REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES

DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
REGION 10
OPOL NATIONAL SECONDARY TECHNICAL
SCHOOL
TABOC, OPOL, MISAMIS ORIENTAL

COMPETENCY–BASED LEARNING MATERIAL

AGRICULTURAL CROP PRODUCTION NC II
MODULE 2: PLANT CROPS

REMEDIOS B. CASTILLO
Master Teacher I
 PLANT CROPS

Topic 1 – Prepare land for planting

1.1 Prepare tools and equipment for planting.
1.2 Clears the land according to prescribed methods of land preparation.
1.3 Removes and disposed farm wastes according to waste management
standard
1.4 Collects soil samples for analysis based on standard procedure.
1.5 Conducts land preparation according to crop requirement
1.6 Applies basal fertilizer based on crop requirement.
1.7 Follows safety procedures for fertilizer application according to OSHS.

Topic 2 – Conducts field lay-out

2.1 Prepares tools and materials for field lay-out.
2.2 Interprets field lay-out plan according to recommended planting system.
2.3 Lay-outs the field according to recommended planting system.

Topic 3 – Dig Holes

3.1 Perform digging of holes based on crop requirements
3.2 Separate top soil to be used in covering the hole after planting
3.3 Performs basal fertilizer application based on recommended amount .

Topic 4 – performs direct seeding

4.1 Plant the seeds according to recommended rate , distance and depth
4.2 Replants according to recommended practices for a particular crop
4.3 Follow safety procedures according to OSHS and GAP

Topic 5 – Transplant seedlings

5.1 Performs proper handling of seedlings from the nursery
5.2 Transplants the seedlings based on crop practices
5.3 Does re-bagging for a particular crop requirement
5.4 Does replanting on time based on recommended practices for a particular
Crop.
5.5 Follow safety procedure according to OSHS and GAP

1
ACTIVITIES:
1. Prepare the tools and equipment for land preparation
2. Collect soil samples and conduct soil analysis using the soil test kit
3. For annual crop (vegetable)
a. Given a 1x3 square meter area, prepare a plot ready for planting.
b. Apply appropriate basal fertilizer/compost
c. Measure the recommended distance of planting.
d. Sow the seeds/transplant the seedlings
4. For perennial crops ( fruit trees)
a. Given an area of 100 sq. m. lay-out the field using square method of planting using
2x2m distance of planting and determine the number of plants required
b. Dig holes, apply basal fertilizer and transplant the seedlings following the
recommended practices.

Basic tools and equipment for land preparation

 DISC PLOW

DISC HARROW
Native Plow
 SOIL SAMPLING
Cores composited as one soil sample. While this methods less systematic and precise
than grid sampling, reliable results can be obtained if sample points and/or walk
patterns are consistent between sampling events (utilizing row counts, distance
measuring devices, or GPS).

SOIL SAMPLING
agrienergy.net/docs/lab-information/soil-sampling.pdf

The Importance of Sampling Soil

A soil test is essential to determine soil fertility levels and make good nutrient management decisions.
Appropriate nutrient application can increase yields, reduce production costs, and prevent surface and
groundwater pollution.

Soil Sampling Process

Careful soil sampling and sample handling is essential for accurate fertility recommendations. Samples
must accurately reflect the fertility of the soil so that analysis, interpretations, and recommendations
correctly represent the nutrient status of the entire field. Accurate evaluation can result in more
efficient fertilizer use, reduced costs, and reduced environmental degradation.

Obtain an Accurate Sample

Take at least 15-20 representative soil cores to a minimum depth of 24 inches. Separate each of the
cores into two portions (0-6 and 6-24 inches) and place each into a separate pail. Separate plastic pails
should be used to mix Soil Profile the surface and subsurface samples. Mix, dry, and bag each portion
separately. Montana State University fertilizer guidelines for nitrate-nitrogen are based on soil analysis
to two feet. In cases where a field is higher variable or vulnerable to leaching, collecting additional
samples to a depth of 24 to 48 inches is recommended

1. Take a full 24-inch soil core sample in many field locations

2. Place the two portions of the core in separate plastic buckets
3. Bag the dry surface and subsurface samples

Drying samples
Moist soil samples must be air dried as soon as possible before being bagged and sent to a soil
testing lab. Drying is best accomplished by spreading each sample on paper to air dry at room
temperature. Do not oven dry the samples. Samples may also be bagged and frozen for shipping
Sample Identification
Along with each soil sample, sampling information sheets should be filled out that describe the location,
past cropping and management history, and proposed crops along with a list of tests requested.

SOIL AUGER
Sampling Tools
A stainless steel soil sampling probe is the most commonly used tool for collecting soil samples under
normal conditions. The soil probe provides a continuous soil core with minimal disturbance to the soil
that can be readily divided into various sampling depths. Vehicle-mounted hydraulic probes are
available and are a better choice under adverse soil sampling conditions. Other tools include one or two
plastic sample buckets, shovel or spade, sample bags, and markers for identifying samples on sample
bags. Tools should be clean, free of rust, and stored away from fertilizer materials. DO NOT USE
galvanized or brass equipment of any kind as it will contaminate the samples with micronutrients.

THINGS TO DO AFTER COLLECTING SOIL SAMPLES FOR ANALYSIS

1. AIR- DRYING
2. PULVERIZING
3. SIEVING
4. PACKAGING
5. LABELLING

PLANTING SYSTEMS

Planting Fruit Crops: System # 1. Square System:

(a) This is simplest system of fruit planting.
(b) The plot is divided into square. A tree is planted at each corner of
square

(c) In this system, interculhiral operations can be done in both the

direction as trees are at equal distance (row’ tree).

(d) This system of planting also facilitates for taking intercrops

Planting Fruit Crops: System # 2. Rectangular System

a) In this system of planting, plot is divided into rectangle.

(b) The trees are planted at 4 corners of the rectangle in straight rows
running at right angles

(c) Rectangle system allows plants for planting in row with keeping
more space

Planting Fruit Crops: System # 3. Triangle System:

a) In this system of planting, a tree is planted on a corner of each
angle.

(b) This has not much advantage over square system except it provides
more open space to tree but intercultural operations are not easy to
carry

Planting Fruit Crops: System # 4. Hexagonal System

a) In this system of planting, a tree is planted at each corner of an
equilateral triangle.

(b) In this way, six trees form a hexagon with seventh tree in the
centre.

(c) The system is preferred where land is costly and very fertile with
assured irrigation.

(d) 15% more trees can be planted in hexagonal system than square
system.
Planting Fruit Crops: System # 5. Quincunx System
a) It is modified form of square system.

(b) In this system, one tree is planted in the centre of the square of
permanent trees. This tree is short lived & known as ‘filler’ trees like
banana, papaya, pomegranate, fig etc.

ADVERTISEMENTS:

(c) The filler trees are removed when main trees developed full canopy
of start bearing.

(d) This is economic to plant filler trees as they provide additional

income to cultivators in the earlier years of the orchards

1. Land clearing and Soil preparation –

2. These farmers practice zero tillage, a necessary requisite of no till
farming in which crops are grown without cultivating the soil. In
conventional farming the land is prepared by plowing and harrowing using
animal- or tractor-drawn implements, but in this farming community the
practice has drastically waned and is getting close to becoming extinct in
favor of no-till farming
3.
a. Weed slashing –
b. The area to be planted with corn is first slashed either partially or entirely.
Tools which are deemed essential to this land clearing operation are the
bolo with thin blade curved towards the tip (we call this bolo lagaraw) and
an arm’s-length segment of a tree stem with a short stub of a branch at the
tip and with thickness just enough to be grasped by one hand (a sort of
single-pronged wooden rake which we call kaw-it). Slashing always starts
from below and proceeds upward
 With the kaw-it held by one hand (the left hand if right-handed), a tuft of
weeds is moved sideways to expose the bases while the slasher-bolo is
held by the other hand to cut the weeds as close as possible to the ground.
Immediately, the cut weeds are moved farther to the left with more
sideward movement of the kaw-it and the process is repeated.

In one occasion,  four skilled slashers cleared a hectare of a sloping

cogonal land in two days, equivalent to a labor cost of 8 man-days

In one But where the cogon grasses are mature with dry leaves and there is an
intention to contain the fire, the usual practice is to slash only the peripheries
wide enough to serve as firebreak. Streams and creeks which are devoid of
combustible materials serve as natural firebreaks. If there are standing crops, like
coconut with low-lying fronds, the immediate sorrounding of each crop is likewise
slashed.

 Raking
 Immediately after slashing or just before planting of corn, the firebreaks are
cleared of cut weeds and other combustible materials. This can be done with the
use of the common rake but the farmers rather use indigenous materials such as
the kaw-it and  bamboo culms with one or two short stubs of branches at the tip
(like an improvised fork)
Likewise, cut weeds are moved away from the bases of coconut or other
standing crops to prevent injury to the plants during burning. 
 Burning
This is done during dry, sunny days. Burning, despite various raised concerns, is
a conveneient, fast, and inexpensive practice that marginal farmers are used to
in land clearing. It is usually commenced starting from low elevation at a time of
the day when there is wind. As the burning progresses, the farmer is always alert
to contain the fire to prevent damage to standing crops and to prevent the fire
creeping outside of the intended area to be burned.

Spraying herbicide
A day after burning, the area may be planted to corn. However, if the same area
had thick growth of cogon and has not been cultivated before, the farmer applies
herbicide to further reduce root mass and ensuing growth of weeds. A week or
two are commonly allowed to pass until the grass weeds have regrown and then
herbicide is sprayed.
Adopting the above into an approximately one-hectare portion of our farm, land
preparation was completed in two weeks. The activities included blanket
slashing, raking, burning, and herbicide spraying. Labor requirement was as
follows: slashing- 8 man-days (MD), raking- 2 MD, burning- 1 MD, and herbicide
spray- 1 MD for a total of 12 MD
Activities in land preparation
1. 1. Clearing
2. 2. Plowing
 3. 3. Harrowing/levelling
4. 4. Furrowing/lay-outing
5. 5. Digging of holes

Plowing (sometimes spelled "ploughing") is the process of turning over and loosening the
top layer of soil. This makes it easier for seedling crops to take root and has the added benefit
of removing crop residue and weeds. There are many different ways to plow. Depending on the
equipment you have and the size of your field, you may need to use anything from a tractor-
pulled plowing rig to a simple spade and rake

Preparing to Plow

1
Schedule your plowing just before planting. The purpose of plowing is to get the
field ready for crops to be planted. For this reason, the best time to plow is generally
right before you plan to plant your crops. Generally, this means the beginning of the
growing season, which can vary based on your location.
 Technically, you can plow any time after the previous year's harvest and before
the spring planting period. However, leaving too much time between plowing and
planting can lead to soil erosion.[1]
 A good guide showing the approximate start of various growing seasons in the
continental U.S. is available here

2
Check your equipment. This is important if using a tractor or other mechanized
plowing machine. Make sure all parts are in good working order following winter
storage. Top off any fluids or lubricants and make sure the tires have adequate
pressure.
 If plowing by hand or using animal plowing, make sure the blades are straight
and that whoever/whatever is pulling the plow is healthy and strong

3
Clear the field of obstructions. Take a walk through the field, looking for any
obstacles (like rocks, pieces of wood, and loose foliage) that can be removed. Try to get
the field as level as possible by filling in small holes or smoothing out raised patches.
Take note of any obstacles that you cannot remove (like trees, boulders, etc.).
 Before plowing, the field should be mowed so that any vegetation is short and
low to the ground. Too much vegetation can clog mechanical plows and make the work
harder for manual plowing methods

4
Plan out the plow route. To make the best use of your time and effort, plan a route
that's as efficient as possible. Know where you will need to stop and turn the plow.
You'll also want to make sure you know where the edges of your field are so you don't
plow into another person's field or into a field already plowed and planted. Finally, plan
to plow around any obstacles that can't be removed.
 For rectangular fields, the most efficient path is generally to plow in the direction
of the long sides of the field, turning around when you reach either end. This minimizes
the number of times you will need to turn around.
 Note, however, that if you are using animals, you should use the opposite
approach for fields more than 150 meters long. [2] In other words, plow in the direction of
the short sides of the field. This prevents fatigue by giving the animals many chances to
rest.
 For non-rectangular fields, you can plow efficiently by following the contours of
the field and working your way towards the center

Plowing by Hand

1
Use a spade to turn the soil up in rows. Starting in the corner of your plot or garden,
plunge your spade a few inches into the ground. Turn the dirt oil, keeping most of the
topsoil on top (the topsoil will be richer, softer, and darker than the soil underneath it).
Repeat this process, proceeding down the edge of your plot, then doubling back when
you reach the end. Leave turned-over rows (or furrows) a foot or two apart from each
other.
 2 Rake the ground. Once you've tilled your plot into rows, go back over your work
with a rake. Use the rake to break up large soil clods, loosening the soil so that it can
accept seeds. You'll want this loose, broken-up soil to extend about two inches deep.

