UNIT 1 TEACHING- L E A PROCESS:

I A REVISIT

Structure

1.1 Introduction
1.2 Objectives
1.3 Teaching - Learning Process
1.4 A Basic Teaching Model (Glaser's Model)
1.4.1 Instructional Objectives
1.4.2 Entry Behaviour
1.4.3 Instructional Procedures
1.4.4 Performance Assessment
1.4.5 Feedback Mechanism
1.5 System Approach to Teaching - Learning Process
1.6 Let Us Sum Up
1.7 Unit-end Exercises
1.8 Answers t o Check Your Progress
1.9 Suggested Readings

1 . INTRODUCTION

In this unit we shall review different approaches to learning and teaching. This
area is very vast and this unit is in no way a treatise on the subject. Important
concepts are presented in a very concise way to help you to understand their
classroom implication. This unit has three components, namely, review of
learning theories, basic teaching model (BTM) and system approach in
instruction. The basic components of BTM are discussed with reference to the
third component i.e. instructional procedures to be adopted for various types of
learning in schools.

1.2 OBJECTIVES

After studying this unit, you should be able to:

describe learning as a process and product,

discuss approaches to understand learning,
suggest ways and means to motivate learner,
discuss cordial principles of classroom teaching,
explain 'Basic Teaching Model',
state the concept and role of behavioural objectives,
explain the ways and means to ensure 'entry behaviour'
describe instructional strategies to different type of learning,
discuss the role of performance assessment in teaching learning process,
describe feedback mechanism,
list the common principles in classroom teaching,
Planning Instruction
describe a model of 'system' as a specific way of performance,
describe a model of system as IOPF (Input-Output-Process-Feedback),
describe steps in the application of system approach in organizing
classroom teaching.
- -

1.3 TEACHING - LEARNING PROCESS

You have studied in your pre-service teacher education programme that

teaching and learning are two interrelated concepts in the education system.
Learning is a concept which is viewed by psychologists in different ways.
Behaviourists view learning as a relatively permanent change in the behaviour
of a learner resulting from experiences (provided by an external agent or
acquired by the learner) which cannot be attributed to maturation, reflexes,
imprinting, tempurary states of organisms due to fatigue, habituation, drugs
etc. This is the way learning is understood as a product. But learning is a
process as well as a product. Learning as a process is formation of bond
between stimulus and response (Thorndike) or formation of conditioning
between stimulus and response (Classical conditioning) or reinforced by
emitted response (operant conditioning, Skinner). Learning can only be
inferred from performance or achievement or change in the response pattern
i.e. learning is an inferred state of the organism. Learning events consist of
stimuli, learners and responses. There are many learning types. External
conditions of learning are contiguity, practice, reinforcement, discrimination
and generalization.

Cognitivists would view learning process as reorganization of the relationship

between goal, organism and int~mening variables which results into
development of new insight or changed perception of the total structure leading
to change in response pattern or solution of a problem. It is that mental process
by which new and revealing combinations of data (or set of stimuli) are
perceived. This restructuring, leading to change in response would depend
upon the capacity, previous experiences, structure of situation and an urge to
seek solution by fumbling or search.

Teaching or classroom instruction is an activity which results in change in the

behaviour or response of the learner. Teaching has been defined by
philosophers, sociologists and psychologists in their o h way. But teaching
definitely aims at inducing change in the behaviour of learner irrespective of
the fact how it is defined. It is conceived as a purposefully organized set of
activities (it is a complex act including many simple acts like questioning,
explaining, demonstrating, managing, writing on board etc.) to induce,
facilitate, retain and direct learning. It has three stages, namely, preactive,
interactive and postactive where a teacher performs different set of acts. It is a
mediated behaviour i.e. there are two agents between which this can take place.
Its performance or effectiveness is not assessed in its own characteristics but in
terms of its goal i.e. learning among the learners. It uses many media rather
than one and different method;

Different approaches (behaviourists or cognitivist) of learning determine the

way teaching should be done. But there are consensus on certain principles
which are commonly accepted by almost majority of learning theorists.
 Motivation plays a very key role in teaching - learning process. Whether it is Teaching - Learning
intrinsic or extrinsic, it springs from a variety of needs for achievement. It is Process: A Revisit

I
arousing, maintaining and directing learner's interest in learning process.
Motivation is not one factor influencing the learning process but is always a
product of interaction of many interactive factors.

Delecco (1972) has classified motivational factors into three: Arousal,

Expectancy and Incentives. His model gives four motivational functions of the
teacher. The arousal function requires the teacher to engage learner in learning
process by developing an urge for the task. The expectancy would require the
teacher to describe concretely what the student would be doing at the end of
teaching. The incentive function would require teaching to reinforce or provide
feedback in such a way as to encourage future achievement. Finally, the
disciplinary function would require a teacher to use restitution and the ripple
effect in regulating behaviour.

Some of the motivational measures to be taken by teacher include novelty,

healthy competition, use of multi media approach, using appropriate
structuring of the subject matter, assessing learner's readiness or maturation for
the subject content, making the learning material meaningfbl, providing feed
back in terms of grades 1 marks, praise for progress etc., presenting subject
matter distributed instead of mass practice using integrated or wholistic
approach. All these lead to better motivation of the learner.

