Transistor

Operation Modes
Unlike resistors, which enforce a linear relationship between voltage and current, transistors are
non-linear devices. They have four distinct modes of operation, which describe the current flowing
through them. (When we talk about current flow through a transistor, we usually mean current
flowing from collector to emitter of an NPN.)
The four transistor operation modes are:

 Saturation -- The transistor acts like a short circuit. Current freely flows from collector to
emitter.
 Cut-off -- The transistor acts like an open circuit. No current flows from collector to emitter.
 Active -- The current from collector to emitter is proportional to the current flowing into the
base.
 Reverse-Active -- Like active mode, the current is proportional to the base current, but it
flows in reverse. Current flows from emitter to collector (not, exactly, the purpose transistors
were designed for).

To determine which mode a transistor is in, we need to look at the voltages on each of the three
pins, and how they relate to each other. The voltages from base to emitter (V BE), and the from base
to collector (VBC) set the transistor's mode:
The simplified quadrant graph above shows how positive and negative voltages at those terminals
affect the mode. In reality it's a bit more complicated than that.
Let's look at all four transistor modes individually; we'll investigate how to put the device into that
mode, and what effect it has on current flow.
Note: The majority of this page focuses on NPN transistors. To understand how a PNP transistor
works, simply flip the polarity or > and < signs.

Saturation Mode
Saturation is the on mode of a transistor. A transistor in saturation mode acts like a short circuit
between collector and emitter.
In saturation mode both of the "diodes" in the transistor are forward biased. That means V BE must be
greater than 0, and so must VBC. In other words, VB must be higher than both VE and VC.

Because the junction from base to emitter looks just like a diode, in reality, VBE must be greater than
a threshold voltage to enter saturation. There are many abbreviations for this voltage drop -- V th, Vγ,
and Vd are a few -- and the actual value varies between transistors (and even further by
temperature). For a lot of transistors (at room temperature) we can estimate this drop to be about
0.6V.
Another reality bummer: there won't be perfect conduction between emitter and collector. A small
voltage drop will form between those nodes. Transistor datasheets will define this voltage as CE
saturation voltage VCE(sat) -- a voltage from collector to emitter required for saturation. This value is
usually around 0.05-0.2V. This value means that VC must be slightly greater than VE (but both still
less than VB) to get the transistor in saturation mode.

Cutoff Mode
Cutoff mode is the opposite of saturation. A transistor in cutoff mode is off -- there is no collector
current, and therefore no emitter current. It almost looks like an open circuit.
To get a transistor into cutoff mode, the base voltage must be less than both the emitter and
collector voltages. VBC and VBE must both be negative.

In reality, VBE can be anywhere between 0V and Vth (~0.6V) to achieve cutoff mode.

Active Mode
To operate in active mode, a transistor's VBE must be greater than zero and VBC must be negative.
Thus, the base voltage must be less than the collector, but greater than the emitter. That also means
the collector must be greater than the emitter.

In reality, we need a non-zero forward voltage drop (abbreviated either Vth, Vγ, or Vd) from base to
emitter (VBE) to "turn on" the transistor. Usually this voltage is usually around 0.6V.
Amplifying in Active Mode
Active mode is the most powerful mode of the transistor because it turns the device into
an amplifier. Current going into the base pin amplifies current going into the collector and out the
emitter.
Our shorthand notation for the gain (amplification factor) of a transistor is β (you may also see it
as βF, or hFE). β linearly relates the collector current (IC) to the base current (IB):

The actual value of β varies by transistor. It's usually around 100, but can range from 50 to
200...even 2000, depending on which transistor you're using and how much current is running
through it. If your transistor had a β of 100, for example, that'd mean an input current of 1mA into the
base could produce 100mA current through the collector.

Active mode model. VBE = Vth, and IC = βIB.

What about the emitter current, IE? In active mode, the collector and base currents go into the
device, and the IE comes out. To relate the emitter current to collector current, we have another
constant value: α. α is the common-base current gain, it relates those currents as such:

α is usually very close to, but less than, 1. That means IC is very close to, but less than IE in active
mode.
You can use β to calculate α, or vice-versa:
If β is 100, for example, that means α is 0.99. So, if IC is 100mA, for example, then IE is 101mA.

Reverse Active
Just as saturation is the opposite of cutoff, reverse active mode is the opposite of active mode. A
transistor in reverse active mode conducts, even amplifies, but current flows in the opposite
direction, from emitter to collector. The downside to reverse active mode is the β (β R in this case)
is much smaller.
To put a transistor in reverse active mode, the emitter voltage must be greater than the base, which
must be greater than the collector (VBE<0 and VBC>0).