 For most crops, aim to break the soil into clumps smaller than the size of a dime

3
Leave furrows for good drainage. As you rake the soil, take care not to flatten your plot with
your footsteps. A flat field will retain too much water in the event of rain, which can lead to crop
failures. Try to preserve the highs and lows of your furrows so that excess water is directed to
the edges of the field

Plowing with a Machine Tiller

1 Pick an appropriate tiller for the job. Most modern tillers come in one of two varieties:
"front-line" (driven by the front wheels) and "rear-line" (driven by the rear wheels). Both will work
for gardens and small fields, but if you have the choice, pick the type that's most appropriate.
See below

 Front-line tillers are typically easier to use and better for smaller gardening situations.
They handle like a power lawnmower and, with a little care, can be used in tight spaces
without damaging plants or property on either side
 Rear-line tillers are a little harder to use but are better for bigger plowing jobs. They are
bulkier and don't allow for as precise of turns, so they should be used away from plants
and property you want to protect

2. Pick an appropriate tilling depth and speed. Almost all mechanical tillers allow
you to adjust these settings with controls on the unit. As a general rule, harder,
compacted soils require slower, shallower plowing. Tilling too deep or too fast in this soil
can overwork the motor. For established beds, you can use deeper, faster tilling
 3.Till in straight rows. Position the tiller in the corner of your field where you plan on
starting. Start the tiller with the starting mechanism. This can vary from unit to unit but is
often similar to the type of mechanism you might expect on a lawn mower. Use the
tiller's controls to slowly work your way down the plot in a straight line, turning around
and doubling back at the end

Some tillers have a safety switch that prevents starting. If you can't get the tiller started,
check for one of these

4 Re-till if needed to break down the soil. Be prepared to go over your work a
second time with the tiller. Any clods of dirt should be broken into roughly dime-sized
pieces or smaller. When you're finished, your plot should be tilled into a series of loose
furrows so that water can drain to the edges

Plowing with an Animal Plow

1 Pick a draft animal that is broken to the plow. Several different animals are suitable for
plowing. Among the most common are mules, horses, and oxen. Whichever animal you use
should be broken to the plow — that is, it should be calm, comfortable and obedient with this
sort of work. Working with an unbroken animal can be dangerous. Losing control while plowing
can lead to injury for you or the animal

2 Harness your animal to the plow. The exact sort of harnessing necessary will
vary by animal and by plow. Get an expert to help you if you are unsure how to proceed
— harnessing the animal incorrectly can hurt it. Below are general instructions: [5]

 Catch the animal and bridle it. Place the metal bit in its mouth and secure the
leather straps on either side.
 Harness the collar around the animal's neck. Connect the collar to the harness
draped over the animal's back. Fasten the harness to the collar.
 Attach the trace chains from the harries, through the loops in the back band and
belly band, and to the plow's singletree.
 Don't forget the belly band if you're using a horse — because of the way horses'
shoulders are constructed, the animal can be choked by the weight of the plow if the
harness slips without this safety measure

3 Start plowing in straight rows. Lead the animal to the corner of the field to be
plowed. Have the animal walk forward as you plunge the blade of the plow into the
 ground to break up the earth. Walk between the handles behind the animal, controlling
its speed so that it moves at a manageable pace. Use the plow's handles to control the
angle and depth of the blade. Have the animal turn around when it reaches either end of
the field and double back.

 As noted above, for extra-long fields, it's best to plow in the direction of the short
sides to give your animal more breaks

4 If you can, switch out plow blades to get good furrows. There are a few different ways
to get straight, properly-spaced furrows when you're working with an animal plow. Here is one
versatile method that uses a type of plow called a "turning plow" as well as a different variety
called a Georgia stock plow

 First, use the turning plow to make two furrows with about 12 inches of unplowed
space in between.
 Next, plow about 4 inches inside the balk (the unplowed space). Do the same on
the other side so you are left with about 4 inches of unplowed space in the middle.
 When your whole field is tilled this way, switch to a Georgia stock plow with a 20-
inch sweep. Plow right through the middle of the balk. You will be left with neat, orderly
trenches you can drop your seeds into
 Plowing with a Tractor

1
Level the plowing rig. For best results, the plow pulled by the tractor must be level
from side to side and from front to back. The more plow blades on the rig, the more
important levelness is.

 To level the plow, take it to a concrete pad in your driveway or some other place
that is perfectly flat. One of the two lower bars will be made for angling the plow from
side to side. There are normally levers for the two hydraulic arms. The first lifts both
arms up and down. The second is for the plow draft, or side-to-side angle. Adjust this
lever until the plow is flat from one side to the other on the concrete (you can lay a
carpenter's level on it to check).
 If there isn't a plow draft lever, there should at least be a manual crank on the
one arm that you can turn to adjust the angle.
 Next, adjust the third upper arm so that the plow is level front to back. It may
need further adjusting when you start plowing, as the plow should be level when it is
sunk into the dirt and plowing

2 Set the depth for your plow. When you're using a mechanical rig, you can use
hydraulic controls to change the depth of the plows as you work. You want the plow
 blades deep enough that they turn over the top layer of soil. However, the plow
shouldn't be so deep that it is causes the tractor to labor hard. The exact way to adjust
the plow's depth will vary from rig to rig.

 There is normally a depth stop on the up and down lever for the plow's hydraulic
arms. Set it so your plow stops at the proper depth each time you get to the end of your
row and need to turn around and drop the plow again.
 If the tractor starts pulling to hard raise the plow up a little then let it back down
while keeping going. If the ground is when and you start spinning your wheels, pull the
plow up fast

3 Plow in even rows. Position your tractor with the plowing rig hitched behind it in the
corner of your field. Start plowing your field in rows, using the hydraulic controls to lower
the plows into the dirt. When you reach the end of a row, raise the plows out of the
ground as you turn, then lower them again for the next row.

 When using a tractor, you want to space out your furrows carefully because
these will be the low, wet spots in the field. After you plow each row, there will be a rut
at the one side of where you just plowed. When you turn around, your tractor's tractor
should go into this rut. The next swipe should plow the dirt from the next row over into
that rut, covering it up
 4
Plow your end rows perpendicular to the rest. When you're using a tractor to plow a
large field, you need to worry about soil erosion. One way to fight this is to plow the end
rows (the rows along the shorter edges of the field) at 90 degrees to your main rows.
This way, the raises and furrows act as a protective barrier from wind and rain, keeping
the soil from washing away.[6]

 If you're not dealing with a perfectly rectangular field, your end rows may not be
perfectly 90 degrees. This is OK — just get the opposing edges of the field as
perpendicular to the main rows as possible

BENEFITS IN PREPARING THE LAND BEFORE PLANTING

1. Gives the soil a fine tilth to increase nutrient absorption
2. Control pest
3. Increase soil porosity and aerate the soil
4. Incorporate crop residues and other plant inputs
5. Mixes the soil to bring up leached deposits
6. Level the soil
7. Prepare the soil for subsequent farm operations

FORMS OF TILLAGE
1. Conventional
2. conservation
3. minimum
4. zero

1. Conventional agriculture practices require extensive tillage usually carried out by incorporating
residue into the soil using a moldboard or animal drawn plow. The soil surface will then be
further tilled using a harrow to provide a seedbed devoid of clod. Once how crops were
planted ,a cultivator is used. Often several times, to keep the weeds down. Thus, in the process
the soil was tilled repeatedly at great cost in term of line and energy. More importantly this
conventional tillage operation usually left the soil bare immediately after plowing until late in
the period when crop growth was sufficient to provide ground cour. means that conventional
tillage left the soil unprotected during the early part of the cropping period and can severely be
affected by erosion and run-off pressure especially in sloping lands. In addition Steirns (2002)
Cited that soil organic matter decompose more rapidly in the tropics compered to subtropical
and moderate climate because of higher temperature.
 A conventionally tilled field
In case where machineries are use, conventional tillage increases soil inversion and there by
increased soil aeration which accelerate organic matter breakdown. Further, the fast breakdown
of soil organic matter releases more CO 2 in the atmosphere that contribute to global warming.

1. Conventional tillage
Some farmers use machines like a plow or disc to turn over and loosen the
soil after harvest (a process called tillage). This can leave the soil exposed to
rain and wind, which can sometimes lead to erosion (wearing away) of the
topsoil that is needed to grow a crop

2. Conservation tillage system varies with specific field operation involve. Zimin00check et al.
(2001) described the practice could range from stubble mulch system (disk undercut weeds and
crop residues loosen soil and kill weeds), Reduce tillage which could be of several combinations
(moldboard plow + minimum secondary tillage, moldboard plow with no other tillage, tandem
disk with most residues left in the surface ) and the No Tillage System (no primary tillage only
rotary tillage a similar implement to the soil for seed planting).
This conservation tillage all involve less tillage system in compansion the conventional tillage
which involve plowing up 2-3 times harrowing and on time furrowing the crop planting
sometimes subsequent tillage system follow series cultivation (hill-up operation and weeding ).
The No tillage system permits direct planting in the residue of the previous crop and utilize only
localized tillage necessary to plant the seed. Such system minimize incidence of soil erosion the
 no tillage gives better soil protection than conventional tillage as confirmed by filed research
(Basic et. al. 2001).

3. On crop yield, conservation tillage generally provides yield equal or even greater than those
from the conventional tillage provide that the soil is hot poorly drained and can be keep free of
weeds through the use of chemical (Philips et al..,1980 ) Conservation tillage steadi0ly improve
soil fertility and water use efficiency. This together with timely planting leads to increasing yield
(Steins, 2002) . Reasons for the low yield in poorly drained soil include low soil temperature and
incident of certain plant disease, which maybe higher somewhat in higher moisture condition.

4. No- till farming ( also called zero tillage or direct drilling) is a way of growing crops or pasture
from year to year without disturbing the soil through tillage. No-till is an agricultural technique
which increases the amount of water that filtrates into the soil and increase organic matter
retention and cycling of nutrients in the soil, including disease – causing organisms and disease
organisms. The most powerful benefit of no tillage is improvement in soil, biological fertility,
making soils more resilient. Farm operations are made much more efficient, particularly
impaired time of sowing and better traffic ability of farm operations.

Tillage remains in agriculture today, but the success of no-till methods in many contexts keeps
the farmers aware that the multiple options exists. In some cases low-till methods combine
aspects of till and no-till methods.

No-till method

Tillage is the agricultural preparation of soil by mechanical agitation of varioustypes, such as

digging, stirring, and overturning. Examples of human-powered tilling methods using hand tools
include shovelling, picking, mattock work, hoeing, and raking
 How to prepare the rice field for planting
Land preparation is important to ensure that the rice field is ready for planting. A well-prepared
field controls weeds, recycles plant nutrients, and provides a soft soil mass for transplanting and a
suitable soil surface for direct seeding.

