faster near the poles than in many other places. In this

tutorial we will look at some of these factors in more detail.

Distance from the sea (Continentality)

The sea affects the climate of a place. Coastal areas are cooler and wetter than inland areas. Clouds form when

warm air from inland areas meets cool air from the sea.  The centre of continents are subject to a large range of

temperatures.  In the summer, temperatures can be very hot and dry as moisture from the sea evaporates before it

reaches the centre of the land mass.

Ocean currents
Ocean currents can increase or reduce temperatures. The diagram below shows the ocean currents of the world

(view original source map). The main ocean current that affects the UK is the Gulf Stream.

The Gulf Stream is a warm ocean current in the North Atlantic flowing from the Gulf of Mexico, northeast along the

U.S coast, and from there to the British Isles.

The Gulf of Mexico has higher air temperatures than Britain as it is closer to the equator.  This means that the air

coming from the Gulf of Mexico to Britain is also warm.  However, the air is also quite moist as it travels over the

Atlantic ocean.  This is one reason why Britain often receives wet weather.

The Gulf Stream keeps the west coast of Europe free from ice in the winter and, in the summer, warmer than other

places of a similar latitude.

Direction of prevailing winds

 Winds that blow from the sea often bring rain to the coast and dry weather to

inland areas.  Winds that blow to Britain from warm inland areas such as Africa will be warm and dry.  Winds that

blow to Britain from inland areas such as central Europe will be cold and dry in winter. Britain's prevailing (i.e. most

frequently experienced) winds come from a south westerly direction over the Atlantic.  These winds are cool in the

summer, mild in the winter and tend to bring wet weather.

The shape of the land ('relief')

Climate can be affected by mountains. Mountains receive more rainfall than low

lying areas because as air is forced over the higher ground it cools, causing moist air to condense and fall out as

rainfall.

The higher the place is above sea level the colder it will be.  This happens because as altitude increases, air

becomes thinner and is less able to absorb and retain heat. That is why you may see snow on the top of mountains

all year round.

Distance from the equator

The distance from the equator affects the climate of a place. At the poles, energy from the sun reaches the Earth's

surface at lower angles and passes through a thicker layer of atmosphere than at the equator. This means the

climate is cooler further from the Equator. The poles also experience the greatest difference between summer and

winter day lengths: in the summer there is a period when the sun does not set at the poles; conversely the poles also

experience a period of total darkness during winter. In contrast, daylength varies little at the equator.

El Niño
El Niño, which affects wind and rainfall patterns, has been blamed for droughts and floods in countries around the

Pacific Rim.  El Niño refers to the irregular warming of surface water in the Pacific.  The warmer water pumps energy

and moisture into the atmosphere, altering global wind and rainfall patterns. The phenomenon has caused tornadoes

in Florida, smog in Indonesia, and forest fires in Brazil.

El Niño is Spanish for 'the Boy Child' because it comes about the time of the celebration of the birth of the Christ

Child. The cold counterpart to El Niño is known as La Niña, Spanish for 'the girl child', and it also brings with it

weather extremes.

Human influence

The factors above affect the climate naturally.  However, we cannot forget the

influence of humans on our climate.  Early on in human history our effect on the climate would have been quite

small.  However, as populations increased and trees were cut down in large numbers, so our influence on the climate

increased.  Trees take in carbon dioxide and produce oxygen.  A reduction in trees will therefore have increased the

amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.

The Industrial Revolution, starting at the end of the 19th Century, has had a huge effect on climate.  The invention of

the motor engine and the increased burning of fossil fuels have increased the amount of carbon dioxide (a

greenhouse gas - more on that later) in the atmosphere.  The number of trees being cut down has also

increased, reducing the amount of carbon dioxide that is taken up by forests.

Climatic Factors Can Promote or Inhibit 

Plant Growth and Development
Ben G. Bareja, February 2011

The climatic factors include rainfall and water, light, temperature, relative
humidity, air, and wind. They are abiotic components,
including topography and soil, of the environmental factors that influence plant
growth and development.

Rainfall and Water

Rainfall is the most common form of precipitation. It is the falling of water in
droplets on the surface of the Earth from clouds. Other forms of precipitation
are freezing rain, sleet or ice pellets, snowfall, and hail (Eagleman 1985; Miller
2001). The amount and regularity of rainfall vary with location and climate types
and affect the dominance of certain types of vegetation as well as crop growth
and yield. (Click here to read page devoted to water as a climatic factor).

Light
Light is a climatic factor that is essential in the production of chlorophyll and
in photosynthesis, the process by which plants manufacture food in the form
of sugar (carbohydrate). Other plant processes that are enhanced or inhibited by
this climatic factor include stomatal
movement, phototropism, photomorphogenesis, translocation, mineral
absorption, and abscission (Devlin 1975; Edmond et al. 1978; Poincelot 1980;
Manaker 1981; Abellanosa and Pava 1987).

Light is that visible portion of the solar radiation or electromagnetic spectrum. It

is a form of kinetic energy that comes from the sun in tiny particles
called quanta or photons, travelling in waves.

Three properties of this climatic factor that affect plant growth and development
are light quality, light intensity, and daylength or photoperiod. Light quality refers
to the specific wavelengths of light; light intensity is the degree of brightness
that a plant receives; and daylength is the duration of the day with respect to the
night period.