Reverse active mode isn't usually a state in which you want to drive a transistor. It's good to know it's
there, but it's rarely designed into an application.

Relating to the PNP

After everything we've talked about on this page, we've still only covered half of the BJT spectrum.
What about PNP transistors? PNP's work a lot like the NPN's -- they have the same four modes --
but everything is turned around. To find out which mode a PNP transistor is in, reverse all of the <
and > signs.
For example, to put a PNP into saturation VC and VE must be higher than VB. You pull the base low to
turn the PNP on, and make it higher than the collector and emitter to turn it off. And, to put a PNP
into active mode, VE must be at a higher voltage than VB, which must be higher than VC.
In summary:

Voltage relationsNPN ModePNP Mode

VE < VB < VC Active Reverse
VE < VB > VC Saturation Cutoff
VE > VB < VC Cutoff Saturation
VE > VB > VC Reverse Active

Another opposing characteristic of the NPNs and PNPs is the direction of current flow. In active and
saturation modes, current in a PNP flows from emitter to collector. This means the emitter must
generally be at a higher voltage than the collector.
What is Lathe Machine?
A lathe is a machine tool which is used to rotate a workpiece to perform various
operations such as turning, facing, knurling, grooving etc., with the help of tools that
are applied to the workpiece.

Working Principle of Lathe Machine

The function of a lathe is to remove metal from a piece of work to give it a desired
shape and size. In a lathe machine, the workpiece rotates against the tool. The tool is
used to remove material from the workpiece. The direction of the motion of the tool is
called a feed.

Main Parts of Lathe Machine

The various main parts of lathe machine are

 
1. Headstock
It is present on the left-hand side of the lathe. It holds the gear train, main spindle,
chuck, gear speed control levers, and feed controllers. It is aligned with the tailstock.
The headstock is made up of cast iron.

(i) Chuck
It is that part of the lathe machine which is used to hold the workpiece. It is attached to
the main spindle of the headstock. It rotates with the spindle and also rotates the
workpiece. In the lathe machine, we generally use three-jaw or four-jaw check. The
three jaw of the three jaw chuck is made to move simultaneously but the jaws of the
four jaw chuck moves independently.

(ii) Main Spindle

This part of the lathe machine is used to hold cylindrical work piece within it. It is a
hollow shaft on which the chuck is mounted.

(iii) Feed Selector

It is used to select the direction of the feed i.e. whether we want to move the tool from
left to right or right to left. Feed selector is present on the headstock.

2. Tailstock
It is present at the right-hand side of the lathe. It is used to provide supports to the
workpiece. It supports the workpiece from one end i.e. right end.

3. Bed
It is the main part of the lathe. All the parts of the lathe are bolted on the bed. It
comprises of headstock, tailstock, carriage guideways and other parts. It is made of
cast iron.

Guideways
Guideways are present on the bed. As its name indicates it is used to guide the tailstock
and carriage. The tailstock and carriage slide over the guideways. It is an inverted V.

4. Carriage
The carriage is present in between the headstock and tailstock. It carries apron, saddle,
compound rest, cross slide and tool post.

(i) Tool Post: It is used to hold the tool. It has T-slot for holding the tool. The tool post is
bolted on the carriage.
(ii) Compound Rest: It is used to set the tool at a desired angle for taper turning and
other operations.
(iii) Cross Slide: The cross slide is used to move the tool perpendicular to the axis of
the lathe.
(iv) Saddle: The top portion of the carriage is called the saddle. Cross slide is mounted
on the saddle.
(v) Apron: The front portion of the carriage is called apron. It contains all the moving
and control mechanism of the carriage.

5. Lead Screw
The lead screw is used to move the carriage automatically during threading.

6. Feed Rod
It is used to move the carriage from left to right and vice versa.

7. Chip Pan
Chip pan is used to collect the chips that are produced during the lathe operation. It is
present at the bottom of the lathe.

8. Hand Wheel
It is the wheel that is operated by hand to move the cross slide, carriage, tailstock and
other parts that have handwheel.

Types of Lathe Machine

The lathe machine is generally divided into three types.

1. Engine lathe
2. Turret lathe
3. Special purpose lathe

Lathe Machine Operations

The various operations that we perform on the lathe are:

1. Facing
It is the first operation that is done on the workpiece. It is a machining operation that is
done to produce flat surfaces at the ends of the workpiece. This operation is
performed by feeding the tool perpendicular to the axis of rotation of the chuck.

2. Turning
In turning operation, the excess material is removed from the surface of the workpiece
to produce a cylindrical surface of desired shape and size. During the turning
operation, the feed is moved along the axis of rotation of the chuck. It reduces the
diameter of the cylindrical workpiece.