Land preparation covers a wide range of practices from zero-tillage or minimum tillage which
minimizes soil disturbance through to a totally 'puddled' soil which actually destroys soil
structure

It typically involves (1) plowing to "till" or dig-up, mix, and overturn the soil; (2) harrowing to
break the soil clods into smaller mass and incorporate plant residue, and (3) leveling the field

Initial land preparation begins after your last harvest or during fallow period. This is important
for effective weed control and for enriching the soil. Generally, it will take 3−4 weeks to prepare
the field before planting.

CLEAR THE AREA/FIELD

 At dry field condition, apply glyphosate to kill weeds and for better field hygiene.
 Irrigate the field 2−3 days after glyphosate application.
 Maintain standing water at 2−3 cm level for about 3−7 days or until it is soft enough and
suitable for an equipment to be used.
 Plow or rotovate the field to incorporate stubbles and hasten decomposition.

Implements: Power tiller with attached moldboard plow, Hydrotiller, Rotavator

 Flood the field. Keep it submerged for at least two weeks. Let the water drain naturally to
allow volunteer seeds and weed seeds to germinate.

Depending on weed population and soil condition, another tillage operation can be done.

Different rice ecosystems have different land preparation requirements. Lowland rice fields, for example,
are usually puddled to develop a hard pan and reduce water loss. Upland ricefields, on the other hand, do
not necessarily have to be puddled. In resource-limiting environments, dry preparation can be adapted

Wet Preparation
Wet preparation is the most common way of preparing lowland fields. In this method, the soil is
tilled in a saturated or flooded condition.
 It helps improve weed control and facilitates incorporation of nutrients in the soil. With its
nature, wet preparation has a high water requirement.

The following are the steps and processes involved in wet preparation:

 Repair or construct bunds

 Repair or construct bunds

Bunds or dikes enable the field to hold water. This is important especially in areas where water
supply is not reliable.

1. Construct no wider and taller than 50 cm x 30 cm bunds, around the field.

2. Make sure that bunds are well compacted and properly sealed, with no cracks, holes, etc.
This will minimize water losses through seepage (particularly in sloping lands).
3. Adjust the spillway height to 3−5 cm for storing the same depth of water. Maintain this
height to ensure sufficient water storage capacity especially during rainy or wet season.

For rat control, construct 30 cm x 30 cm bunds.

 Irrigate the field

rrigate the field with 2−3 cm of water for about 3−7 days or until it is soft enough and suitable for an
equipment to be used.

 Perform primary tillage operations

Primary tillage is normally undertaken when the soil is wet enough to allow the field to be
plowed and strong enough to give reasonable levels of traction. This can be immediately after
harvest or at the beginning of the next season, depending on soil moisture and water availability.

 Plow the field.

Implement options:

Power: 4-wheel tractor / 2-wheel tractor / animal power

Attachments: moldboard plow / disc plow / rotavator

Make the first pass along the edges of the field in a clockwise pattern. For the second pass,
move counterclockwise and finish at the center

 The soil should be plowed to attain a reasonable depth (10−20 cm of cultivated soil) with
varying clod sizes, and to kill weeds by burying or exposing the roots.
 Depending on the clod size, another tillage operation can be done using primary tillage
implements. Additional primary tillage operations are generally done with disc plow or
rotavator

 What is rotary tilling?
 Primary tillage may also be done through rotary tilling. A power tiller or tractor-mounted
rotary tiller is used in this operation. 
  Tiller blades or knives completely cut and mix the soil. They also break up and shred
plant stubble or weeds, speeding up the decay of plant materials.
 Rotary tilling can be done during primary and/or secondary tillage of soil.

 Flood the field

Keep the field submerged for 10−14 days after plowing to soften clods and to decompose organic
materials

 Perform secondary tillage operations

Depending on climate and soil type, this should be done 10−14 days after primary workings.

 Puddle the field.

Implements: Power tiller, Hydrotiller, Rotovator

Puddling works the soil into a muddy or watertight paste. This minimizes water loss
and increases nutrient retention and availability.

 Harrow the field 2−3 times within 5−7 days interval.

 Implements: Power tiller with attached comb-tooth harrow, Rotovator

Harrowing breaks up the soil clods and incorporates weeds, straw, and stubble into the
mud. This hastens their decomposition.

Pass the harrow crosswise to break the soil clods. The second pass should be done
lengthwise.

If the field is flooded, reduce the depth of the water to locate uneven and high surfaces
of the soil before harrowing.

 Depending on soil and weed population, a field may require more than two harrowings.

The third and final harrowing aim to do initial land leveling and final incorporation of
crop residues, and provide proper soil tilth for crop growth.

If using a small tractor or a draft animal, do the final harrowing with a plank leveler; if using a
large tractor, use the rotavator and leveler, 2 days before planting

 Level the field

1. You can also combine wet and dry tillage methods

Perform primary tillage operations on dry soil. Then, flood and puddle the field in the same way as wet
tillage. Seeds can be direct seeded or transplanted into puddled soil.

A well-prepared rice field has the following characteristics:

2. Mud and water are thoroughly mixed

3. Weeds, rice straw, and stubble have been plowed under the soil and are thoroughly
decayed
4. Land is leveled

CONDUCTS FIELD LAYOUT

Materials needed in field lay-outing

1. Planting plan
2. Measuring tape
3. String
4. Stakes

Study of Layout systems in Orchard Planting

The plan showing the arrangement of plants in an orchard is known as the “orchard layout”.
A. Square System D. Hexagonal System or Triangular
B. Rectangular System E. Contour System or strip cropping
C. Quincunx System
A. Square System
• It is most easy and popular method of planting fruit plant. In this system row to row and plant
to plant distances are kept similar. The plants are planted exactly at right angle at each corner. Thus,
every four plats make one square. Intercultural operations can be done in both directions as the
distances between trees and rows are similar ( 5 X 5 m ).
• e.g. Mango, Banana and citrus crops.
• Adequate space is there to go for inter cultivation of remunerative crops like vegetables
• Trees are planted equidistant from each other, at the recommended spacing for mature trees
• The distance from plant to plant and row to row remains the same
• The four adjacent plants of two rows form a square

Square system

Advantages
1. Irrigation channels and paths can be made straight.
2. Operations like ploughing, harrowing, cultivation, spraying and harvesting becomes easy.
3. Better supervision of the orchard is possible as one gets a view of the orchard from one end to the
Other
Disadvantages
1.Comparatively less number of trees are accommodated in given area.
2. A lot of space in the centre of each square is wasted i.e, certain amount of space in the middle of
four trees is wasted
1. Square system
a) Establish a base line/row.
b) Mark position of trees on this line using the wooden stakes leaving half of plat to
plant distance (actual or adjusted) on both sides of the base lines.
c) Using right angle shaft, extend lines perpendicular to the base line from every
position of the trees marked.
d) stakes are fixed on these lines at plant to plant distance
These are the basic procedures for laying out a square system. One can introduce a number of
modifications in the procedure and in the tools to increase the efficiency

B. Rectangular System
• This system is similar to that of the square in its layout except for the difference that the
spacing between the rows and between the plants in a row are not equal.
• Thus, rectangular system accommodates more plants in rows.
• Inter-cultural operations can be carried out through both ways.
• The plants get proper space and sunlight for their growth and development.
• E.g Grape ( 3 X 2 m ) Rectangular planting

Rectangular planting

Advantages
1.Intercultural operations can be carried out easily.
2.Irrigation channel can be made length and breadth wise
3.Light can penetrate into the orchard through the large inter spaces between rows.
4.Better supervision is possible.
5.Intercropping is possible

Disadvantages
1.A large area of the orchard between rows is wasted if intercropping is not practiced.
2.Less number of trees are planted

Lay out procedures

The procedure is the same as for the square system. The row to row distance is more than the
plant to plant distance and the row to row distance forms the length of the rectangle
C. Quincunx system/Diamond pattern
• This system is also known as filler or diagonal system.
• This is a modification over Square system of layout.
• To make use of the empty space in the center of each square by planting another plant.
• The plants that are planted in the centre of each square along with tall growing plants at the
corners of squares are termed as “filler ” plants.
• Generally, filler trees will be of short duration and not be of the same kind as those planted
on the corners of the square.
• When main plants of the orchard resume their proper shape, the filler plants are uprooted.
• Guava, Peaches, Papaya etc. are important filler plants.
• In this layout population becomes double than square system of mango+ papaya, mango+ fig

Quincunx planting

Advantages
1. Additonal income can be earned from the filler crop till the main crop comes into bearing.
2. Compared to square to square and rectangular systems, almost double the number of trees
can be planted initially.
3. maximum utilization of the land is possible. Approximately 10% more plants than the square
method
Disadvantages
1.Skill is required to layout the orchard.
2.Inter/filler crop can interfere with the growth of the main crop.
3.Intercultural operations become difficult.
4.Spacing of the main crop0 is reduced if the filler crop is allowed to continue after the growth
of the main crop

Layout procedures
Follow the procedure for the layout of a square system. In addition to this mark with Stakes at
the centers of each square for the filler plants by drawing the diagonals.
 D. Hexagonal / Triangular System
• This system accommodates 15% more plants than square system.
• The plants are planted at the corner of equilateral triangle. Thus, six trees are planted
making a hexagon
 Seventh tree is planted in the center. This is very intense method of planting and hence
requires fertile land. In the suburb of cities where land is costly, this system is worth
adoption. However, the laying out of system is hard and cumbersome.

Hexagonal planting

Advantages
1. Compared to square system 15% more trees can be planted.
2. It is an ideal system for the fertile and well irrigated land.
3. Plant to plant distance can be maintained the same.
4 .More income can be obtained

Disadvantages
1. Intercultural operations become difficult.
2. Skill is required to layout the orchard

Layout procedures
• Establish a base line on one side of the field as in the square system.
• Mark the position of trees on the base line at the desired distance and fix the Stakes. Make equilateral
triangles on the base line maintaining the sides of the triangles equal to plant to plant distance.
• Mark all the triangles with stakes and join them into a line to form the second line of trees. Similarly,
make equilateral triangles on the second line and cover the whole land.

E. Contour system
 It is adopted in hilly areas for planting fruit plants where land is undulated and soil
erosion is a great threat.
• The layout is started from the lowest level and the tree rows are planted along a uniform
slopes at right angle to the slope with a view to reduce loss of top-soil due to erosion.
• The width of contour terrace varies according to the slope of the hill.

Advantages
1. This system can be adopted in hilly regions, can control the soil erosion and helps
simultaneously in the conservation of water.
2. Preservation of plant nutrients which are supplied as manures and fertilizers

Disadvantages
1. Laying out of contour lines is difficult and time consuming.
2. Special skill is required to layout this system.
3. Special instruments are required for making contour lines.
4. The row to row distance will not be equal and adjustments may be required in the plant to plat
distance.
5.Rows are broken in to bits and pieces.

