CE 261

Fluid Mechanics

Fluid Statics

Dr. Shakil Ahmed

Assistant Professor
Department of Civil Engineering (CE)
East West University (EWU)

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 Introduction
 In fluids at rest there are no shear stresses; hence only normal
forces due to pressure are present.

 Understanding them, we can also develop instruments to measure

pressures, and systems that transfer pressures, such as for
automobile brakes and hoists.

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 Introduction

 The average pressure intensity p is the force exerted on a unit

area. If F represents the total normal pressure force on some
finite area A, while dF represents the force on an infinitesimal
area dA, the pressure is

If the pressure is uniform over the total area, then p = F/A.

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 3.1 Pressure at a Point the Same in All
Directions
 No tangential stresses can exist in a fluid at rest, and the only
forces between adjacent surfaces are pressure forces normal to
the surfaces.

 Therefore the pressure at any point in a fluid at rest is the same

in every direction.

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 3.1 Pressure at a Point the Same in All
Directions

Figure 3.1: A small wedge shaped element of fluid at rest (2-D).

 The wedge shaped element of fluid at Fig. 3.1 has constant

thickness perpendicular to the plane of the paper of dy.

 Let p be the average pressure in any direction in the plane of the

paper, α be as shown, and px and pz be the average pressures in
the horizontal and vertical directions.

 Being a condition of equilibrium, sum of the force components

on the element in any direction must be equal to zero.
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 3.1 Pressure at a Point the Same in All
Directions

Figure 3.1: A small wedge shaped element of fluid at rest (2-D).

 Hence for the components in the x direction,

pdldycosα – px dydz = 0.
 Since dz = dlcosα, it follows that p = px .
 Similarly, summing forces in the z direction gives
pzdxdy – pdldysinα – ½*γdxdydz = 0.
 The third term is of higher order than the other two terms and so
may be neglected.
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 3.1 Pressure at a Point the Same in
All Directions

Figure 3.1: A small wedge shaped element of fluid at rest (2-D).

 It follows from this that p = pz .

 We can also prove that p = py by considering a three-dimensional
case.
 The results are independent of α; thus the pressure at any point in
a fluid at rest is the same in all directions.

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 3.2 Variation of Pressure in a Static
Fluid

Figure 3.2: A differential element (or control volume) of static

fluid.
 The differential element (or control volume) of static fluid shown
in Fig. 3.2 is very small, and hence it can be assumed that the
density of the fluid within the element is constant. (Here, axes are
different than that of Fig. 3.1.)
 Let us assume that the pressure at the center of the element is p.
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 3.2 Variation of Pressure in a Static
Fluid

Figure 3.2: A differential element (or control volume) of static

fluid.
 Forces acting on the fluid element in the vertical direction are
 the body force, the action of gravity on the mass within the element, and
 the surface forces, transmitted from the surrounding fluid and acting at
right angles against the top, bottom and sides of the element.

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 3.2 Variation of Pressure in a Static
Fluid

Figure 3.2: A differential element (or control volume) of static

fluid.
 Because the fluid is at rest, the element is in equilibrium and the
summation of forces acting on the element in any direction must
be zero.

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 3.2 Variation of Pressure in a Static Fluid

Figure 3.2: A differential element (or control volume) of static

fluid.
 Summing forces in the vertical direction and setting the sum
equal to zero,

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 3.2 Variation of Pressure in a Static Fluid
 Which gives p z   , which, since p is independent of x and y,
we can write as,

 This is the general expression that relates variation of pressure in

a static fluid to vertical position.

 The minus sign indicates that as z gets larger (increasing

elevation), the pressure gets smaller.

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 3.2 Variation of Pressure in a Static Fluid
Sample Problem 3.1: Compute the atmospheric pressure at
elevation 20,000 ft, considering the atmosphere as a static fluid.
Assume standard atmosphere at sea level. Assume air of constant
density.
Solution:
From Appendix A, Table A.3, p1 = 14.70 psi, γ1 = 0.07648 lb/ft3,
where subscript 1 indicates conditions at our reference elevation,
sea level.