I Depending upon the above discussions, we can summarise some guiding

principles of learning and instruction.

Principle 1 - Make the learning meaningful.

Principle 2 - Make the learning a novelty experience.
Principle 3 - Make the learner capable of the learning task.
Principle 4 - Present the model performance in concrete terms.
Principle 5 - Make the presentation in such a structure so that the
message is open to the learner for inspection.
Principle 6 - Make the learner an active partner in the teaching - learning
process.
Principle 7 - Make the practice distributed over a period of time rather
than stretched in one lot.
Principle 8 - Make the learning confirmed by gradual withdrawal of
prompts.
Principle 9 - Make the learning pleasant and enjoyable.
Principle 10 - Provide feedback by assessing the performance and
informing progress.

I Principle 11

Principle 12
- Structure properly the subject ,matter and arrange in
psychological order.
- Use multimedia approach in presenting the learning material
from concrete to abstract and / or example to rule.
Planning Instruction Check Your Progress I

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.

b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.

.1. Define (Motivation'.

..........................................................................
I* ..........................................................................
2. Name two types of motivation.
..........................................................................
..........................................................................
3. Name any three ways to motivate a learner.
..........................................................................
---------*----------------------------------------------------------------

After discussing briefly the teaching-learning process, we now proceed /'to

discuss 'basic teaching model' which can be used in classroom.

1.4 A BASIC TEACHING MODEL (GLASER'S MODEL)

In order to explain teaching, different theories of teaching have been
advocated. As explained earlier, teaching is a complex concept. Understanding
theory of teaching has given us models of teaching. A model is a miniature
form or concretization of an abstract idea, showing the relationship among its
various components.
In many areas, models are prototypes of theories to understand better any
phenomenon. Models give way to support theories or explanation and support
theories. Joyce Bruce (1972) has made an excellent attempt to survey different
models of teaching in his famous book 'Models of Teaching'. Robert Glaser
(1962) has advocated one such teaching model, where he has divided the
teaching into four important components. His model with slight modification
now serves as a 'Basic Teaching Model' to all. He has divided the whole
teaching process into four parts. Figure 1.1 presents this model.

A' B C D
Instructional Entry Instructional Performance
Objectives Behaviour Procedures b Assessment

A A A A

Feedback Loops for Performance Assessments

Fig.l.1: Basic Teaching Model

 Teaching - Learning
There are four parts in this model. Box A represents instructional objectives. Process: A Revisit
Box B represents entry behaviour. Box C represents instructional procedures
and box D gives performance assessment. Dececco (1970) has preferred these
components as the basis of four parts in the book 'The Psychology and
Instruction'. These boxes are similar to answering the following questions:

"Where am I taking my students to? (Objectives)

"From where am I taking my students? (Prerequisite abilities)

"How will I take them? (Process and procedures)

"How will I know whether or not (Criterion testing)

I have achieved I arrived at?

Now, we shall proceed to discuss the four components of this model.

1.4.1 Instructional Objectives

Instructional objectives are often referred to represent teacher objectives and

learner objectives. These are clearly distinguished from institutional objectives.
Institutional objectives are very broad statements of goals and reflect
economic, political and social ideologies. They may serve as a general
framework for stating the narrower, more specific teacher and students
objectives. Teacher objectives are narrower in scope than the institutional
objectives. Their main purpose is to guide the teacher in the selection of the
subject matter, materials and activities when he I she organizes teaching.

Learner objectives refer to options and plans expressed and pursued by the
learners. For example, there may be course objectives but in organizing
classroom teaching it is the specific behavioural changes which can guide a
teacher to plan, execute and assess a teaching session.

One way of defining instructional objectives would be to identify the end

product of instruction in terms of observable performance i.e. what the learner
will do (action verb to be used) at the end of teaching session in order to
demonstrate that learners' objectives have been achieved. These learning
outcomes have been conventionally referred to as 'terminal performance'.
Behavioural objectives differ from non behavioural objectives in statements or
in the use of verbs. The verbs in the behavioural statements are like name,
distinguish, list, apply etc. whereas verbs in non behavioural statements would
be like understand, appreciate, grasp the meaning of, etc. The behavioural
statements usually would include verbs of responses which are overt,
demonstrable and measurable. For example:

(a) The students should know 'Renaissance' and 'Reformation'. (Non

behavioural)
(b) The students should be able to distinguish between 'Renaissance' and
I
Reformation. (Behavioural)
(c) The students have knowledge of 'Nouns'. (Non behavioural)
I
Planning Inskactian
I
I
(d) The students would be able to define 'Noun', or The students would be'
able to define 'Nouns'from a list of given words. (Behavioural)

The above f o u examples were presented to show you the different ways of
stating objectives,

Usefulness of ~ a v i o u r a lobjectives: There are clear cut advantages of

writing instructional objectives in behavioural terms. We prepare such
objectives for the following reasons:

Research shbws that there is a relationship between instructional

objectives and instruction of procedures to be followed. ifi in in^
instructional objectives in behavioural terms is tantamount to carrying out
task analysis in operational terms. This definition provides guidance I
direction in the planning of instruction. This planning allows the teacher tc
determine at the start, the terminal behaviour of a student and this in turn
would demarid instructional 'procedures.