Layout planning:
Contour system is a little more complicated than any other system of layout since planting has to be
done on slopes. For the procedure mark contours at a distance equal to row to row distance on each
contour lines. The contours may be of full length or less than full length depending on variations in the
degree of slope.
 Pruning and Training Systems
Many modern tree fruit orchards are planted high-density using dwarfing
rootstocks and training systems designed for maximum sunlight
interception, higher fruit yields and quality, and easier worker access. As a
result, growers are seeing increased profitability and greater potential for
enhanced mechanization of operations. Choosing the correct scion and
rootstock combination is essential to ensure that trees will have the
appropriate vigor and perform properly for the training methods used.
The soil type, irrigation system, tree spacing, and management experience
will also contribute to the success of a rootstock and training system
combination. Researchers at WSU are conducting trials on new fruit tree
training systems and rootstocks, to find advanced, economically feasible
ways to grow highly productive trees with excellent fruit quality.
Information on fruit tree pruning and training systems can be found on
this page

Pruning
Fruit trees are pruned for a number of reasons including

 Architecture & size:  Fruit trees are pruned to establish the basic tree
architecture and to limit the tree size.
 Sunlight interception:  Pruning opens spaces in the tree canopy for sunlight to
penetrate and support leaf photosynthesis and the production of carbohydrates and
energy that drive the growth of roots, shoots and fruits. Without adequate sunlight
penetration during the growing season, flower bud production can be reduced with
detrimental affects on cropping in the future.
 Air circulation:  Pruning can reduce branch crowding, reduce the amount of
foliage inside the canopy and enable better air circulation that reduces humidity and
allows for better coverage of protectant products (e.g., pesticides).
 Strength:  Branch angles between a vertical trunk and lateral shoots are
stronger as they approach a 90 degree angle. Narrow branch angles are typically weak
and they may break under the weight of developing fruit.
 Control vegetative growth:  Dormant pruning is an invigorating process that
stimulates vegetative growth while summer pruning is a devigorating process that
reduces growth because it involves removing part of the functional leaf area of the
tree.
 Production:  Pruning is done to maintain the right balance between vegetative
growth, flower production and fruiting. Dormant pruning is a reliable crop load
management tool.
 Tree health:  Trees are pruned to prevent the spread of disease or insect
damage. This includes the removal and destruction of dead and/or infested wood

Summer Pruning
Sometimes light pruning is done in the summer to let light into the tree
canopy, or to thin branches for training. Timing and amount of shoot
removal is important since it can impact carbohydrate supply to
developing fruit and also direct sun exposure of fruit that could lead to
sunburn. Summer pruning to remove fire blight requires care to make
cuts 8-10 inches below the canker and it requires disinfestation of tools
between cuts to prevent disease transmission

Mechanical Pruning
Hand pruning is labor intensive and expensive for growers. Concerns
about both the cost and the future availability of labor have been an
incentive for research on mechanical pruning. Tall, narrow tree shapes
and tree wall canopies are better suited for mechanical pruning and
research programs in the U.S. and Europe are investigating techniques
and machines to speed up the process

at WSU research is being conducted on mechanical pruning of apple and

cherry trees. This includes scientists from the Center for Precision and
Automated Agricultural Systems. See 3D reconstruction of trees and
bushes for mechanical pruning

A team led by Purdue University and collaborators at Pennsylvania State

University has a website related to their research in the area of automated
dormant pruning of specialty crops here. This Purdue program was also
featured in a 2012 Good Fruit Grower article on Robotic pruning
Root Pruning
Root pruning is common in Europe to restrict root growth and canopy size
in high-density orchards. This type of pruning promotes return bloom and
fruit set in the next year. It is most effective when it occurs on both sides
of the tree. Dr. Todd Einhorn, Oregon State University, is conducting some
root pruning trials in Oregon

Tree Training
Training fruit trees starts when trees are planted, as setting the structure
early helps young trees produce early. Its more efficient to train trees
early by placing limbs in a position, rather than pruning them later.
Growth in fruit trees is regulated by plant hormones. Cytokinins produced
in the roots move up to the highest points in the tree to break dormancy.
When the buds on the tips of limbs start to grow, auxin is produced, and
moves down the limb through gravity, and inhibits the growth of lateral
buds below the highest points, an occurrence known as apical dominance.
The best way to overcome apical dominance is to train branches early to
grow more horizontal and remove unwanted upright shoots. The key to
producing a well trained tree in the shortest amount of time is to follow a
training program consistently

Training Systems
Training helps develop a strong tree architecture that can support crop
loads. Training also helps to bring young trees into production early. Basic
training systems include

Central Leader training:  Semi-dwarf and standard size rootstocks can be

trained as freestanding central leader trees. A vigorous shoot near the
center is chosen at planting time, and competing upright shoots around it
are removed. Limbs are spread so as not to compete with the central
leader. As is, this system is considered to be outdated. However, many
modern systems have their origin from this method.
Open-Center training:  Three or four shoots are chosen to form the main
architecture during the first year, and competing limbs are removed.
Other systems have developed from this basic tree architectural system.
Espalier training:  The tree structure is created in two dimensions by using
trellis systems. The main trunk is tied to the wires. Buds are selected to
form branches, and shoots are fastened to training wires. Other
styles that built on this method include bush and Palmette systems.

As noted above for pruning, two regional peer-reviewed publications

provide the most comprehensive treatment of the basics of training fruit
trees in the Pacific Northwest. The first, PNW 400 Training and Pruning Your
Home Orchard provides recommendations for apple, pear and sweet
cherry. The second, PNW 667 Cherry Training Systems focuses exclusively on
sweet cherry.
The 2014 Good Fruit Grower article on Spreading shoots of young apple trees is
informative on spreading, bending, and apical dominance in trees.

Tree Fruit Training Systems by Crop

Apple Systems
Bi-axis
Slender spindle
Superspindle/vertical axis
Tatura trellis or V system
Vertical Axis
Central leader (older)

Pear Systems
Bi-axis
Multi-Leader
Central Leader (older)
Slender Spindle (Mostly in Europe)
Sweet Cherry Systems
Kym Green Bush (KGB)
Steep Leader
Tall Spindle Axe
Upright Fruiting Offshoots (UFO)
Vogel Central Leader (older)
Spanish Bush (older)
Super Slender Axe (SSA) – (There is interest in this system, not yet
commercialized in the PNW)

Reference:
The seven cherry training systems, R. Lehnert, Good Fruit Grower, May, 2015

PLANTING SEEDS AND SEEDLINGS

TWO METHODS of PLANTING
Vocabulary: English - Tagalog

1. plot – isang lagay ng lupa

2. hay – dayami
3. mulch – malts
4. seedling – punla
5. sheath – saha
6. sprout – usbong
7. sow – ihasik ; ipunla

1. Direct-seeding - method of planting seeds directly in the garden plot.

Characteristics of seeds and plants:

 big seeds

 seeds that grow fast

 seeds and plants that do not need extra care during the seedling stage.

 seeds with delicate root system

Examples of seeds: cucumber sitao squash okra kangkong radish melon beans watermelon carrot

Steps in planting using the direct-seeding method

3. Prepare garden plots.

 Ideal size is 2 to 3 feet.
4. Sterilize the garden plot.
 Burn hays on the surface of the garden plot
 Pour boiling water on the surface of the garden plot
5. Sow seeds on the ground and cover them with soil.
 The depth of the hole should be twice or four times the diameter of the seed.
 The spacing between the plants should be equal to the height of the plant when it
reaches maturity.
 Plants which grow tall and slender like celery, green peas, bush lima and onions can
be planted nearer while plants which grow broader like kangkong, broccoli and cabbage
should be planted farther away each other.
6. Cover the soil with mulch.
Mulch – any organic material like grasses, lawn clippings that you put on the surface of
the soil to prevent water from evaporating.
5. Water the plants and the soil.
6. Remove some seedlings once the true leaves have come out to maintain at least 5
centimeter distance between plants.
7. Cover the garden bed with nylon net once the seedling start to grow to protect plants
from too much heat of the sun and strong winds .
2. Transplanting - method of planting seed in a seed box and later, when the seedlings are big enough,
(when they have two or four “ true” leaves) they are transplanted from the seed box to the garden plot.

Characteristics of seeds and plants

 small seeds
 plants that need extra care during their seedling stage

Examples of seeds
tomato
Eggplant
Mustard
Pechay
Pepper

Steps in planting seeds in a seed box

1. Prepare the seed box using wooden box, plastic egg tray or metal cans.
2. Fill seed box with a good soil for sprouting seeds.
3. Sow the seeds and cover them with soil.
 The depth of the hole should be twice or four times the diameter of the seed.
4. Water the soil using a sprinkler.
5. Cover the seed box with a plastic cover to protect seeds from direct heat of the sun.
6. Transplant the seedling once the “true leaves” have emerge.

Considerations when transplanting

 Transplant seedlings in the afternoon to allow the roots to recover from damage.
 Do not transplant during rainy weather.
 Bring the seed box near the garden plot.

Steps in transplanting
1. Remove the seedling from the seed box as gently as possible by digging 2 to 3 inches
beneath the root system.
  Pass a sharp knife or trowel in between the seedlings, much like cutting a cake into
smaller pieces.
2. Transplant the seedling in the prepared garden plot.
3. Cover the seedling and gently tamp the soil up to the first leaves.
4. Water each seedling soon after you have transferred it. Do not wait until you have planted
a row of seedling before watering.
5. Maintain at least 5-inch distance between seedlings.
6. Cover the seedling with banana bracks to protect them from strong winds and too much
heat of the sun.

Purpose of applying basal fertilizer;

“ To supply the initial nutrients needed by plants”

DIG HOLES FOR PLANTING

Easiest Way to Dig a Hole to Plant a Tree

According to the University of Missouri Extension, it can take years for the root system of a
newly planted tree to achieve the balance necessary for the tree to thrive. The hole you dig
determines how easily the roots will be able to spread and achieve this balance. It needs to
be wide enough to accommodate the roots, and the soil needs to be loose enough for them to
penetrate and get nutrients. You can dig such a hole with a shovel, and the job is easier on
you and on the shovel if you don't try to rush it
1

Choose the spot in which you want to plant the tree. Spread a plastic tarp on the ground on one side
of it on which to deposit dirt. That way, all you have to do is lift the tarp to backfill the hole.
2

Loosen an area of the ground equal to about two to three times the diameter of the tree's root ball.
Use a pickaxe if the ground is rocky. If the ground isn't rocky, use a round-point shovel, pushing it
into the ground repeatedly with your foot.
3

Dig the hole with a round-point shovel. Push the blade about halfway into the ground, tilt it back to
loosen the dirt, then lift the dirt out of the hole. Don't push the shovel in too deeply, or you could
crack the handle when tilting. Save your back by filling the shovel about halfway -- not all the way --
with dirt.
4

Dig the hole no deeper than the height of the root ball. Loosen the soil in the bottom of the hole to a
depth of 8 to 12 inches, as well as the soil on the sides of the hole, with the shovel. The pressure of
the shovel usually compacts this soil on the sides, especially if it contains a lot of clay.
5

Build a 4-inch berm around the edge of the hole after you're finished planting the tree and fill the
berm with mulch. This makes it easier to water the tree and keeps weeds away

FERTILIZERS, USES AND APPLICATIONS

Fertilizer adds nutrients and texture to soil that needs to provide nutrients to trees, vegetables,
herbs, shrubs and flowers. There are several ways to categorize fertilizer, and the most basic is
whether it is organic or inorganic. It also can be classified according to its ingredients, whether it is
solid or liquid and by its particular actions, such as slow-release fertilizers that dissolve and release
their nutrients slowly. The choice of fertilizer that is used typically depends on the nature of the soil,
such as whether it is acidic or alkaline; sandy, clay or rocky; and weak or rich
Fertilizers are chemical compounds applied to promote plentiful plant and fruit growth.
Fertilizers are applied through soil for uptake by plant roots, or by applying liquid fertilizer
directly to plant leaves. They typical fertilizer provides proportions of the three major plant
nutrients; nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium. The secondary plant nutrients such as calcium,
sulfur, and magnesium are also contained in fertilizers. Fertilizers can be placed into categories
of organic fertilizers and inorganic fertilizers

Organic

Organic fertilizer is all natural and includes things such as bat guano, compost, peat moss, wood ash
and manure. These are general soil amendments. They don't burn or harm plants, and they can
have long-term positive effects on the soil without damaging groundwater. Organic fertilizer,
however, generally has lower nutrient concentrations than inorganic fertilizer

Organic Fertilizers
Naturally occurring fertilizers include:

Manure Guano

Worm castings

Peat moss

Seaweed

Sewage

Organic fertilizers are used to enrich soil through nitrogen fixation from the atmosphere by
bacterial nodules on plant roots, as well as phosphorus content of soils. Processed organic
materials from natural sources include compost, blood meal powdered blood, and bone
(crushed ground bones) meal from organic meat production facilities, and seaweed extracts.

There is more diversity with organic fertilizers, so choosing the right one is not always easy. In
general organic fertilizers cannot cause plant burns, get into ground water, affect surrounding
growth, and do not need as strict of watering schedules
Organic fertilizer sources:

Animals:-
Sourced urea , are suitable for application organic agriculture, while pure synthetic forms of
urea are not. The common thread that can be seen through these examples is that organic
agriculture attempts to define itself through minimal processing (in contrast to the man-made
Haber process), as well as being naturally occurring or via natural biological processes such as
composting.