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 3.2 Variation of Pressure in a Static Fluid
Constant density

so

and

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 3.2 Variation of Pressure in a Static Fluid
 For the case of a liquid at rest, it is convenient to measure
distances vertically downward from the free liquid surface.

 If h is the distance below the free liquid surface and if the

pressure of air and vapor on the surface is arbitrarily taken as
zero, we can write
Incompressible: p  h  gh (3.4)
(Note +ve sign)

 In fact, there must always be some pressure on the surface of any

liquid, so the total pressure at any depth h is given by Eq.
(3.4) plus the pressure on the surface.

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 3.2 Variation of Pressure in a Static Fluid
 In many situations this surface pressure may be disregarded, as is
pointed out in Sec. 3.4.

 From Eq. 3.4, we can see that all points in a connected body of
constant density fluid at rest are under the same pressure if they
are at the same depth below the liquid surface.

.
 This is known as Pascal's law.

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 3.3 Pressure Expressed in Height of Fluid

Figure 3.3: Open tank of liquid.

 Fig. 3.3 depicts an open tank of liquid with no pressure acting on
its surface (disregarding the minimum pressure upon any liquid
surface caused by its own vapor).

 From Eq. 3.4, if we assume γ to be constant, there is a definite

relation between p and h, i.e., pressure is equivalent to a height
h of some fluid of constant specific weight γ. 17 of 128
 3.3 Pressure Expressed in Height of Fluid

Figure 3.3: Open tank of liquid.

 It is in fact more convenient to express pressure in terms of a
height of a column of fluid rather than in pressure per unit area.

 Based on Eq. 3.4, may relate pressure p to the height of a

column of any fluid by the expression

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 3.3 Pressure Expressed in Height of
Fluid

 The relationship from Eq. 3.5 is true for any consistent system of
units.
 When we express pressure in this way, in terms of height of fluid,
we commonly refer to it as pressure head.
 Since we commonly express pressure in pounds per square inch
(or kPa in SI units), and since we usually assume the value of γ
for water to be 62.4 lb/ft3 (9.81 kN/m3), a convenient relationship
is
p=γh = 62.4 lb/ft3 x 1 ft = 62.4 lb/ft2
Or, h=p/ γ= 62.4 lb/ft2 / 62.4 lb/ft3 = 1 ft

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 3.3 Pressure Expressed in Height of
Fluid
 Often we find it more convenient to express pressure occurring in
one fluid in terms of the height of another fluid, e.g., barometric
pressure in millimeters of mercury.

 An important property for an incompressible fluid at rest can be

expressed as:

 This shows that for an incompressible fluid at rest, at any

point in the fluid the sum of the elevation z and the pressure
head p/γ is equal to the sum of these two quantities at any
other point.

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 3.3 Pressure Expressed in Height of
Fluid
 The significance of this statement is that, in a fluid at rest, with
an increase in elevation there is a decrease in pressure head,
and vice versa.

 This concept is depicted in Fig. 3.4.

pA pB
 zA   zB
 

Figure 3.4: Concept of change in pressure head with elevation.

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 3.3 Pressure Expressed in Height of
Fluid
Sample Problem 3.2: An open tank contains water 1.40 m deep
covered by a 2-m-thick layer of oil (s = 0.855). What is the pressure
head at the bottom of the tank, in terms of a water column?
Solution 1:

So = γo/ γw

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3.3 Pressure Expressed in Height of
Fluid

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 3.3 Pressure Expressed in Height of
Fluid

Alternative Solution (Solution 2):

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Absolute and Gage Pressure

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 Absolute and Gage Pressure
 If we measure pressure relative to absolute zero, we call it
absolute pressure; when we measure it relative to atmospheric
pressure as a base, we call it gage pressure.

 If the pressure is below that of the atmosphere, we call it a

vacuum, and its gage value is the amount by which it is below
that of the atmosphere.

 What we call a high vacuum is really a low absolute pressure;

a perfect vacuum would correspond to absolute zero pressure.

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 Absolute and Gage Pressure
 In thermodynamics it is essential to use absolute pressure,
because most thermal properties are functions of the actual
(absolute) pressure of the fluid, regardless of the atmospheric
pressure.