3. Boring
The process of removing material from hole of the workpiece is called boring. Holes are
bored with the help of single point cutting tool.
 

4. Drilling
It is the process of making holes in the workpiece by the use of drills. The drill is held in
the tailstock and the drilling operation is done by advancing the drill in the workpiece
by rotating the handle of the tailstock.

 
5. Reaming
The process of enlarging the holes to accurate sizes is called reaming. Reaming is
always performed after drilling operation. It is similar to the drilling process. The
reamer is held in the tailstock to carry out reaming operation.

6. Counter Boring
The process of boring a hole to more than one diameter on the same axis is called
counterboring. This operation is performed by boring tool.

 
7. Knurling
It is the process of making indentations (recess or sharp depression) on the border of a
workpiece. The knurling operation is done to provide a better grip to the job. It is
performed by the knurling tool. The knurling tool is pressed against the job to perform
the knurling operation.

8. Chamfering
Chamfering is the process of beveling the extreme ends of a workpiece. It is done in
order to remove the burrs, to protect the end of the workpiece from being damaged
and to have a better look.

 
9. Parting Off
It is the process of cutting a workpiece after it has been machined to the required
shape and size.

10. Grooving
The process of creating a narrow slot on the workpiece is called grooving. It is also
known as recessing or necking

 
11. Forming
It is process in which a convex, concave or any irregular surface is formed on the
workpiece with the help of a forming tool. Forming tool having the required shape is
used to perform forming operation.

12. Taper Turning

It is the process in which a conical shape is produced on the workpiece. During taper
turning the feed is set at an angle to the workpiece.

 
 13. Threading
The process of making threads on a cylindrical job is called threading

14. Undercutting
In the undercutting operation, we enlarge the diameter if done internally and decrease
the diameter if done externally. It is done at the end of the hole, near the stepped
shoulder of a cylindrical surface and at the end of a threaded portion in the blot.

14. Eccentric Turning

It is a turning operation in which turning is performed at a different axis on a single
setting of a job. This method of turning is generally used to produce crankshafts and
camshafts.

Working of Lathe Machine

For the working of the lathe machine must watch the video given below. It is lengthy
but very useful.

Application of Lathe Machine

 The lathe machine is used in metal working, wood turning, metal spinning, parts
reclamation, thermal spraying, and glass working.
 It can be used to shape pottery, the potter’s wheel is the latest well-known design made
by a lathe.
 If we have most suitably equipped metal lathe then it can be used to produce most solids
of revolution, plane surfaces, and screw threads or helices.
 Ornamental lathes can produce three-dimensional solids of incredible complexity.
 Examples of various objects that are produced by lathe are candlestick holders, gun
barrels, cue sticks, table legs, bowls, baseball bats, musical instruments, crankshafts, and
camshafts.

Drilling Machine Definition:

Drilling is a material-removing or cutting process in
which the tool uses a drill bit to cut a hole of circular
cross-section in solid materials.

This is the most common machining process, one estimate is

that 75% of all metal cutting material removed comes from the
drilling operation.

Drilling Machine Operation:

These are the following operations that can be performed
in the Drilling machine.

 Plane drilling operation

 Core drilling operation
 Step drilling operation
 Boring operation
 Counter boring operation
 Reaming operation
 Countersinking operation
 Spot facing operation
 Tapping operation
 Trepanning operation

Drilling operation:
When we need a circular hole in a workpiece of any
size there, we can use drilling operation, by a drilling
operation you can form any size of holes in a workpiece.
Although you can use a lathe for drilling operation too, drill
machine is an appropriate machine to do holes in a
workpiece.

The cutting tool we used for this type of operation is drill bit. A

drill bit is a multipoint rotary cutting tool which helps to remove
material from a workpiece.

Core Drilling:
When sand castings are made, cores are used to displace the
metal where holes are desired. When cast the molten metal
flows around the core. After the metal solidifies the casting is
removed from the mold and the core disintegrates leaving the
desired holes. the holes are usually quite rough and require
heavy body drill to clean up the sidewall of the whole.

Step Drilling:
More than one diameter can be ground on the drill body which
saves an extra operation.
Boring:
When you need to enlarge the diameter of the existing
hole you need to perform the boring operation, but the
accuracy is not greater than reaming operation. The boring
tool is generally a single-point cutting tool.

Reaming:
It is an operation of finishing a drilled hole.

A finished hole has the specified diameter size, is perfectly

round, the diameter is the same size from end to end, and it
has a smoothly finished surface.

A drill hole is seldom accurate enough in size or sufficiently

smooth to be called a precision hole.