Sewage sludge use in organic agricultural operations in the U.S. has been extremely limited and
rare due to USDA prohibition of the practice (due to toxic metal accumulation, among other
factors). The USDA now requires 3rd-party certification of high-nitrogen liquid organic fertilizers
sold in the U.S

Plant:-
Cover crops are also grown to enrich soil as a green manure through nitrogen fixation from the
atmosphere; as well as phosphorus (through nutrient mobilization) content of soils.

Mineral:-
Naturally mined powdered limestone, mined rock phosphate and sodium nitrate, are inorganic
(in a chemical sense), are energetically intensive to harvest, and yet are approved for usage in
organic agriculture in minimal amounts

Benefits of Organic Material

By nature organic fertilizers provide increased physical and biological storage mechanisms to
soils, reducing risks of over fertilization. Organic fertilizers nutrient content, solubility, and
nutrient release rates are typically much lower than inorganic fertilizers. Over fertilization of a
vital nutrient can be as detrimental as under fertilization to a plant. Fertilizer burn can occur
when too much fertilizer is applied resulting in the drying out of roots along with damage and
even death to plants. All organic fertilizers are classified as slow release fertilizers. Studies have
found that organic fertilizers:

Release 25% to 60% of nitrogen as inorganic.

Controlled release fertilizers had a relatively constant rate of release.

Soluble fertilizer released most of its nitrogen content at the first leaching.

Inorganic Fertilizers: - Naturally occurring inorganic fertilizers include sodium nitrate, mined
rock phosphate and lime stone which is used to raise pH and calcium sources.

Macronutrients and Micronutrients

Fertilizers can be divided into macronutrients and micronutrients based on their concentration
levels in dry plant matter. There are six macronutrients; nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium (3
main primary elements), calcium, magnesium, and sulfur.

Macronutrient Fertilizers:-
Synthesized materials are also called artificial, and may also be called straight were a product
contains the three primary elements of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium. Fertilizers are
named according to the content of the three elements in the fertilizer. If the main ingredient in
the fertilizer is nitrogen, then the fertilizer will be described as a nitrogen fertilizer. But
regardless of the name of the fertilizer they are labeled according to the amounts of each of
these primary elements, by their weight.

The amount of nitrogen will encourage growth of stems and leaves by promoting protein and
chlorophyll. More Flowers, bigger fruits, and healthier roots will result from added phosphorus,
and it will also help plants resist certain diseases. Potassium thickens stems and leaves by
fostering protein development, meaning the vegetables would prefer a different potassium
ratio than flowers or fruit plants would.

Benefits of inorganic fertilizers

Synthetic fertilizers are commonly used to treat fields used for growing maize, followed by
barley, sorghum, rapeseed, soy and sunflower. One study has shown that application of
nitrogen fertilizer on off-season cover crops can increase the biomass (and subsequent green
manure value) of these crops, while having a beneficial effect on soil nitrogen levels for the
main crop planted during the summer season.

Nutrients in soil develop in symbiosis, which can be thrown out of balance with high
concentrations of fertilizers. The interconnectedness and complexity of this soil 'food web'
means any appraisal of soil function must necessarily take into account interactions with the
living communities that exist within the soil. Stability of the system is reduced by the use of
nitrogen-containing inorganic and organic fertilizers, which cause soil acidification.

Problem with inorganic fertilizers

Trace mineral depletion:-
Many inorganic fertilizers may not replace trace mineral elements in the soil which become
gradually depleted by crops. This depletion has been linked to studies which have shown a
marked fall (up to 75%) in the quantities of such minerals present in fruit and vegetables.

In Western Australia deficiencies of zinc, copper, manganese, iron and molybdenum were
identified as limiting the growth of broad-acre crops and pastures in the 1940s and 1950s. Soils
in Western Australia are very old, highly weathered and deficient in many of the major nutrients
and trace elements. Since this time these trace elements are routinely added to inorganic
fertilizers used in agriculture in this state.

Over fertilization:-
Over-fertilization of a vital nutrient can be as detrimental as under fertilization. "Fertilizer burn"
can occur when too much fertilizer is applied, resulting in a drying out of the roots and damage
or even death of the plant.

Burning of plants

High energy consumption:-

The production of synthetic ammonia currently consumes about 5% of global natural gas
consumption, which is somewhat fewer than 2% of world energy productions.

Natural gas is overwhelmingly used for the production of ammonia, but other energy sources,
together with a hydrogen source, can be used for the production of nitrogen compounds
suitable for fertilizers. The cost of natural gas makes up about 90% of the cost of producing
ammonia. The increase in price of natural gases over the past decade, along with other factors
such as increasing demand, has contributed to an increase in fertilizer price

Long-Term Sustainability:-
Inorganic fertilizers are now produced in ways which theoretically cannot be continued
indefinitely. Potassium and phosphorus come from mines (or saline lakes such as the Dead
Sea) and such resources are limited. More effective fertilizer utilization practices may, however,
decrease present usage from mines. Improved knowledge of crop production practices can
potentially decrease fertilizer usage of P and K without reducing the critical need to improve
and increase crop yields. Atmospheric (unfixed) nitrogen is effectively unlimited (forming over
70% of the atmospheric gases), but this is not in a form useful to plants. To make nitrogen
accessible to plants requires nitrogen fixation (conversion of atmospheric nitrogen to a plant-
accessible form).
Artificial nitrogen fertilizers are typically synthesized using fossil fuels such as natural gas and
coal, which are limited resources. In lieu of converting natural gas to syngas for use in the
Haber process, it is also possible to convert renewable biomass to syngas (or wood gas) to
supply the necessary energy for the process, though the amount of land and resources
(ironically often including fertilizer) necessary for such a project may be prohibitive (see Energy
conservation in the United States

Environmental effects of fertilizer use

Water Eutrophication:-
The nitrogen-rich compounds found in fertilizer run-off is the primary cause of a serious
depletion of oxygen in many parts of the ocean, especially in coastal zones; the resulting lack of
dissolved oxygen is greatly reducing the ability of these areas to sustain oceanic fauna.Visually,
water may become cloudy and discolored (green, yellow, brown, or red).

About half of all the lakes in the United States are now eutrophic, while the number of oceanic
dead zones near inhabited coastlines are increasing. As of 2006, the application of nitrogen
fertilizer is being increasingly controlled in Britain and the United States. If Eutrophication can
be reversed, it may take decades before the accumulated nitrates in groundwater can be
broken down by natural processes.

High application rates of inorganic nitrogen fertilizers in order to maximize crop yields,
combined with the high solubility's of these fertilizers leads to increased runoff into surface
water as well as leaching into groundwater. The use of ammonium nitrate in inorganic
fertilizers is particularly damaging, as plants absorb ammonium ions preferentially over nitrate
ions, while excess nitrate ions which are not absorbed dissolve (by rain or irrigation) into runoff
or groundwater.

Fig 10

Soil acidification: Nitrogen-containing inorganic and organic fertilizers can cause soil
acidification when added. This may lead to decreases in nutrient availability which may be
offset by liming

Heavy metal accumulation:-

The concentration of up to 100 mg/kg of cadmium in phosphate minerals (for example,
minerals from Nauru and the Christmas islands)increases the contamination of soil with
cadmium, for example in New Zealand.

Uranium is another example of a contaminant often found in phosphate fertilizers (at levels
from 7 to 100 pCi/g). Eventually these heavy metals can build up to unacceptable levels and
build up in vegetable produce. (See cadmium poisoning) Average annual intake of uranium by
adults is estimated to be about 0.5 mg (500 μg) from ingestion of food and water and 0.6 μg
from breathing air.

Steel industry wastes, recycled into fertilizers for their high levels of zinc (essential to plant
growth), wastes can include the following toxic metals: lead arsenic, cadmium, chromium, and
nickel. The most common toxic elements in this type of fertilizer are mercury, lead, and arsenic.
Concerns have been raised concerning fish meal mercury content by at least one source in
Spain.

Also, highly radioactive Polonium-210 contained in phosphate fertilizers is absorbed by the

roots of plants and stored in its tissues; tobacco derived from plants fertilized by rock
phosphates contains Polonium-210 which emits alpha radiation estimated to cause about
11,700 lung cancer deaths each year worldwide.

For these reasons, it is recommended that nutrient budgeting, through careful observation and
monitoring of crops, take place to mitigate the effects of excess fertilizer application

Atmospheric effects:-
Methane emissions from crop fields (notably rice paddy fields) are increased by the application
of ammonium-based fertilizers; these emissions contribute greatly to global climate change as
methane is a potent greenhouse gas.

Through the increasing use of nitrogen fertilizer, which is added at a rate of 1 billion tons per
year presently to the already existing amount of reactive nitrogen, nitrous oxide (N2O) has
become the third most important greenhouse gas after carbon dioxide and methane. It has a
global warming potential 296 times larger than an equal mass of carbon dioxide and it also
contributes to stratospheric ozone depletion.

Storage and application of some nitrogen fertilizers in some weather or soil conditions can
cause emissions of the potent greenhouse gas-nitrous oxide. Ammonia gas (NH3) may be
emitted following application of 'inorganic' fertilizers and/or manures and slurries.

The use of fertilizers on a global scale emits significant quantities of greenhouse gas into the
atmosphere.

Emissions come about through the use of:

animal manures and urea, which release methane, nitrous oxide, ammonia, and carbon dioxide
in varying quantities depending on their form (solid or liquid) and management (collection,
storage, spreading)

fertilizers that use nitric acid or ammonium bicarbonate, the production and application of
which results in emissions of nitrogen oxides, nitrous oxide, ammonia and carbon dioxide into
the atmosphere.

By changing processes and procedures, it is possible to mitigate some, but not all, of these
effects on anthropogenic climate change.
APPLICATION OF BASAL FERTILIZER
The basal is applied just one day before sowing or planting and mixed or drilled in the soil. Care
is taken for the presence of sufficient soil moisture. Top dressing of fertilizer, particularly
nitrogenous fertilizers is done 15 to 21 days after sowing/planting

METHODS OF FERTILIZER APPLICATION

The different methods of fertilizer application are as follows:

a) Broadcasting

1. It refers to spreading fertilizers uniformly all over the field.

2. Suitable for crops with dense stand, the plant roots permeate the whole volume of the soil, large
doses of fertilizers are applied and insoluble phosphatic fertilizers such as rock phosphate are
used.

Broadcasting of fertilizers is of two types.

i) Broadcasting at sowing or planting (Basal application)

The main objectives of broadcasting the fertilizers at sowing time are to uniformly distribute the fertilizer
over the entire field and to mix it with soil.
ii) Top dressing

It is the broadcasting of fertilizers particularly nitrogenous fertilizers in closely sown crops like paddy and
wheat, with the objective of supplying nitrogen in readily available form to growing plants.

Disadvantages of broadcasting

The main disadvantages of application of fertilizers through broadcasting are:

i) Nutrients cannot be fully utilized by plant roots as they move laterally over long distances.
ii) The weed growth is stimulated all over the field.
iii) Nutrients are fixed in the soil as they come in contact with a large mass of soil.

b) Placement

1. It refers to the placement of fertilizers in soil at a specific place with or without reference to the
position of the seed.
2. Placement of fertilizers is normally recommended when the quantity of fertilizers to apply is small,
development of the root system is poor, soil have a low level of fertility and to apply phosphatic
and potassic fertilizer.