The second purpose of writing instructional objectives in behavioural

terms is to provide direction for achievement test items. One has much
more difficulty in constructing test items which contain undefined verbs
like know, understand etc. than for those which contain verbs like apply,
define, differentiate etc. Therefore, statement of objectives in behavioural
terms an&consthction of criterion test items are interwoven.

The third reason for using behavioural objectives is to provide best help to
learners. The principles of learning say that the student is more likely to
learn if the presentation is structured so that the instructor's intent 1
messages can direct student's attention and efforts in a very, focused and
' specific dirctction. A study by Mager and McCann (1 961) had empirically
demonstrated that students derived maximum benefits from knowing at the
start the behavioural objectives they should attain in lesser time.

6 The hurth reason for using behavioural objectives is expectation of

' accountability and precision in the teaching task. Use of behavioural
objectives may be resisted by many because of this.

Tht - behaviourhl objectives were found very useful in Computer Assisted

InsWuction or Individualized Instruction. Researchers found such objectives
usehl in develdping i~istructionalmaterials which did not require a l i v ~teacher
except perhaps 'as a material administrator of activities.

The above argument need not stress that behavioural objectives are non
controversial. Ebel (1963) has emphasized that objectives need .not
overemphasize product only, rather it should also emphasize process as well.
Beside this, there are practical limitations in some subjects like arts and other
subjects where novel or creative responses are also desired. In complex subject
matters behavloural objectives will have a very long list. In some situations
certain behaviburs are unpredictable. The second argument being put forth by
tbe chits is that aesthetic impact of content and style is a qualitative
judgement thdt varies with individuals and at times cannot be predicted by
behavioural~objectives.We may make a behavioural judgement of a piece of
writing in terns of structure, logic, grammar, syntax etc. only.
 Teaching - Learning
Not all courses or topics are equallsr adaptable to behavioural objectives Process:.A Revisit
especially at all 1e.rels and all grades. Tylor (1966) suggested that all
behavioural objectives should ?eflect the concrete behaviour the students are
expected to acquire. Instructional objecbves should crkakly define meaningful
purpose for which teacher - learner shodld work to achieve.
L
I The specific ways of writing objectives would be discuksed in Unit 2 of this
I block.

Check .Your Progress 2

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.

1

b) Cornpate yohk answers with those gi;W at the end ;of the unit.

1. Staie t W e uses of instructional objectives in behavioural

terms.

..........................................................................
..........................................................................
/

..........................................................................
2. State benefits of applying behavioural objectives in the
teaching of your own subject (50 words);

..........................................................................
...........................................................................
..........................................................................
3. State limitation&of lieh&viiiuhlobjectives. .

................................... ......................................
i

..........................................................................
...........................................................................
4. Write the specific difference bet\;veeii behavioural and non
behavioural objectives.

..........................................................................
..........................................................................
..........................................................................
 Planning Instruction
1.4.2 Entry Behaviour I

Box B of the Basic Teaching Model (Figure 1.1) discussed earlier in this unit is
the entry behaviolor and is based on the principle that learning builds on -
learning the way success leads to success. A learning task is entirely dependent
on and related to other certain learning tasks which ark being presented to the
learner. The analogy can be drawn with that of developmental tasks and their
hierarchy where it is essential prior to a developmenth1 task being achieved by
an organism that a prior developmental task of the preceding stage must have
been achieved. Therefore, the primary &mphasis is on a description of entry
behaviour which can be utilized by the t acher and 'is essential specifically for
the successful execution of instruction.
F
Meaning of entry behaviour: When a student with a certain type of
behavioural pattern goes through the instructional system, helshe comes out
with a certain type of chAnged behvaiour pattern. This behaviour pattern of a
student at the time of entering the instructional process is called entry
behaviour. Thus, it is the present status of student's knowledge and skills from
where a teacher may start in order to take the students to reach the goal(s) i.e.
terminal behaviour. Entry behaviour is the standard terminology being used by
researchers to represent initial or starting level of performance ability of the
learner. A list of entry behaviour reveals two characteristics, the statements of
behaviours are very specific and explicit in measurable and observable terms;
and this as a whole is more comprehensive.
For example,
Entry behaviour:l The learner is able to calculate factors of x + bx + c as
(X-A) and (X-B).
Specific objectives: Given an equation of the form x2 + bx + c = 0 (where
x2 + bx + c can be factorized in the form (X-A) (X-B), the students will be
able to calculate values of x for which it is satisfied.
Terminal behavaiour: To solve an equation x2- 5x + 6 = 0
There are three types of entry behaviour necessary to induce and facilitate
learning. They are learning sets, learning abilities and learning styles. Learning
abilities are the prerequisite capabilities by which the individual acquires new
behaviour. Jensen (1960) opined on the basis of his findings that learner's
performance on any given learning task involves certain abilities and these
abilities differ in a number of ways and need not be related toaI.Q. only.
Learning abilities as conceived by Jensen are related to learning to learn.
Learning styles are personal ways in which individuals process information in
the course of learning new material. We can discuss two such types of learning
styles: conceptual tempos and selection strategies. Conceptual .tempos are
basically disposition of the 1earner.either to reflect upon hisher solution of a
problem, or to make impulsive and unconsidered responses. Children can be
identified with Wo tempos. The child with little or no delay, whereas the child
I