 Pressure does not usually much affect the properties of liquids, so

we commonly use gage pressures in problems dealing with
liquids.

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Absolute and Gage Pressure

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Measuring Pressure

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Absolute and Gage Pressure

Pa=γwhw=γoho =>hw = (γoho) /γw =ho.S =>hw =ho.S

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 3.6 Force on a Plane Area
 No tangential force can exist within a fluid at rest; all forces are
then normal to the surfaces in question.

 If the pressure is uniformly distributed over an area, the point of

application of the force is at the centroid of the area.

 In the case of compressible fluids (gases), the pressure variation

with vertical distance is very small because of the low specific
weight.

 Therefore, when we compute the static fluid force exerted by a

gas, we usually treat p as a constant. Thus, for such cases,

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 3.6 Force on a Plane Area
 For liquids the distribution of pressure is
generally not uniform.
 Let us consider a vertical plane whose upper
edge lies in the free surface of a liquid (Fig.
3.15).
 Let this plane be perpendicular to the plane of
the figure, so that MN is merely its trace, or
edge.
 The gage pressure will vary from zero at M to
NK at N.
Figure 3.15: Pressure
 Resultant of this system of parallel forces Distributions on two
must act at a point below the centroid of the vertical plane areas
(viewed from edges).
area, since the centroid of an area is the point
where the resultant of a system of uniform
parallel forces would act. 42 of 128
 3.6 Force on a Plane Area
 If we lower the plane to position M′N′, the
proportionate change of pressure from M′ to
N′ is less than it was from M to N.

 Hence the resultant pressure force will act

nearer to the centroid of the plane surface.

 The deeper we submerge the plane, the

smaller the proportional pressure variation
becomes, and the closer the resultant moves to
the centroid. Figure 3.15: Pressure
Distributions on two
vertical plane areas
(viewed from edges).

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 3.6 Force on a Plane Area
 In Fig. 3.16 let MN be the edge of a plane area making an angle
θ with the horizontal.
 To the right we see the projection of this area onto a vertical
plane.
 The pressure distribution over the sloping area forms a pressure
prism (MNKJ times width in Fig. 3.16), whose volume is equal
to the total force F acting on the area.
 If the width x is constant then we can easily compute the volume
of the pressure prism, using a mean pressure = 0.5(MJ + NK),
and so obtain F.

Figure 3.16: Pressure distribution on a sloping plane area (viewed from edge). C is
centroid, P is center of pressure. Sloping y distances correspond to vertical h
distances. 44 of 128
 3.6 Force on a Plane Area
 If x varies, we must integrate to find F.
 Let h be the variable depth to any point and let y be the
corresponding distance from OX, the intersection of the plane
containing the area and the free surface.
 Let us choose an element of area that has uniform pressure over
it. Such an element is a horizontal strip, of width x, so dA = xdy.
As p = γh and h = ysinθ, the force dF on the horizontal strip is

Figure 3.16: Pressure distribution on a sloping plane area (viewed from edge). C is
centroid, P is center of pressure. Sloping y distances correspond to vertical h
distances. 45 of 128
 3.6 Force on a Plane Area
where yc is, by definition, the distance from OX along the sloping
plane to the centroid C of the area A. If hc is the vertical depth to
the centroid, then hc = ycsinθ, and in general we have

 Thus we find the total force on any plane area submerged in a

liquid by multi plying the specific weight of the liquid by the
product of the area and the depth of its centroid.

Figure 3.16: Pressure distribution on a sloping plane area (viewed from edge). C is
centroid, P is center of pressure. Sloping y distances correspond to vertical h
distances. 46 of 128
 3.7 Center of Pressure
 The point of application of the resultant pressure force on a
submerged area is called the center of pressure.

 The most general way of looking at the problem of forces on a

submerged plane area is through the use of the recently
discussed pressure prism concept (Sec. 3.6 and Fig. 3.16).

 The line of action of the resultant pressure force must pass

through the centroid of the pressure prism (volume).