The most common methods of placement are as follows:

i) Plough sole placement

1. In this method, fertilizer is placed at the bottom of the plough furrow in a continuous band during
the process of ploughing.
2. Every band is covered as the next furrow is turned.
3. This method is suitable for areas where soil becomes quite dry upto few cm below the soil
surface and soils having a heavy clay pan just below the plough sole layer.

ii) Deep placement

It is the placement of ammoniacal nitrogenous fertilizers in the reduction zone of soil particularly in paddy
fields, where ammoniacal nitrogen remains available to the crop. This method ensures better distribution
of fertilizer in the root zone soil and prevents loss of nutrients by run-off.

iii) Localized placement

It refers to the application of fertilizers into the soil close to the seed or plant in order to supply the
nutrients in adequate amounts to the roots of growing plants. The common methods to place fertilizers
close to the seed or plant are as follows:

a) Drilling

In this method, the fertilizer is applied at the time of sowing by means of a seed-cum-fertilizer drill. This
places fertilizer and the seed in the same row but at different depths. Although this method has been
found suitable for the application of phosphatic and potassic fertilizers in cereal crops, but sometimes
germination of seeds and young plants may get damaged due to higher concentration of soluble salts.

b) Side dressing
It refers to the spread of fertilizer in between the rows and around the plants. The common methods of
side-dressing are

1. Placement of nitrogenous fertilizers by hand in between the rows of crops like maize, sugarcane,
cotton etc., to apply additional doses of nitrogen to the growing crops and
2. Placement of fertilizers around the trees like mango, apple, grapes, papaya etc.

c) Band placement

If refers to the placement of fertilizer in bands.

Band placement is of two types.

i) Hill placement

It is practiced for the application of fertilizers in orchards. In this method, fertilizers are placed close to the
plant in bands on one or both sides of the plant. The length and depth of the band varies with the nature
of the crop.

ii) Row placement

When the crops like sugarcane, potato, maize, cereals etc., are sown close together in rows, the fertilizer
is applied in continuous bands on one or both sides of the row, which is known as row placement

Row placement

d) Pellet application
 1. It refers to the placement of nitrogenous fertilizer in the form of pellets 2.5 to 5 cm deep between
the rows of the paddy crop.
2. The fertilizer is mixed with the soil in the ratio of 1:10 and made small pellets of convenient size to
deposit in the mud of paddy fields.

Advantages of placement of fertilizers

The main advantages are as follows:

i) When the fertilizer is placed, there is minimum contact between the soil and the fertilizer, and thus
fixation of nutrients is greatly reduced.
ii) The weeds all over the field can not make use of the fertilizers.
iii) Residual response of fertilizers is usually higher.
iv) Utilization of fertilizers by the plants is higher.
v) Loss of nitrogen by leaching is reduced.
vi) Being immobile, phosphates are better utilized when place

Following are the common methods of applying liquid fertilizers

a) Starter solutions

It refers to the application of solution of N, P2O5 and K2O in the ratio of 1:2:1 and 1:1:2 to young plants at
the time of transplanting, particularly for vegetables. 
Starter solution helps in rapid establishment and quick growth of seedlings. 
The disadvantages of starter solutions are 
(i) Extra labour is required, and 
(ii) the fixation of phosphate is higher.

b) Foliar application

1. It refers to the spraying of fertilizer solutions containing one or more nutrients on the foliage of
growing plants.
2. Several nutrient elements are readily absorbed by leaves when they are dissolved in water and
sprayed on them.
3. The concentration of the spray solution has to be controlled, otherwise serious damage may
result due to scorching of the leaves.
4. Foliar application is effective for the application of minor nutrients like iron, copper, boron, zinc
and manganese. Sometimes insecticides are also applied along with fertilizers.
c) Application through irrigation water (Fertigation)

1. It refers to the application of water soluble fertilizers through irrigation water.

2. The nutrients are thus carried into the soil in solution.
3. Generally nitrogenous fertilizers are applied through irrigation water.

d) Injection into soil

1. Liquid fertilizers for injection into the soil may be of either pressure or non-pressure types.
2. Non-pressure solutions may be applied either on the surface or in furrows without appreciable
loss of plant nutrients under most conditions.
3. Anhydrous ammonia must be placed in narrow furrows at a depth of 12-15 cm and covered
immediately to prevent loss of ammonia.

e) Aerial application.

In areas where ground application is not practicable, the fertilizer solutions are applied by aircraft
particularly in hilly areas, in forest lands, in grass lands or in sugarcane fields

Table 1. Essential plant nutrients and their elemental (chemical) symbol

Nutrients Supplied by Air and Nutrients Supplied by the Soil System

Water

Non-Mineral Primary or Secondary Micronutrients

Macronutrients
Carbon - C Nitrogen - N Calcium - Ca Zinc - Zn
Hydrogen - H Phosphorus - P Magnesium - Mg Chlorine - Cl
Oxygen - O Potassium - K Sulfur - S Boron - B
Molybdenum - Mo
 Copper - Cu
Iron - Fe
Manganese - Mn
Cobalt - Co
Nickel - Ni

Functions of the Essential Nutrients in Plants

Table 3 provides a brief description of the various functions of essential plant
nutrients within the plant and lists the form(s) of the nutrient that the plant is able to
obtain from the soil solution complex. Some nutrients are present in the soil solution complex as
positively charged cations and others as negatively charged anions.

Table 3. Functions and available forms of nutrients

Plant Available
Nutrient Element Functions in Plants From Soil Solution Complex
Form(s) Symbol(s)
Promotes rapid growth, chlorophyll Anion and NO3 NO3
Nitrogen Anion and NO3 NH4
-
+
formation and protein synthesis
Stimulates early root growth. Hastens Anion H2PO4
Phosphorus maturity. Stimulates blooming -HPO4
--
and aids seed formation
Increases resistance to drought and Cation K+
Potassium disease. Increases stalk and straw
strength. Increases quality of grain and
seed.
Improves root formation, stiffness of Cation Ca++
Calcium straw and vigor. Increases resistance to
seedling diseases.
Aids chlorophyll formation and Cation Mg++
Magnesium phosphorus metabolism. Helps regulate
uptake of other nutrients.
Amino acids, vitamins. Imparts dark Anion SO4
--
Sulfur green color. Anion SO4
--
Stimulates seed production
Aids carbohydrate transport and cell Anion H3BO3
division H2BO3
Boron - HBO3
--
BO3
- - - B4O7
-
Enzymes, light reaction Cation* Cu++
Copper
Chlorophyll formation Cation* Fe++ Fe+++
Iron
Oxidation-reduction reactions. Cation* Mn++
Manganese Hastens germination and maturation
 Auxins, enzymes Cation* Zn++
Zinc
Aids nitrogen fixation and nitrate Anion MoO4
--
Molybdenum assimilation
Essential for nitrogen fixation Cation Co++
Cobalt
Grain filling, seed viability Cation Ni++ Ni+++
Nickel
Water use Anion CI
Chlorine
Component of most plant compounds
Oxygen
Component of most plant compounds. Obtained from air and water.
Hydrogen
Component of most plant compounds.
Carbon

Cations are attracted to and held by the negatively charged surface area of clay
and organic matter. Anions move more freely with the soil solution.

Visual Diagnoses of
Plant Nutrient Deficiencies
Sometimes the soil chemistry is such that the soil is not able to supply
sufficient nutrients to the plant. Toxic conditions such as excessive soil acidity
may prevent plant roots from growing (see figure 1) or perhaps nutrients are
simply in low supply. When these conditions are severe enough, plants will
exhibit nutrient deficiency symptoms. The symptoms expressed by the plant are
often used to somewhat subjectively diagnose plant nutrient problems. Some
common symptoms shown by plants are:

(1) Chlorosis — A yellowing, either uniform or interveinal, of plant tissue due to

a reduction of the chlorophyll formation processes.
(2) Necrosis — The death or dying of plant tissue. It usually begins on the tips
and edges of older leaves and also may be caused by drought, herbicides, disease,
foliar application of fertilizer or animals marking territorial boundaries.
(3) Rosetting — A cluster of leaves crowded and arising from a crown, resulting
from a lack of new terminal growth.
(4) Anthocyanin (pigment) accumulation — This results in the appearance of
reddish, purple or brownish coloration. The pigment anthocyanin forms due to
sugar accumulation.
(5) Stunting or reduced growth, with either normal or dark green coloring or
Yellowing
The symptom location on the plant depends on how well the nutrient moves from older plant
tissues to younger developing parts. Nutrients that can be moved readily by the plant (mobile nutrients) to
younger developing tissue are nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and magnesium. Deficiency symptoms for
these nutrients are usually first expressed in the older leaves. The entire plant may develop symptoms if
the deficiency is severe. Nutrients that are not easily moved by the plant from older, developed plant parts
into younger tissue are sulfur, calcium and all of the micronutrients. Deficiency symptoms for immobile
nutrients are usually first expressed in the growing points and youngest leaves. The following is a
generalized key to commonly expressed nutrient deficiency symptoms

pH 6.5 pH 5.5 pH 5.2

Figure 1. Soil pH effect on plant roots

GENERALIZED KEY TO PLANT- NUTRIENT

Deficiency symptoms

I. Effects occur mostly on older or lower leaves of plant; effects generalized

or localized.

A. Whole plant more or less uniformly affected; may exhibit drying or firing in lower leaves.
1. Plants light green; chlorosis in lower leaves (progresses down the midrib), more or less drying or firing
of lower leaves; plants may be stunted or woody; stalks short and slender if element is deficient in later
stages of growth NITROGEN

2. Plants dark green, young leaves appearing abnormally dark green; stems and leaves usually highly
pigmented with purplish red, especially near end of shoots; stalks short and slender if element is deficient
in later stages of growth. Fruiting often delayed. Vegetative growth less than
normal PHOSPHORUS

B. Effects on plants localized; mottling or chlorosis with or without spots

of dead tissue on lower leaves; little or no drying up of lower leaves.
2. Mottled (often prominently) or chlorotic leaves; may redden as with cotton; sometimes
with dead spots; tips and margins turned or cupped upward; stalks slender
MAGNESIUM

3. Mottled or chlorotic leaves with large or small spots of dead tissue. Plants perhaps not
particularly stunted; stalks may be slender; leaves, especially the older ones, scorched and
dying at tip and outer margins. Leaf margins often crinkled and curled. Corn stalks may
 be brittle (browning of tissue evident in split joints, especially toward base of plant) with
cobs not filled to the ends POTASSIUM

II. Terminal buds or younger leaves affected; symptoms localized

A. Terminal bud death common, following appearance of distortions at tips or bases of younger leaves.

1. Young leaves of terminal bud at first typically hooked, finally drying back at tips and margins, so
that later growth is characterized by a cut-out appearance at these points; stalk finally dies at
terminal bud. Tips of unfolding leaves gelatinize, sticking together when dry as in corn
CALCIUM

2. Young leaves of terminal bud becoming light green at bases, with final breakdown here, in later
growth, leaves become twisted; stalk finally dies back at terminal bud. Sometimes a distinct
cupping of young leaves. With fleshy tissues, often internal browning and death BORON

B. Terminal bud commonly remains alive

1. Young leaves permanently wilted (wither tip effect), without spotting or marked chlorosis;
twig or stalk just below tip and seed head often unableto stand erect in later stages when shortage
is acute COPPER

2. Young leaves not wilted; chlorosis is present with or without spots of dead tissue (necrosis).
a. Necrosis not commonly present. Plants not particularly stunted.
Leaves pale green, veins often somewhat lighter in color than interveinal area. Often
difficult to distinguish from nitrogen deficiency SULFUR

b. Necrosis commonly present, in spots scattered over the leaf Interveinal tissue
yellowish,veins green MANGANESE

C. Necrosis may be present, often confined to leaf tip or margins, Interveinal tissue
yellowish, veins often green but may become lighter in color later IRON
d. Necrosis may be present, generally within interveinal tissue surrounding midrib, veins
remain green, younger leaves yellowish (striping in grasses) or even white (white bud in
corn) ZINC

Soil pH is defined as the negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration.

The pH scale goes from 0 to 14 with pH 7 as the neutral point. As the amount of hydrogen ions
in the soil increases the soil pHdecreases thus becoming more acidic.

P - potential

H – hydrogen

How does the pH affect plant growth?