When greater accuracy is required the whole must be drilled

undersize by a certain amount and finished by the reaming.
In short, When we need to enlarge the size of an existing
hole with great accuracy in a workpiece we have to
performed reaming operation. In this type of operation, we
need a reamer to perform the operation. A reamer is a rotary
cutting tool that removes the material from the existing hole
which has several parallel and helical cutting edge throughout
its cylindrical body.

Counter Boring:
It is the operation of boring a second hole, a larger diameter
than the first but concentric with it.

When this operation is done on a drilling machine a tool

known as counterbore is used.

The small diameter on the end of the tool known as the pilot
keeps the counterbore concentric with the original hole.

Pilots are interchangeable with others of different sizes to fit

the various size of holes.

Counter Sinking:
It is the operation of producing an angular surface at the end
of a hole. A countersink is used.

The countersink is made in many diameters size and several

angles.

The angle size depends upon the reason for countersinking.

Flathead screws require a countersink with an 82 included
angle, where is a Centre hole must be 60. Various types of
rivet heads have included angles of from 90 to 145 degree.

Spot Facing:
It is the operation of machining a flat, circular surface around
a whole to provide a seat for a Bolt head, nut or washer.

It is usually performed on casting. A Counterbore may be

used for spot facing.

The Surface machined should be a square with the hole.

Tapping:
Holes that are to be tapped(threaded) are first are drilled to a
specified size. In order to tap holes on a standard drilling
machine, a tapping attachment must be used.

This attachment is held in the spindle of the drill press by a

tapered Arbor, who drives the friction type mechanism.
The tap holding chuck accurately centers the tap on the round
part of the shank and floating jaws hold the tap on its square
end in a firm, rigid grip, which prevents the tap from pulling
out of the chuck when reversing.

Trepanning:
It is a hole making operation where an annular groove is
produced leaving a solid cylindrical core in the center.

In Trepanning a cutter consisting of One or more cutting

edges placed along the circumference of a circle is used to
produce the annular groove.

Trepanning is feasible if the hole has a diameter of more than

50 mm. Hole depth of 160 times the diameter can be obtained
in Trepanning.
What is the Cupola Furnace?
Cupola furnace is a melting device. We used this device
in the forging operation where Cast Iron, Bronze, and
other alloying elements are melted.

This is a very old device we used in manufacturing for melting

because this system produces good cast iron from Pig Iron.
The shape of this device is cylindrical but others size is also
available.

Here is the Schematic Diagram of

Cupola Furnace:

Sch
ematic Diagram of Cupola Furnace
Working Principle of Cupola Furnace:
The Cupola furnace works on the principle where we
generate heat from burning coke and when the
temperature of the furnace is above the melting point of
the metal then the metal is melt.

The charge introduced in the cupola consists of pig iron,

scrap, casting rejection, coke, and flux. Coke is the fuel
and limestone are added as a flux to remove undesirable
materials like ash and dirt. The scrap consists of Steel and
cast iron rejections.

The working of Cupola furnace is, Over the sand Bottom,

Coke in charged extending up to a predetermined height. This
serves as the coke bed within which the combustion takes
place.

Cupola operation is started by igniting the coke bed at its

bottom. After the Coke bed is properly Ignited, alternate
charges of limestone, pig iron, and coke are charged until the
level of the charging Door.

Then the air blast is turned on and combustion occurs rapidly

within the coke bed. Within 5 to 10 minutes after the blast is
turned on the first molten cast iron appears at the tap hole.

Usually, the first iron which comes out will be too cold to pour
into sand molds. During the cupola operation, molten metal
may be tracked every 10 minutes depending on the melting
rate and the capacity.
All the oxygen in the air blast is consumed by the combustion,
Within the combustion zone.

The chemical reaction takes place which is,

C + O2 (from the air) →  CO2 + Heat

This is an exothermic reaction. The temperature in this zone
varies from 1550 to 1850 degree Celsius.

Then hot gases consisting principally of Nitrogen and carbon

dioxide moved upward from the combustion zone, where the
temperature is 1650 degree Celsius.

The portion of the coke bed if the combustion zone is

reducing zone. It is a protective zone to prevent the oxidation
of the metal charge above and while dropping through it. As
the hot carbon dioxide gas moves upward through the hot
coke, some of it is reduced by the following reaction.

3Fe + 2CO → Fe3C + CO2

This is an endothermic reaction.

The first layer of iron above the reducing zone is the melting
zone where the solid iron is converted into the molten state. A
significant portion of the carbon is picked up by the metal also
takes place in this zone.

The hot gas is passed upward from the reducing and melting
zones into the preheating zone which includes all layers of
charge above the melting zone up to the charging Door.
Since the layer of the charge is preheated by the outgoing
gases which exist at the top of the cylindrical shell. this
temperature is this zone is around 1090 degrees Celsius.