Figure 3.16: Pressure distribution on a sloping plane area (viewed from edge). C is
centroid, P is center of pressure. Sloping y distances correspond to vertical h
distances. 47 of 128
 3.7 Center of Pressure
 As noted earlier, this concept is very
convenient to apply for simple areas such as
rectangles.

 For example, if the submerged area in Fig.

3.15 is of constant width then we know that
the centroid of the pressure prism on area
MN is 2/3MN below M.

Figure 3.15: Pressure

Distributions on two
vertical plane areas
(viewed from edges).

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 3.7 Center of Pressure
 If the shape of the area is not so regular, i.e., if the width x in
Fig. 3.16 varies, then we must take moments and integrate.
 Taking OX in Fig. 3.16 as an axis of moments, the moment of an
elementary force dF = γysinθdA is

and if yp denotes the distance to the center of pressure, using

the basic concept that the moment of the resultant force
equals the sum of the moments of the component forces,
So, ypF = ∫ydF

where Io is the moment of inertia about axis OX.

Figure 3.16: Pressure distribution on a sloping plane area (viewed from edge). C is
centroid, P is center of pressure. Sloping y distances correspond to vertical h
distances. 51 of 128
 3.7 Center of Pressure
 If we divide this last expression by the value of F given by Eq.
(3.15), we obtain

 The product ycA is the static moment of area A about OX.

 Therefore Eq. (3.17) tells us that we can obtain the distance from
the center of pressure to the axis where the plane (extended)
intersects the liquid surface by dividing the moment of inertia of
the area A about the surface axis by its static moment about the
same axis.

Figure 3.16: Pressure distribution on a sloping plane area (viewed from edge). C is
centroid, P is center of pressure. Sloping y distances correspond to vertical h
distances. 52 of 128
 3.7 Center of Pressure
 We may also express this in another form, by noting from the
parallel axis theorem that

where Ic is the moment of inertia of an area about its centroidal

axis
 By substituting for Io into Eq. (3.17),

so

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 Center of Pressure
 From this equation, we again see that the location of the center
of pressure P is independent of the angle θ.

 Also, P is always below the centroid C and that, as the depth of

immersion is increased, yc increases and therefore P approaches
C.

(Table A.7 of Appendix A contains values of yc and Ic for a

variety of area shapes.)

Figure 3.16: Pressure distribution on a sloping plane area (viewed from edge). C is
centroid, P is center of pressure. Sloping y distances correspond to vertical h
distances. 54 of 128
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Force on a Submerged Curved Surface

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Force on a Submerged Curved Surface

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Force on a Submerged Curved Surface

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Given that, that center of gravity of quadrant of circle is = 4R/(3π) from base.

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 3.9 Buoyancy and Stability of Submerged and
Floating Bodies: Submerged Body
 When a body such as DHCK in Fig. 3.18 is immersed in a fluid,
the forces acting on it are gravity and the pressures of the
surrounding fluid.

 On its upper surface the vertical component of the force is Fz

and is equal to the weight of the volume of fluid ABCHD.

 In a similar manner, the vertical component of force on the un-

der surface is Fz' and is equal to the weight of the volume of
fluid ABCKD. The difference between these two volumes is the
volume V of the body DHCK.

Figure 3.18: Forces acting on a body immersed in a fluid. 66 of 128

 3.9 Buoyancy and Stability of Submerged and
Floating Bodies: Submerged Body
Buoyancy:
 Let us denote the buoyant force of a fluid by FB, and observe
that it is vertically upward and equal to Fz' ‒ Fz, which is equal
to the weight of the volume of fluid DHCK.
 That is, the buoyant force on any body is equal to the weight of
fluid displaced, or in equation form,

 This is probably the best known discovery of Archimedes (287-

212 B.C.), a Greek philosopher acclaimed as the father of
hydrostatics, and one of the earliest known pioneers of fluid
mechanics.

Figure 3.18: Forces acting on a body immersed in a fluid. 67 of 128

 3.9 Buoyancy and Stability of Submerged and
Floating Bodies: Submerged Body
 If the body in Fig. 3.18 is in equilibrium, W is equal and
opposite to FB, which means that the densities of the body and
the fluid are equal.