 Although the optimum range is 5.5 to 7.0 some plants will grow in a more acid soil and some at
a more alkaline level. PH is not an indication of fertility, but it does affect the availability of
fertilizer nutrients. The soil may contain adequate nutrients yet plant health may be limited by
an unfavorable pH level

What is soil pH stand for?

“pH” stands for potenz Hydrogen, a phrase meaning the “power of hydrogen” or the
“potential of hydrogen,” and it's just easier to abbreviate it as pH. H is capitalized
because the chemical name abbreviation for hydrogen is H, as in H2O for water.

How do you lower the pH in soil?

Part 2 Using pH-Lowering Techniques

1. Add organic matter. Many types of organic matter, like compost, composted
manure, and acidic mulches (e.g. pine needles) can gradually lower your soil pH over
time. ...
2. Add aluminum sulfate. ...
3. Add sulfur. ...
4. Add sulfur-coated urea. ...
5. Add another acidic additive. ...
6. Grow alkaline-tolerant plants
CAREFUL HANDLING, STORAGE, AND
TRANSPORTATION OF SEEDLINGS TO
REDUCE STRESS
POSTED BY MLF WEBMASTER ON
 MAY 10, 2014

It is easy to forget that seedlings are sensitive, living organisms that come under stress the
moment they are lifted from the nursery beds. Like fish out of water — seedling vigor can only
decline until they are finally placed into the ground

REDUCING SEEDLING STRESS

SEEDLING TRANSPORTATION
During photosynthesis, seedlings use light, water, nutrients, and carbon dioxide to produce and
store carbohydrates. During respiration, seedlings consume these carbohydrates and oxygen to
grow and maintain themselves. Seedlings also lose water from their leaves, roots and stem in
warm,
dry weather

On our journey from the nursery to the planting hole, seedlings typically become stressed
through exposure to rapid heating, sudden freezing, lack of water, too much water, and physical
abuse such as shaking, slapping, ripping, or squeezing. These stresses upset the balance
between photosynthesis, respiration, and transpiration. Plant cells and their contents break
down and cease to function normally (roots are generally more sensitive to stress than shoots)

Stressed seedlings must then divert their efforts from growth to survival, from growing new cells
to repairing damaged cells

Repairing damage requires energy which comes from a limited reserve of carbohydrates stored
in the roots and stem. This means less energy is available to help the seedling establish itself
after planting. If stresses are severe, long lasting, or reoccur frequently, roots and/or shoots will
be
injured or will possibly die. Planting stressed seedlings can waste your effort and result in a
failed plantation

 If using an open vehicle, provide shelter by covering with a reflective tarp,

keeping the white side up. If placing in a car trunk, minimize travel time. Trunks heat
very quickly and don’t provide adequate air circulation

 Do not transport fuel or chemicals with the trees

 On rough roads, drive as if the seedlings are boxes of eggs, not bales of hay
 Park in the shade

SEEDLING STORAGE
Seedlings stored temporarily at your property must be provided with shade, cool
temperatures,  adequate irrigation water (not stagnant), protection from drying winds,
and good ventilation. Avoid direct sunlight, standing water, and lowlying frost pockets.
Plan ahead to choose the best storage spot. When choosing a location for storage,
consider the following:

 Conifer stands

 North slopes (shady areas)

 Under patches of snow

 Close to fast-flowing streams

If these locations are not present, you must create the proper storage conditions on
your site.

 Ensure the storage site is in the shade all day

 Unload new seedlings immediately from the truck

 Water as needed

 Plant stored seedlings before picking up more

 Handle gently — no tossing, dropping, or forcing into small spaces

 Storage temperatures should be one to five degrees Centigrade. Higher

temperatures will stress trees.

 Plant bare-root stock the same day if the outside air temperature is over 15
degrees Centigrade; otherwise plant no later than the following day

 Do not stack bags

 Leave space around each bag for ventilation when storing or thawing
  Pack container trays together to minimize drying of edges and elevate trays
slightly (five centimetres) to allow drainage

 Provide shelter by suspending a reflective tarp about one metre above

uppermost seedlings, keeping the white side up and silver side down

 Ensure on-site storage time is absolutely minimal

 Prevent the plugs from drying out. If free water cannot be easily squeezed out of
the plug, then it is too dry. Water the containers in the early morning with stream
(not pond) water until the plugs are saturated

 Be sure the trays are slightly elevated so that they do not sit in puddles of water

LOADING PLANTING PAILS (BAGS) AND

CARRYING SEEDLINGS
The seedlings you receive should be in good condition. Your challenge is to add as little new
stress as possible because stressed seedlings are more likely to stagnate and die after planting

You can keep further seedling stress to a minimum by observing the following rules:

 Do not open storage bags until ready to plant

 Reseal partially used storage bags as quickly as possible

 Do not use planting bags with rips or holes that would allow air in to dry roots

 Dip roots in well oxygenated (not stagnant) cool, stream water up to one minute
before planting if necessary

 Put five centimetres of fresh, cool water or a saturated sponge moss in the
bottom of the planting pail. Change the water as you add a new group of seedlings

 Cut the bundling elastics; don’t rip them off. Separate the bundles or container
plugs carefully, without stripping roots or loosening plugs

 Tightly close the storage bags or boxes each time you remove trees
 Load planting pails in the shade and out of the wind

 Place seedlings quickly into the planting pail

 Do not prune roots, especially if you see new white root tips

 Place seedlings in an upright position and pack loosely so that removal will not
damage the tender roots

 If using a bag, collapse the top to keep in the moisture

 Before stopping for a break, empty the planting pail. If you must stop with trees
left in the container place it in the shade
Garden nursery – tips and ideas how
to start your own plant nursery
What is a garden nursery? How can you design one in your backyard? What do
you need to know about the layout, the design and the plants? We shall try to give
you some useful tips and ideas as plant nurseries, as a small home business, are
gaining popularity and if gardening is your hobby, it could be a good start into a
future career.

Garden nurseries are designed so that young plants can be propagated and cared
for. In professional garden centers you may see one or more greenhouses which
protect the plants from extreme temperatures, heat or frost. Some nursery gardens
have outdoor areas as well. The garden nursery requires a watering system as well
so that the plants grow and develop in the best conditions

The process of starting a backyard nursery includes the usual steps – planning,
designing, production and marketing
 BLACK SOFT POTS

SEEDLING TRAY

BLACK MULCHING FILM

 SELECT SITE FOR PLANTING VEGETABLE CROPS

INTRODUCTION

This lesson deals with the different factors to consider in selecting the site for planting vegetable
crops. It also includes soil system and soil analysis.

ASSESSMENT CRITERIA:

1. The site selected is appropriate for the vegetable production.

2. The site selected is accessible to roads, transportation, facilities, water supply, and
market.
3. The pH level of the soil is analyzed.

DEFINITION OF TERMS:

1. Climate- the average condition in a locality in relation to temperature and moisture.

2. Weather- the condition of the atmosphere with reference to its pressure, temperature,
moisture, the presence of clouds and the direction and velocity of the wind at any given
moment.
3. Topography- the physical features of the land surface, whether it is sloping, flat/level, or
hilly/mountainous.
Factors in selecting a site

In selecting land for agricultural use, look for the following characteristics which contribute to its
beneficial use:

General characteristics of a good farm land

 Absence of squatters and other prior claimants; land with titles are preferred.
 Accessibility to or easily reached by motor vehicles, railroad, farm vehicles,
river transportation, near air and sea – ports existing or proposed.
 Near sources of potable and irrigation waters.
 Near market or sources of food
 Near school, churches, health and medical facilities.
 Fertile soil
 With level or gently rolling topography
 Satisfactorily peace and order condition
 Adequate supply of labor, preferably cheap labor, as well of skilled laborers
including tractor operations and mechanics.

Other factors to consider in site selection

a. Topography of the land

One factor to consider in site selection for vegetable production is the

topography of the land. Soil is vital part of the earth. Without good soil, no crops
could be grown.

b. Nearness to road and transportation facilities

Vegetables are perishable. They are best liked when they are fresh and of
good quality. If the site is accessible to all forms of transportation, vegetable
products are easily transported without damage.

c. Availability of water supply

All parts of the land needs water. No plant will survive without water.
Water is an essential factor in the production of vegetable crops. Water dissolves
plant nutrients in the soil to be supplied to the different parts of the plant. Plants
can be classified according to their water requirements such as hydrophytes,
mesophytes, and xerophytes.

d. Climate requirements
The climate is mainly governed by 1. Temperature, 2. Water, and 3.
light.

There are three basic temperatures necessary for the germination and the
growth of each species. First, the minimum temperature limits of the growth of
plants. If the temperature goes below the minimum temperature, the plant will
 not grow or will be stunted. Second, the maximum temperature which will make
the plants grow fast.

Plants which require cool temperature like Irish potato, peas and others should be planted during
the cool season and in mountainous or high places like Baguio and Benguet. Plants like peanuts, eggplant,
tomato, and pepper require a high temperature.

Temperature affects some vital processes inside the plant like photosynthesis,
respiration, absorption of water and minerals and in germination of seeds. Enzymes which speed up these
processes are affected by temperature. An example is in seed germination. The stored food in the
endosperm before the seeds develop should be dissolved in order to be used as food. If the temperature is
low or high for the temperature requirement of the enzyme, they will not dissolve the stored food.

This is also true in photosynthesis and in plant respiration. If it is too hot, the chlorophyll present
in the leaves maybe destroyed. That is why you can see burnt portions in leaves during the hot season. On
the other hand, when it is cool, the water in the soil gets a bit concentrated, and diluted if the temperature
is hot. Water and minerals can readily be absorbed if the soil solution is diluted.

Water serves as a solvent. Nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, and the other food elements
cannot be taken up by the plant unless there is water in the soil, serving as a solvent for the plant for
which, in the form of a solution, is observed by the roots.

Water is present in the soil either as free water, as capillary water, or as hygroscopic water. Free
water is not used by the plant; however, it is injurious to certain crops and, for their proper growth, should
be removed by drainage. Capillary water is water which adheres to soil particles and is found in the
opening between them. This is the water that is of immediate service to the plant. Hygroscopic water
exists as a film surrounding and is held firmly by the soil particles. It is only given by soil particles when
this are subjected to a very high temperature. This water is an emergency substitute for capillary water
when the latter is not available in case of severe drought.

Light affects the growth of crop plants mainly through affecting (1) their structural
development, (2) their food production, and (3) the time required of certain species of varieties to produce
seeds. Like these necessary for photosynthesis and is therefore required by green plants for the
manufacturing of food. Many plants are influenced by the length of day especially with regard to
flowering, fruiting, and production of seeds. This affect of light is know as photo periodism. Some plants
are know as long- day plants and others as short day plants. The long-day plants need a comparatively
long day for flowering, and their vegetative growth increases when the days are short. The short-day
plants such as corn, soybeans and, sorghum achieve their vegetative growth when the days are long. They
flower and produce seeds when the days are short.
Climate is one of the most important factors which control plant growth and influence crop yield in any
given region from year to year.

Climate and Its Relation to Crop Production

• Climate affects crops and crop production.
• It affects respiration, assimilation, photosynthesis, and other physiological processes in plants.
• A dry climate favors the growth of vegetative leaf formation.
• Climate is also important in the growing of seedlings and cuttings because moisture favors the
development of roots and water is essential for cell growth.
Factors Affecting Climate
1. Latitude - the distance north or south of the equator. As a rule, the farther a region is located from the
equator, the color is its climate.
2.Altitude- an elevation of above sea level. In higher elevation, the temperature is lower than at sea level.

3. Mountain Range- affect the wind and humidity.

4. Ocean Currents- affect the temperature of neighboring areas.
5. Vegetation- more forest vegetation are like clouding in a given local.

Soil is defined as the loose and friable material of the earth surface for plants to grow. In certain
places and under certain conditions, soil consists of two principal layers: a more productive top or
surface layer known as surface soil and a less productive under layer known as the sub-soil. The soil is
composed of mineral matter of different sizes of particles known as soil texture with a small proportion of
organic life and mixed with decayed animal and vegetable materials. The soil particles are arranged from
the surface soil to the parent rock such arrangement is called soil profile.