I
with the reflective or slow tempo considers different alternative solutions and
therefore, delays hisher responses. This implies that a teacher should adjust
hislher procedures and tempos to accommodate the two modes of learning and
should not develop any undesirable favour to one or the other kind of learners.
Learning sets can be defined as capacity of learner at any stage. Learning sets
are of two types: learning to learn and learning structure. Learning to learn is
the progressive improvement in performance of the learner as a result of Teaching - Learning
successive practices on similar task. In the process learner acquires capacity to Process: A Revisit
learn new tasks. Learning structures are hierarchies of learning tasks. Both
these concepts enable us to define entering behaviour as a prerequiste
condition for the instructional procedures to be'followed in Box (2 of the Basic
Teaching Model.

Decisions on entry behaviour: Once instrbctional objectives have been

explicitly stated, you have to take certain decigions regarding entry behaviour
and instructional strategies and evaluation procedures. You have to identify the
lowest stage of hierarchy of learning task to start with. You should ensure that
learner has more than enough entry behaviour to carry out hisher instructional
plans. If your student lacks the necessary entry behaviour, several alternatives
are available to you. First, the entry behaviour can be increased by review
exercises to recall learned materials. Second, more instruction can be provided
than originally planned. Finally, instructional objectives can be reviewed either
by choosing different instructional objectives or be lowering the standard or
including some of the deficiencies in entry ,behaviour or in any terminal
behaviour. In any case the results of the determination and the assessment of
entry behaviour must become an integral part of the instructional plans.

Check Your Progress 3

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space giien.below.

b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.

1. Name two important characteristics of entry behaviour.

............................................................................
............................................................................
2. Name three types of entry behaviour.

............................................................................
............................................................................

3. Which of the entry behaviour can be teacher controlled?

. .

............................................................................
.............................................................................
I

4. How should a teacher ensure entry behaviour ?

......................... ................................................
.?..

..............................................................................

5. Entry behaviour should be listed in

..............................................................................
(behavioural terms / non-behavioural-or in general terms).
Planning Instruction
1.4.3 Instructional Procedures

Box C in the Basic Teaching Model (Glaser 1962) describes the teaching
process or instructional strategies and actions to be taken by the teacher as
executor of teaching - learning process. Proper management of this component
would result into the behavioural chqges among the learners as envisaged in
sB0x.A. If teaching 9 be tholight of as an activity in three stages i.e. pre-
active, inter-active tp post-actiive, then it is the real inter-active stage. This
stage includes a se&&yJ)"Ta$oes. Some, of the operations at this stage
would be as follows: .. .

Presenting verbal stimuli

Asking questions
Explaining
Listenbig and diagposing students' resporrses
Responding
Reacting
Evaluating (formative)
Reinforcing or providing feed back

Instructional strategies and prociedures would much depend upon instructional

objectives and types of learning materials. There are various approaches to
understand-learning w k . One such approach is given by Gagne (1965) in the
form of classes of behavioyr S)r laming tasks or learning types. He has
, classified learnmg into e~ghttypes and called them 'the conditions of learning
(1970)'.

Now, we shall discuss briefly the, instructional procedures to be followed in

organizing various learning tasks.

Conditioning and verbal learning: Within the category of conditioning, we

have the following three basic types of learning. Let us revisit all the three
types of learning to refiesh our memory.

. Classical conditionink by Pavlov (1927) is the pairing of the unconditional

stimulus and conditioned stimulus with a particular response. The entry
behaviour here is the hqonditioned response (which in most of the cases is an
inborn respopse 61i like reflexes such as jerking of knee, blinking of
eye, saliva etc).. orig&ally events like food eliciting saliva is an unconditioned
stimulus (US). In such learning, process is pairing or presentation of two
stimuli concurrently to elicit a response. Here, the second stimulus i.e. partner
of unconditioned stimulus becomes conditioned stimulus and can elicit a
desired,response. The essential learning conditions are known as reflexes or
natural response elicitation as entry behaviour, and contiguity ind practice as
external learning conditions. The uncdnditioned stimulus (US), becomes a
reinforcer. In human learning, it is difficult to find pure examples of classical
conditioning. Signal learning (the lowest form in Gagne's e o n o m y ) is an
example of this. This model of learning;. applies in acquiring conditioned
response to a given signal. Word association and number association are some
of the applications of this classical conditioning.

Somewhat differently, Skinner has advanced popular operant conditioning

theory of learning. Operant is the emitted behaviour of the organism which
operates upon the environment. The behaviour being elicited (not emitted in
response to conditioned stimulus) in the previously discussed classical
conditioning is the respondent behaviour. Organism would either respond to a
conditioned stimulus or would emit a behaviour. The desirable response out of
several emitted responses when reinforced, is learned. The objective of operant
conditioning is to increase the probability or the frequency of the response by
providing reinArcement. The external learning conditions i n this model are
reinforcement, contiguity and practice.