Temperature
The degree of hotness or coldness of a substance is
called temperature (Eagleman 1985). It is commonly expressed in degree
Celsius or centigrade (C) and degree Fahrenheit (F) . This climatic factor
influences all plant growth processes such as photosynthesis,
respiration, transpiration, breaking of seed dormancy, seed germination, protein
synthesis, and translocation. At high temperatures the translocation of
photosynthate is faster so that plants tend to mature earlier.

In general, plants survive within a temperature range of 0 to 50 C (Poincelot

1980). The favorable or optimal day and night temperature range for plant growth
and maximum yields varies among crop species. 

Enzyme activity and the rate of most chemical reactions generally increase with
rise in temperature. Up to a certain point, there is doubling of enzymatic reaction
with every 10 C temperature increase (Mader 1993). But at excessively high
temperatures, denaturation of enzymes and other proteins occur.

Excessively low temperatures can also cause limiting effects on plant growth and
development. For example, water absorption is inhibited when the soil
temperature is low because water is more viscuous at low temperatures and less
mobile, and the protoplasm is less permeable. At temperatures below the
freezing point of water, there is change in the form of water from liquid to solid.
The expansion of water as it solidifies in living cells causes the rupture of the cell
walls (Devlin 1975).

Air
The air is a mixture of gases in the atmosphere. According to Miller (2001), about
75% of this air is found in the troposphere, the innermost layer of the atmosphere
which extends about 17 km above sea level at the equator and about 8 km over
the poles.

In addition, about 99% of the clean, dry air in the troposphere consists of 78%
nitrogen and 21% oxygen. The remainder consists of argon (slightly less than
1%), carbon dioxide (0.036%), and traces of other gases.

The oxygen and carbon dioxide in the air are of particular importance to the
physiology of plants. Oxygen is essential in respiration for the production of
energy that is utilized in various growth and development processes. Carbon
dioxide is a raw material in photosynthesis.

The air also consists of suspended particles of dust and chemical air pollutants
such as carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2), sulfur dioxide (SO2),
sulfur trioxide (SO3), nitrogen oxides, methane (CH4), propane,
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), solid particles of dust, soot, asbestos and lead,
ozone and many more.

However, the composition of this climatic factor is susceptible of variation.

Recently, there has been a hightenend alarm about the increase of carbon
dioxide in the atmosphere.

Relative Humidity
The amount of water vapor that the air can hold depends on its temperature;
warm air has the capacity to hold more water vapor than cold air. According to
Eagleman (1985), there is almost one-half reduction in the amount of water vapor
that the air can hold for every 10 C drop in temperature.

Relative humidity (RH) is the amount of water vapor in the air, expressed as the
proportion (in percent) of the maximum amount of water vapor it can hold at
certain temperature. For example, an air having a relative humidity of 60% at 27
C temperature means that every kilogram of the air contains 60% of the
maximum amount of water that it can hold at that temperature (Miller 2001).

The amount of water vapor in the air ranges from 0.01% by volume at the frigid
poles to 5% in the humid tropics. In relation to each other, high RH means that
the air is moistwhile air with minimal content of moisture is described as dryair.
Compared to dry air, moist air has a higher relative humidity with relatively large
amounts of water vapor per unit volume of air.

The relative humidity affects the opening and closing of the stomata which
regulates loss of water from the plant through transpiration as well as
photosynthesis. A substantial understanding of this climatic factor is likewise
important in plant propagation. Newly collected plant cuttings and bareroot
seedlings are protected against dessication by enclosing them in a sealed plastic
bag. The propagation chamber and plastic tent are also commonly used in
propagating stem and leaf cuttings to ensure a condition with high relative
humidity.

Wind as Climatic Factor

Air movement or wind is due to the existence of pressure gradient on a global or
local scale caused by differences in heating. On a global scale it consists of the
jet stream flow and movement of large air masses. On the local scale only a
smaller quantity of air moves. Surface winds are lower and less turbulent at night
due to the absence of solar heating (Eagleman 1985).

When air that is close to the ground cools, it contracts and the pressure rises;
when it warms, it expands and loses pressure. Where both cold and warm air
occur in proximity, as over a lake and its adjacent shore, the cold flows to the
direction of the warm air or from high to low pressure area to correct the pressure
imbalance. This also happens in tropical Asia but in a larger and more complex
way, as the monsoon winds (Ripley and The Editors of Time-Life Books 1974).
This climatic factor serves as a vector of pollen from one flower to another thus
aiding in the process of pollination. It is therefore essential in the development of
fruit and seed from wind-pollinated flowers as in many grasses (click here to read
more about pollination).

Moderate winds favor gas exchanges, but strong winds can cause excessive
water loss through transpiration as well as lodging or toppling of plants. When
transpiration rate exceeds that of water absorption, partial or complete closure of
the stomata may ensue which will restrict the diffusion of carbon dioxide into the
leaves. As a result, there will be a decrease in the rate of photosynthesis, growth
and yield (Edmond et al. 1978).

Each of the above discussed climatic factors has been shown to produce limiting
effects on various growth processes. However, the various climatic factors
always operate together and interact with each other under natural conditions.