Soil Sampling and Soil Analysis

Soil sampling and soil analysis are important to determine the pH level of the soil and the
nutrients present in the soil. Results of the soil analysis will the basis for fertilizer application.

Steps on Proper Soil Sampling

1. Make a map of the farm showing sampling areas (SA). Divide the farm into sampling areas. Each
SA should be more or less uniform in cropping history, past lime and fertilizer treatments, slop,
degree of erosion, and soil texture and color.
2. Collect spot soil samples from each SA. In each SA dig 5 to 10 pits and collect sample from each pit.
The number of spot soil samples depends on the size of the Sampling Areas. Spot sample is taken in the
following manner:
A. Before digging the pit, clear the soil surface of the litters and vegetation.
B. Using spade or shovel, dig a pit to a depth of 20-30cm.
C. From one vertical side of the pit, take as slice of 2-3cm thick with a single downward thrust of the
spade. Using a knife or a trowel, trim the slice of soil on both sides to a bar 3-4cm width.
D. Place this bar of soil (representing one spot soil sample) in pail or any suitable clean container.
E. If the subsoil sample is needed, take a bar of soil from the succeeding 20 to 30cm soil depth. The
subsoil and surface sample should be placed in separate containers.
F. Cover the pit and move to another spot.

3. Take composite soil sample. After collecting all the spot soil samples of a particular sampling area,
pulverize as you mix them thoroughly, remove the stones and fresh leaves. Then air-dry the soil samples.
Place the composite soil sample (about ½ kg) in a clean plastic bag. After that, the composite soil samples
which represents the soil of the sampling areas, is now ready for chemical analysis. This may also be sent
to a soil testing laboratory with pertinent label and information.
 PREPARE THE LAND FOR PLANTING VEGETABLE CROPS

Definition of terms

 Clearing of land – the removal of materials from the land which will obstruct or make subsequent
cultural operations difficult.
 Tillage – the stirring of the soil for the purpose of facilitating the growth of plants. It is the
operation of stirring, breaking up, and pulverizing the soil by means of plow, harrow,
cultivator, hoe, tractor, and other implements.

Importance of thorough land preparation

Thorough land preparation for planting crops ensures proper growth of crops. A good harvest will
not be attained unless the soil is properly cultivated. The benefits derived from thorough land preparation
are as follows:
 The soil moisture is conserved
 The growth of weeds is controlled
 The soil is loosen, thus allowing free circulation of air.
 The rate of decomposition of animal wastes and plant residues is faster.

Moisture conservation in soil is important especially in places where dry season is longer than the
rainy season. To conserve moisture, the soil should be cultivated often. Cultivation prevents rapid
evaporation of moisture from the soil by channeling the flow of water downward rather than spreading it
on the surface. More water could then be stored.
In many ways, weeds are enemies of plants. They use much of the water and mineral nutrients
available to the plants to support their growth. Tall weeds shade the crops which prevent the plants to
from taking in sunlight needed for the manufacturing of food. Pests and diseases also temporarily reside
among the weeds. All of these can be prevented through proper cultivation of the soil.
Tilling is the operation involved in stirring the soil. Soil which is properly cultivated makes possible
proper utilization of nutrients by the plants. It likewise improves aeration enabling the roots to develop
and branch out rapidly. It stimulates micro-organisms to act on the dead leaves and animal wastes so they
can be used readily by the plants.

Steps in Preparing the land

Thorough land preparation is achieved by following these steps, as follows:

1. Clear the land from heavy trashes like big stones, tall grasses, branches of trees, and
others.
2. Plow and harrow the field 2-3 times. After the first plowing and harrowing, leave the
field for sometime to let weed seeds to germinate. After they have germinated, plow and
harrow again to eradicate the weeds.
3. At the last harrowing where final pulverizing and leveling of the land is done, incorporate
organic matter for better growth of the vegetable crops.
4. Make furrows based on the recommended distance of planting or construct the beds if
necessary.
 SELECT QUALITY SEEDS

DEFINITION OF TERMS:

1. seed – a fertilized and ripened ovule which may develop into a plant by germination.
2. seed testing - the operation involved in determining whether or not seeds are viable, free from
diseases,
injuries, and foreign matter or their combination.
3. Germination – the development of the seed into a young plant.
4. dormancy – a period in which a plant has no active growth in response to harsh environmental
conditions.
It also refers to the rest period of seeds.

Securing seeds
Several ways of securing seeds to be planted
1. You can buy seeds from agricultural supply store.
2. You can also produce your own seeds to plant.
3. reputable seedman
4. Bureau of Plant Industry
5. Department of Agriculture

Factors to consider when securing seeds to plant

 Quality of the product
 Adaptation of seed’s to one’s locality

Advantages of producing your own seeds

 Supply of seeds for your farm is always made available.
 Higher percentage of germination is assured.
 Improvement of quality and quantity of the produce is possible.

Disadvantages of producing your own seeds

 Seed growing is an exacting work.
 It competes with the normal work in the nursery.
 It calls for knowledge of the principles of plant breeding
 It calls for keen observation
 It requires close application for details.
Why do some seeds fail to germinate

 The seeds are in their dormant stage

 The seed coat is thick and hard
 The seeds are immature
 The seeds have dead embryo
 The field is not favorable for germination
 The weather is too cold

Determining the percentage of germination

Below are the rules in computing the % of germination of seeds

Rule 1: if you test 100 seeds, the number of seeds germinated is equivalent to the percentage germination
of the seeds.

Example : You tested 100 seeds of eggplant using the ragdoll method. Eighty five seeds germinated. The
percentage of germination of the seeds then is 85%.

Rule 2: If you test less than or more than 100 seeds used, the formula below in computing the % of
germination of the seeds.

Example: Mr. X tested 125 seeds of hybrid tomato and 105 germinated. What is the % germination of
tomato seeds?

No. of seeds germinated

% germination = ------------------------------- x 100
No. of seeds tested

105
= --------------- x 100
125

10500
= -----------------
125
% germination = 84%

Rule 3. If you found out that the percentage of germination of your seeds is below 80, you need to adjust
your seed bulk. Use the formula below in adjusting the seed bulk.

Amount of seed tested

Adjusted amount of seed = ------------------------------------- x 100
% germination
Example:
You needed 200 seedlings to plant in your garden. You found out that your seeds have only 75%
germination. How many seeds will you sow?

Let x = the number of seeds to sow or your adjusted seeds

200
X = ----------- x 100
75
111
= ---------- x 100
75

= 266.6 or 267 seeds

Preparing the seed beds/ seed boxes and sowing of seeds

In large scale planting, the vegetable seedlings are raised in outdoor seed beds instead in seed
boxes. In this system, the seedlings may be raised economically. The seed bed should be carefully
prepared by spading and raking to pulverize the soil. Improvement may be made by adding the prepared
growing media.
A 1x10 square meter seed bed is good enough. It is 5 to 10 cm above the level of the ground.

Sowing seeds

Sowing is the most important operation in crop production. The seed must be placed at a required
depth in a moist soil so as to get optimum condition for its germination.
Too shallow sowing results in thin germination due to inadequate soil moisture at top soil layer.
Similarly, if the seeds are sown very deep in the soil, the young seedlings may not be able to push their
shoots above through thick soil layer. Seed must be sown at proper depth and should be properly covered
with soil so as to get the adequate moisture for its germination.

If you are planning to produce seedlings for backyard garden, it is convenient to sow the seeds in
seed boxes, plastic cups, fruit juice containers, small polyethylene bags or germinating trays.
However, if you intend to plant in commercial scale, it is logical to sow the seeds in seed beds
because one hectare of solanaceous crops require 52,000 to 68,000 seedlings which need 10 plots
measuring 1x10 square meters.

Steps in sowing seeds in seed boxes and seed beds

1. moisten the soil.

2. Sow the seeds in rows or broadcast evenly and thinly. Broadcasting is less satisfactory than
sowing the seeds in rows a few centimeters apart unless pricking is to be done. Broadcasting of
seeds, however, is not advisable because of the following reasons:
 The air circulation between the plants is not sufficient.
 Seedlings dry less quickly, and such a condition is favorable for the growth of fungi.
 Weeds are harder to control.
 It is hard to produce stocky seedlings because the seeds are not properly covered with
soil.
3. cover the seeds with thin layer of fine soil sufficient enough to cover the fine seeds.
4. press down firmly the whole surface of th seedbox or seed bed with a flat board to ensure compact
surface.
5. water the seed beds/ seed boxes using a sprinkler with fine holes or water hose with fine spray.
 MANAGEMENT OF SEEDLINGS

Definition of terms

1. hardening – – the practice of gradually exposing the seedlings to extreme temperature either too hot or
too cold at least a week before transplanting

2. . pricking – The transferring of young seedlings when they have already developed the first two true
leaves from thickly populated seedbed or seed box.
3. Thinning – the process of reducing the number of seedlings that are thickly populated
4. . Roguing - the removal of infected or diseased seedlings.

Seeds even have their own food supply to start them off at least until they can extend roots and
draw food and water from the soil.

Before sowing, water the seed beds, seed boxes, and trays to give the seeds a good start.
Thereafter, these should also be fertilized as the case maybe, sprayed to control insect pests and diseases.
Remove weeds whenever necessary

Care of germinating seedlings

 Protect the seeds sown in seed beds from ants by spraying insecticides which drive away ants. In
case of seed boxes, let the legs of the seed boxes stand in cans filled with water and little
petroleum to prevent the ants from reaching the seed boxes.
 Seed boxes should be placed under the shade and should be provided with temporary shelter.
 Regulate watering. Too much or too little of it it may prevent germination.

Care of seedlings

 When seedlings are already growing, water them once with 3-4 tablespoons of ammonium sulfate
dissolved in sprinkler of water.
 Expose the seedlings to the morning sun not later than 9 o’clock in the morning everyday. The
length of exposure depends upon the resistance of the seedlings to heat.
 Protect the seedlings from excessive heat or strong rain.
 If damping-off develops, immediately the infected seedlings with the soil surrounding them. Burn
the infected seedlings and soil to avoid further spread of the diseases.

Pricking

In cases where seedlings in seed boxes or seed beds is thickly populated, practice pricking out.
This is done by transferring young seedlings ( when the first two true leaves have already been
developed) to another seed box or seed bed or on individual seedling bags.
The rule in pricking is never the plants by their stems, which bruise easily, but always their roots.
Others use a sharpened wood or a metal device called dibble to separate and ease out the seedlings, taking
care not to damage the delicate roots.
Hardening off

It will be necessary to harden off your seedlings before transplanting them into the garden beds.
This is accomplished by placing the seedlings outside in a sheltered location.at this point the seedlings are
very tender and could easily be broken by wind and rain. Start out by placing the seedlings in full
morning sunlight for one hour. Increase the time for full sunlight, gradually adding time each day. Protect
your seedlings from wind and animals to prevent breakage of the tender vegetation. Within a week your
seedlings should be able to withstand full sunlight the whole day without wilting or burning the tender
leaves.

Thinning and roguing

Some plants with tiny seeds are delicate. They can be sown along a shallow drill and later some
seedlings can be pulled out leaving the healthy seedlings about 5cm apart. This is called thinning.
Meanwhile, the process of pulling out disease-infected or damaged seedlings is roguing.

Thinning is the process of reducing the number of seedlings in the seed bed or seed box. This
should be done as follows:
 Moisten the seed box or seed beds few hours before thinning.
 Remove the weak, unhealthy and poor- looking seedlings. Immediately compress back firmly the
disturbed soil with your hands.
 Throw the seedlings being pulled out or bury them into the soil.

Advantages of thinning

Thinning accelerates the free circulation of air which makes the seedlings sturdier and healthier.
If the right amount or quality of seeds is sown evenly, there is no need of thinning.
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