Both of the above theoretical explanations of learning can be used to organize

instructional procedure related to signal learning, S-R learning and chaining of
S-R. Example of this S-R may be verbal skills like identifying the correct
definition, diagram, till a desired response is achieved. The model is extended
in chain where learning a complex task is divided into a series of acts
(responses) and the learner performs one stage which serves as a stimulus for
the next and so on. The direct implication of this approach would be to
organize instruction in a sequence, structuring the content in such a way that an
information is presented in suitable context to learner in order to get the
desired response which is to be reinforced (by providing feedback or correct
answer or remedial explanation for the wrong response). It can also be used by
the teacher for classroom management.

Verbal learning: Verbal learning is naming, attaching meaning to an object,

idea, feeling etc. It involves a chain of links. The first is presentation of the
stimulus, observing the stimulus, developing internal stimulus and then verbal
response by the learner. Verbal learning would be similar to slull learning if
the task relates to psychomotor domain instead of verbal stimulus - response
associations, immediate free recall, serial learning, relatively meaningful
learning material are the procedures to be adopted. Verbal learning takes place
through distinguishing different stimuli, naming stimuli, observing and
associating stimuli, forming verbal hierarchies etc.

The instructional procedures to be adopted for the above learning tasks would
be stating instructional objectives to the learner, making the learner understand
the meaningfulness of the task, assessing entry behaviour for meaningfulness
and mediating responses, giving exposure to the task in suitable steps,
providing appropriate practice to assess and provide immediate feedback to
progress, create environment which is least interfering with the learning
material and finally assess learning achievement.

Skill learning: Skill learning usually refers to motor slulls. This is a capability .., *
*
which is learnt and which requires' a series of sub-acts (motor responses) r . # -%
*
organized in a definite sequence to demonstrate a skill. Motor responses are ( . , .., 6

muscular movements which are coordinated in a proper sequence to ,. -

.
..
,. *L.
92 * ., 6
demonstrate the skill. There are three characteristics of a skill: 2 3' .
3 *-

-. i ~* ~
\ a,
.
?*

It represents a chain of motor responses.

It involves coordination of muscular parts.
a It requires coordination of chains into master task.
Planning Instruction
~ eust take an example of drawing a circle of 6 crns radius:

To start R1- Taking a paper

Rz- Taking a pencil
R3- Sharpening the pencil
Rs - Taking a proper ruler with marking of crns
RS- Fixing the pencil into the compass 1 divider
kj - Fixing the pointed tip of legs of the compass at 6 cm away
with the help of scale
R7- Fixing one leg (other than pencil tip) on a paper
Rs - After putting pressure on leg rotate the pencil to draw a
circle

There are three phases of slcllls learning, namely, cognitive, fixation and
autonomous. Instructional strategies would first present the cognitive aspect of
the learning i.e. intellectualizing the skill, which a learner must acquire first. It
includes mastery by the learner about the theoretical aspect of the procedures.
In the fixation phase the procedure is practiced by the learner. Finally, the
autonomous phase where speed and accuracy of performance in the skill is
increased and optimum level is achieved.

Organizing instruction for skill development should include the following

procedure: ,

The skill to be taught must be analysed in terms of sub-tasks and their

sequencing.
The entry behavi~urshould be assessed in terms of component skills and
psychomotor abilities.
Instruction must be provided first in component units, skills, abilities so
that learner can concentrate on coordination.
Describe and demonstrate the skill so that students acquire and plan for
execution.
To provide learner to master the skill either through distributed or massed
practice. Give chance for contiguity, practice and feedback.

Instructional procedures related to teaching of concepts: A concept is

defined as a class of objects having common characteristics (attributes) within
the class but one distinctive feature making this class unique or different from
other similar class of objects. Thus, concept may be considered as a class-of
stimuli. 'State' is a concept. Any piece of land having certain properties (as
required characteristics of state) can be called state only if 'it satisfies a
precondition. 'Island' is a concept, defined as any piece of land surrounded by
water (may be sea, river or lake). It may be a state or may not be so.

The distinctive feature of a concept is called attributes. Attributes may vary

from concept to concept. Triangle is a concept, which has one attribute i.e.
three straight lines, whereas isosceles triangle has two attributes i.e. three
straight lines of w h i ~ htwo lines and two angles are equal. Right angle
isosceles triangle has three attributes i.e. three straight lines of which two are
equal and their included angle is a right angle (90'). Higher attribute leads to
more specific concepts and make the concept more complex. Attributes of feaching - Learning
concepts combine in different ways to form three different types of concepts; Process: A Revisit
conjunctive concept, disjunctive concept and relational concept. Conjunctive
concept is one which has many attributes jointly present. Dog is a concept and
different from cat though no two dogs are identical but have many attributes of
colour, size, texture etc. A disjunctive concept is one that can be defined in a
different way. In such a concept attributes and values are substituted for each
other. Two figures and 1 or two circles form a disfinctive concept. The coneept
is disjunctive because the form is different. Disjunctive concepts are often
difficult to learn because of artificial similarity of attributes. Example is a
polygon and regular polygon. Learner must leam the rule to apply so that
inclusion of stimuli in one class exclude them from other classes. The
instructional procedure must highlight such attributes. Relational concept has a
specifiable relationship between attributes. "Distance" is a concept which
specifies a relationship between two specific points. Similarly, "Direction" is
also a relationship between two points but the relationship is different.
Similarly "Speed" is a relational concept.