 If W is less than FB, the body will rise until its density and that
of the fluid are equal, as in the case of a balloon in the air or, in
the case of a liquid with a free surface.

Figure 3.18: Forces acting on a body immersed in a fluid. 68 of 128

 3.9 Buoyancy and Stability of Submerged and
Floating Bodies: Submerged Body
Stability:
 When we give a body in equilibrium a slight angular
displacement (tilt ot list), a horizontal distance a then separates
W and FB, which in combination create moments that tend to
rotate the body, as we can see in Fig. 3.19.

 If the moments tend to restore the body to its original position,

the lesser of the two moments is called the righting moment
(Fig. 3.19), and we say the body is in stable equilibrium.

Figure 3.19: Submerged body (balloon). 69 of 128

 3.9 Buoyancy and Stability of Submerged and
Floating Bodies: Submerged Body
 The buoyant force acts through the center of buoyancy B, which
corresponds to the center of gravity of the displaced fluid.

 The criterion for stability of a fully submerged body (balloon or

submarine, etc.) is that the center of buoyancy is above the
center of gravity of the body.

 From Fig. 3.19 we can see that if B were initially below G, the
center of gravity, then the moment created by a tilt would tend to
increase the displacement.

Figure 3.19: Submerged body (balloon). 70 of 128

 3.9 Buoyancy and Stability of Submerged and
Floating Bodies: Floating Body
 For a body in a liquid with a free surface, if its weight W is less
than that of the same volume of liquid, it will rise and float on
the surface as in Fig. 3.20, so that W = FB.

 The forces then acting on body AHBK are gravity and the
pressures of the fluids in contact with it.

 The vertical component of force on the undersurface is Fz' and

and this is equal to the weight of the volume of liquid AKB.

 This volume is the volume of liquid displaced by the body.

Figure 3.20: Floating body. 71 of 128

 3.9 Buoyancy and Stability of Submerged and
Floating Bodies: Floating Body
Buoyancy:
 A floating body displaces a volume of liquid equivalent to its
weight.

 For equilibrium, the two forces W and FB must be equal and

opposite, and must lie in the same vertical line.

 Any buoyancy due to the weight of air displaced by the portion

of the body above the liquid surface is usually negligible in
comparison with the weight of liquid displaced.

Figure 3.20: Floating body. 72 of 128

 3.9 Buoyancy and Stability of Submerged and
Floating Bodies: Floating Body
Stability:
 If a righting moment develops when a floating body lists, the
body will be stable regardless of whether the center of buoyancy
is above or below the center of gravity.
 Examples of stable and unstable floating bodies are shown in
Fig. 3.22, where the stable body is the one where the center of
buoyancy B is above the center of gravity G (Fig. 3.22a), and the
unstable body has B below G (Fig. 3.22b).
 However, for floating bodies note that the location of B below
G does not guarantee instability as it does for submerged
bodies, discussed previously.

Figure 3.22: Stability of floating body. 73 of 128

 3.9 Buoyancy and Stability of Submerged and
Floating Bodies: Floating Body
 This is because the position of the center of buoyancy B can
move relative to a floating body as it tilts, due to its shape,
whereas for a fully submerged body the position of B is fixed
relative to the body.

 Figure 3.23 illustrates this point; from these cross sections

through the hull of a ship we can see that it is stable even though
B is below G.

 Because of the cross-sectional shape, as the ship tilts to the right

(Fig. 3.23b) the center of gravity of the displaced water (i.e., B)
moves to the right further than the line of action of the body
weight W, and so the buoyancy provides a righting moment FB ×
a.

Figure 3.23: Stability of ship as a floating body. 74 of 128

 3.9 Buoyancy and Stability of Submerged and
Floating Bodies: Floating Body
 Clearly, therefore, the stabilities of many floating bodies (those
with B below G) depend upon their shapes.

 If liquid in the hull of a ship is not constrained, the center of

mass of the floating body will move toward the center of
buoyancy when the ship rolls, thus decreasing the righting
couple and the stability.

 For this reason, floating vessels usually store liquid ballast or

fuel oil in tanks or bulkhead compartments.

Figure 3.23: Stability of ship as a floating body. 75 of 128