Now, we shall very briefly discuss orgdnization of the teaching of concepts.

DeCecco (1988) has sumrharized teaching of concepts in the following steps:

Describe the terminal behaviour.

Identify the attributes to be learned.
Identify the most dominant attributes of the concept.
Provide the learner with useful verbal mediators.
Provide positive and negative examples of the concept (examples
.
containing the attributes and non-examples not containing the attribute
which make a clear cut distinction).
Present the examples and non - examples in close succession.
Provide situation for student to respond and reinforce the same.
Assess the leaming of the concept.

Instructional procedures related to teaching of principles: A principle is a

statement of the relationship between two or more concepts. Principles are also
sometimes called rules or generalizations (Gagne 1966). Concept development
is an integral part of intellectual development of learner and leaming of
principles is a step forward towards abstraction. Usually, a principle is stated in
"if - then" statement. ~xample:A leamer pronounces the following words:

Mad, Fad, Fat

Made, Fade, Pale

Vowel 'a' has a long sound when followed by consonant in a word ending with
'e'. This is a rule to be followed in pronouncing such words. The leamer can
discriminate in the way of pronouncing words 'Mad' and 'Made'.

A principle states a relationship between classes of events which enable us to

predict consequences, explain the cause of events, infer causes, control
situations and solve problem.
Planning Instruction
DeCecco has listed the following steps for the teaching of principles:

Describe the expected performance of the learning in learning principle.

Describe the prerequisite concepts or principles essential for learning the
principle.
Assist the learner to.idehtify the components of principles.
Assist the learner to arrange the proper sequence of the concepts in the
principle or principles.
Provide for sufficient practice of the principle.
. Reinforce each sub-step.
Assess the learner's mastery of the principle.

Instructional procedures for problem solving: Problem solving capacity is

the host complex kind of human learning requiring higher order intellectual
development. Problem solving is an extension of applied principle learning in
which lower-order principles are applied in the learning of higher - order
principles. Problem solving is an extension of principle learning where simple
rules are the bases of complex combinations which are used to solve
problem(s). The capability to solve problem is a major aim of educational
process in general and instructional procedures in particular. For example,

. Addition of 3x and 5x
Addition of 3x2 and 5x2
Addition of 3x and 7x

This rule is that monomials in x with the same exponents, on addition will give
a nominal with the same exponent with coefficient equal to the algebraic sum
of the coefficient of given monomials.

~ d 3dx + 5x2+ 1
And 2 + 7x + 2x2

When this problem is presented to the learner, the learner has to think of a
solution to this problem. The essential condition that makes this sort of
learning a problem-solving event is the absence of any instruction / guidance
from the teacher. Wittrock (1963) developed a useful scheme for classifying
the amounts of instructional guidance the teacher may provide in problem
solution:

. You give the principle and a solution to the problem (expository teaching).
In the above problem to add expressions 3x + 5x2+ l .and 2 + 7x + 2x2 ,you
may recall the principle that terms with the same components can be added
to gtve a single term. So terms with same components are to be added by
rearrangtng the two expressions and so on.
You give the principle which-canbe applied but not the complete solution.
You may neither g v e the applicable principle nor give the solution to the
problem.
The following steps are recommended for organizing instruction for problem Teaching - Learning
Process: A Revisit
solving:
Step I:' Describe terminal behaviour of the learner (It is the desired solution
to the problem).
Step 11: Assess learner's requisite knowledge of the relevant principles and
concepts.
Step 111: Invoke the recall of all relevant concepts and principles (including
use of advance organizers).
Step IV: .Provide verbal direction to learner to follow the steps short of giving
them solution to the problem directly (Guided learning).
Step V: Verification of acquired ability to solve through demonstration by
solving problems of the same class.
We have discussed very briefly the third component BTB (Basic Teaching
Model) which is in no way complete in itself. There are many more areas like
organizing instruction for discovery, creativity etc.

Check Your Progress 4

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.

1. List five activities in class-room teaching.

.........................................................................
.........................................................................

2. List five types of learning.

.........................................................................
.........................................................................

3. State the basic difference between skill learning and concept

learning.
.........................................................................
i
-----.----------*--------------------------------------------------------
4. Differentiate between 'concept learning' and 'principle
learning'.
.........................................................................
.........................................................................

5. Differentiae between 'principle learning' and 'problem

solving'.
.........................................................................
.........................................................................

6. Write instructional strategies for any concept to be taught in

your class. (Select an example from your teaching subject).
.........................................................................
.........................................................................
Planning Instruction
1.4.4. .Performance Assessment

The fourth component of BTM is the performance assessment (Glaser, 1962).

It is the extent to which learning objectives are being achieved by the learner
(formative evaluation during the instruction) or have been achieved at the end
of instructional session or term (summative evaluation to assess terminal
behaviour). The emphasis on performance assessment during instructional
session, at the end of a lesson, or at the end of a unit or term means that it is a
continuous process to assess the instructional activities and should not occur
only at the end of a specified period. You can use improved teacher made tests
or available standardized tests either criterion - referenced or norm -
referenced test. The details of procedures to be followed would be discussed in
another course of evaluation. The results of performance assessment would be
used for the purpose of 'feed-back' to instructional objectives, entry behaviour
or instructional procedures. Such feedback from this performance assessment
would show us, how well the learner has achleved the instructional objectives,
the adequacy of hislher entry behaviour and effectiveness of instructional
procedures.

1.4.5 Feedback Mechanism

One of the essential conditions for learning is the feedback. Feedback is

usually preferred to reinforcement. Whereas reinforcement stresses the hedonic
or reward effects of the learning, feedback emphasizes the informational aspect
of learning information regarding progress or knowledge of results. Therefore,
feedback is defined, as information made available to learner which would
make possible the comparison of hisher actual performance with some
prefixed desirable performance. There can be two types of feedback: intrinsic
and extrinisic. Information obtained from the internal receptor organs or own
actions is intrinsic feedback. Information received through the external sensory
organs or external agencies is extrinsic motivation. Feedback has directive and
conducive effect in any learning. Many a time, it also acts as a form of prompts
(advance information or advance organizers). Feedback develops a sense of
achievement or confidence to achieve.
Feedback in any form is accepted for all learning theorists. Teacher provides
feedback by way of hisher verbal (good, fine, yes, o.k., well done etc.) or
nonverbal (smiling, nodding, patting) behaviour.

Some suggested tips for constructive feedback:

Goals can be used as a feedback. Acceptance and clarity of goals promote
learning.
Criticism is better than total ignoring the response by the teacher. Remarks
of the teacher play a very significant role in promoting learning.
Praise is the most readily available technique.
Teacher - pupil conference has been found to be very effective for the
upper - grade students.
Work books tend to keep theatudent informed of hisher progress.
Charts of progress can be used subject wise.
Competitions with unequal capability group should be avoided.
 Teaching - Learning
1.5 SYSTEM APPROACH IN TEACHING - LEARNING Process: A Revisit
PROCESS

A system approach in the Teaching - Learning process has its origin in many
disciplines. It has appeared in the field of education as managing activities in
education or instruction. After World - War 11, from technology to military
sciences to industry to business management it has got recognition in the field
of education. It is a definite way of planning, organizing, managing, achieving
and evaluating the instruction. The dictionary meaning of the term 'System' is
an assemble or co6rdinated combination of things 1 parts / operations /
functions forming a complex or unitary whole functionally. There are many
known natural systems: solar system, respiratory system, digestive system etc.
As you know, a digestive system has many organs and functions but all these
are functionally integrated to perform a task i.e. digesting food to release
energy to body. Again, there can be different sub-units within a system and a
system itself can be sub-unit of another larger system. For example, our
digestive system has many independent units like mbuth, stomach, intestines
etc. which hnction differently but independently i d contribute to the holistic
function i.e. digestion. in turn, this digestive system is a part of human body
functioning. Therefore, there can be a system, sub-system and supra system. In
this case, human body functioning is a supra system, digestive system is a
system and mouth is a sub-system. Analogy can be derived and we can say that
education, school and class-room teaching is supra-system, system and sub-
system respectively. A system is in itself a complete b c t i o n a l unit and must
satisfl the following characteristics:

A system has many components which are functionally interrelated and

interdependent.
' Each component has different but specific function contributing to the

eflicient functioning of the unit. The components have integrative rather

than additive functbns.
A system performs a function which is done by unified and holistic actions.

Model of system: A specific way of working is learned as system approach to

any field. It is the systematic thinking, planning, making use of all theory and
research to acco'mplish certain goals. A simple system approach model can be
diagrammatically represented as shown in Figure 1.2.
\

Input + Process b Output

Feedback Loop

Fig.l.2: Input - Output Feedback Based Model of a System

In classroom teaching this model is applicable. Glaser's basic model can also
be seen system if continuous monitoring of instructional objectives i s
carried out, entry behaviour planned input in the form of learning materials and
Planning Instruction
process in the form of learning strategies by integrating man, media, material,
methods, assessment ariteria for achievement and continuously monitoring
through feedback to help improve, revise and evaluate each component of the
teaching leaming process or system). Glaser's model can also show an input-
process-output-feed back model.
System approach in teaching - learning process: System approach provides
a scientific framework for carrying out any educational activity, may it be
classroom instruction or national education. We shall limit the use of this
approach specifically to classroom instruction. In the teaching - learning
process, the system process takes into consideration all available learning
resources, content, leaming experiences, methods and media to achieve the
given set of learning objectives. It would be specifically performance oriented
approach. The teaching - learning process would go through the following
way:

Specify goal alternatives

t t
Specify current state
of system

Compare planned and

actual performance

Fig.l.3: Specimen of System

Now, we would discuss the way we proceed to execute system approach in the
class room in the following steps:
Step 1: Specifying the outputs; (Learning objectives)
Step 2: Preparing of evaluation procedures; (Development of criterion test
etc.)
Step 3: Identifying input specification . (Details of entry behaviour)
Step 4: Designing process alternatives (Examining strategies, resources .
etc.)
Step 5: Selecting of best alternatives (Decision regarding method,
media & materials to be used)
Step 6: Executing of the plan (Instruction)
Step 7: Evaluation (Performance assessment)
Step 8: Comparing performance (Feed back) t 9

Revision and Reinforcement

 Teaching - Learning
Comparing system approach with Glaser's basic teaching model, it can be Process:' A Revisit
observed that much emphasis is given in the detailed analysis of each step to
make learning most effective.

Check Your Progress 5

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.

b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.

1. List the steps in a system approach in class-room teaching.

...........................................................................
...........................................................................

2. Is system approach behaviouristic or cognitivistic in nature?

...........................................................................
...........................................................................

3. Describe the role of criterion test in system approach in

teaching - learning process.

...........................................................................
...........................................................................

4. Describe the role of monitoring or progress in learning among

learners in system approach.

...........................................................................
...........................................................................

5. State criteria for the selection of a particular instructional

procedure.

------------------------------------------------&-------------------------

...........................................................................

1.6 LET US SUM UP

In this unit we have made an attempt to revise our understanding of teaching -

learning process which is being practised by you. The basic steps have been
discussed with the help of BTM.

In the second part, basics of 'system approach' have been discussed as a way
of conducting any activity, may it be instruction or planning at state level. It is
result oriented accountability based design and can be used in day-to-day
instruction.
Planning Instruction
1.7 UNIT-END EXERCISES

1. Write the details of your inStructiona1 plan based on 'System Approach'.

2. Write instructional objectives in different ways and compare the same.

1.8 ' ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Answers to Check Your Progress 1

1. Motivation is arousal, maintenance and directing learner's interest in the

learning task.
2. There can be intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.
3. (i) Bringing some novelty.
(ii) Realizing the importance or need of the topic
(iii)Using multi-media approach.
(you can refer to the text)
4. There are twelve guiding principles explained in subseciion 1.3. Any five
can be mentioned.

Answers to Check Your Progress 2

1. Any of the following three:

(i) Provide specific goals to be attained.

(ii) Provide directions.
(iii) Provide help to learner.
(iv) Define specific criterion.
(v) Define accountability.
(vi) Define precision in measurement.

Consult the text (subsection 1.4.1)

3. (i) Novel or creative responses cannot be assessed.

(ii) Divergence in responses can not be assessed.
(iii) Not all courses are adaptable to these.

4. A behavioural obJective is different from a non-behavioural objective that

it is observable, measurable and demonstrable whereas the other is not so.

Answers to Check Your Progress 3

1. (i) Statements are specific, explicit.
(ii) Statements are comprehensive.

2. (i) Learning sets

(ii) Learhing ability
(iii) Learning styles.

3. Learning abilities.
4. Entry behaviour test.
5. Behavioural terms.
Answers to Check Your Progress 4 ~ A a c h i n-~Learning
Process: A Revisit
1. (i) Explaining
(ii) Asking question
(iii) Presenting verbal stimuli
(iv) Diagnosis of learner's response
(v) Providing feed back (refer to text)

2. (i) Signal learning

(ii) Verbal learning
(iii) Chain learning
(iv) Discriminating learning
(v) Rule learning
(vi) Concept learning
(vii) Principle learning etc. (see the text)

3. Consult the text (subsection 1.4.3.)

4. Consult the text (subsection 1.4.3.)
5. Consult the text (subsection 1.4.3.)
6. To be discussed in counselling sessions.

Answers to Check Your Progress 5

1. See the text

2. Behaviourists
3. Criterion tests are to assess success or failure of the system
4. To provide continuous feed back.
To help in diagnosing and taking remedial measure to improve teaching
learning.
,5. To be discussed in counselling sessions.

1.9 SUGGESTED READINGS

1. Bernard, H.C., (1965): Psychology of Learning and Teaching. McGraw

Hill Book Company, New York.
2. ~ r i ~ gL.J.,
s , (1967): Handbook of Procedures for the Design of Instruction.
American Institute of Research, Pittsburgh.
3. Bigge, Merns. L., (1964): Learning Theories for Theories. Universal Book
Stall, New Delhi.
4. DeCecco, John P., (1970): The Psychology of Learning and Instruction
Technology. Prentice Hall of India Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi.
5. Gage, N.L., (1963): Handbook of Research on Teaching. Rand Mc Nally &
Co. Chicago.
6. Gage, Robert M. and Brrigs, L.J. (1978): Principles of Instructional
Design. (2ndEd.) Holt, Rinehart, Winston, New York.
7. Joyce, Bruce and Weil, Marsha (1997): Models of Teaching. Prentice Hall
of India Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi.