Frequency-Dependent Equivalent Based on
Idempotent Decomposition and Grouping
Antonio C. S. Lima∗ , Felipe Camara † , João P. L. Salvador‡ Maria Teresa Correia de Barros§
∗
Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, COPPE/UFRJ
†
Furnas Centrais Elétricas, FURNAS/ELETROBRAS
‡ Federal Center of Technological Education “Celso Suckow da Fonseca”, CEFET/RJ
§ Instituto Superior Técnico, IST-ULisboa
Abstract—Accurate representation of Frequency Dependent
Equivalent (FDE) has received a great deal of intense research
in the time-domain transient analysis. Nowadays, a multi-input
multi-output pole residue model is applied for the frequency
domain realization. One common challenge to this approach is
the accurate representation of small eigenvalues which tend to
be poorly fitted. In some cases, a given FDE may presents a
large ratio between eigenvalues at the lower frequency range,
thus being characterized as a stiff system.
In this work, we propose an alternative approach to improve
the observability of these small eigenvalues. First, we use the
idempotent decomposition of an FDE which is then grouped
accordingly the behavior of the associated eigenvalues at the
lower frequency range. These grouped idempotent are then fitted
independently. A discussion of possible passivity enforcement in
the rational approximation is also presented. A nonuniform line
associated with a wide river crossing is used to illustrate the
application. This configuration was chosen due the large ratio
between eigenvalues at the lower frequency range.
Index Terms—rational approximation, idempotent decomposi-
tion, electromagnetic transients, frequency domain.
I. I NTRODUCTION
Power Systems worldwide are becoming increasingly com-
plex, as network expansion together with environmental con-
straints have created more connected and asymmetrical con-
figurations. As an example, new circuits may share the same
tower of an existing one or might be closer than usual and the
coupling between circuits cannot be neglected. This might lead
to networks with large dimensions being rather unpractical
when a large set of simulation runs are needed, for instance
when dealing with statistical cases and sensitivity analysis. To
overcome this limitation, a common solution is to divide the
region of interest in two parts, one where there is a detailed
representation of the network and another where an equivalent
is used. For the latter, one can resort to the so-called frequency
dependent equivalent (FDE). The goal of using a FDE can
be summarized as follows. Given a large network containing
This study was financed in part by the Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento
de Pessoal de Nı́vel Superior - Brasil (CAPES), Finance Code 001. It also
was partially supported by INERGE (Instituto Nacional de Energia Elétrica),
CNPq (Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Cientı́fico e Tecnológico), and
FAPERJ (Fundação Carlos Chagas Filho de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado do
Rio de Janeiro).
coupled, distributed and frequency-dependent elements, it is
approximated by a Norton Equivalent. There are a number
of ways to obtain an FDE, for it can rely on a fitting
process in either s or z domains and use polynominal or
pole-residue functions [1]–[5]. The so-called Vector Fitting
(VF) algorithm [6]–[8] created a suitable environment for the
rational approximation of high order transfer functions in the
s-domain. In the remainder of this work, only the VF approach
will be considered for the realization of the frequency domain
equivalents.
In a few scenarios, such as when nonuniform lines are con-
sidered, the FDE obtained present large differences between
eigenvalues. This leads to passivity violations of the fitted
frequency response which causes numerical issues on time-
domain implementation. In this work, we propose an approach
where we evaluate the transient behavior of this equivalent
considering a decomposition of the nodal admittance matrix
represented via its idempotent matrices. The idempotent de-
composition has already been applied to the time-domain mod-
eling of overhead lines [9], [10] and, recently, it was shown
that the idempotent decomposition might represent a feasible
alternative for time-domain modeling of underground cables
in phase-coordinates [11]. Then, we group the idempotent
matrices similarly as in [12], [13], in the so-called Folded
Line Equivalent (FLE). Here we have considered to combine
the idempotent in two sets, one associated with the behavior
of the smallest eigenvalues at the lower frequencies and other
related to the largest eigenvalues also at the lower frequencies,
which are then fitted independently, which is shown to be
crucial for the accuracy of a passive fitted response.
The paper is organized as follows: Section II describes
the idempotent decomposition and the grouping procedure. A
circuit used for the nonuniform line modeling associated with
a wide river crossing is presented as an illustration. Section III
presents a brief review of the rational approximation used in
this paper for the realization of the two groups of idempotent.
A comparison with the fitting results using MRT is also
presented. The time-domain implementation of the FDE model
is discussed in Section IV. The main conclusions of the paper
are presented in Section V. As the approach proposed here can
be understood as a generalization of the FLE, this approach
is summarized in the appendix.
 II. I DEMPOTENT D ECOMPOSITION & G ROUPING
Initially consider the eigen-decomposition of the nodal
admittance matrix of a given network/element Yn as shown
below
Yn = T · ym · T−1 (1)
where ym is a diagonal matrix containing the yi modes and
T is the matrix of eigenvectors. Needless to say that both
matrices are heavily frequency-dependent; only in very simple
cases, a real constant matrix T is found. Expanding T in
columns and T−1 in rows, it is possible to rewrite (1) as
  
y1 · · · 0 S1 k
 . . .
..   ... 
 X
Yn = T1 · · · Tk  .. .. = Mi yi
 
0 · · · yk Sk i=1
(2)
where Ti represents a column vector of T, Si is a row
vector of T−1 and Mi = Ti · Si is an Idempotent Matrix
associated with mode i. Naturally, each Mi yi could be fitted
independently, although this would lead to a considerably
larger FDE, once some of the modes yi present similar
behavior and could be fitted using the same set of poles. To
reduce the number of matrices to be fitted we can group them
accordingly with their behavior at the lower frequency.
In several FDE configurations such as the one associated
with the modeling of a Nonuniform Line (NuL), it is pos-
sible to group the idempotent matrices in two groups. The
first one associated with a behavior much closer to the one
found when only open-circuits are considered and second one
resembles the behavior of short-circuit currents. Assuming that
the eigenvalues are ordered as a function of their behavior at
the lower frequency range, we can write
k n
X X
Yoc = Mi yi Ysc = Mi yi (3)
i=1 i=k+1
and Yn = Yoc + Ysc , where Yoc is a matrix presenting
an open-circuit-like behavior, Ysc is related to short-circuit-
like currents, k is the number of eigenvalues associated with
the open-circuit like behavior and n is the total number of
eigenvalues. For a NuL, k = n/2. It should be mentioned that
ideally the rank of Yoc and Ysc is k while the rank of Yn is
n, however all matrices have the same order.
The idempotent grouping can be understood as a generaliza-
tion of the folded line equivalent (FLE) to nonuniform lines as
represented via a FDE. The main difference is that in FLE Yn
is decomposed in matrices with half of its dimensions obtained
using a constant and real transformation matrix. For the sake
of clarity, a brief review of FLE is shown in Appendix A.
To illustrate the idempotent decomposition and grouping,
we consider the case of an FDE used to represent the modeling
of a nonuniform line (NuL) associated with a wide river
crossing. This circuit is being build in the North region of
Brazil and crosses the Amazon river. The water resistivity
is assumed to be 10 Ω·m. The span between the towers is
���
���
���
�������� [�]
���
���
���
-�� -�� � �� ��
�������� [�]
(a) Bundle conductors and ground wire at the (b) Actual tower
tower
Fig. 1. Twin 500 kV circuit used to cross the Amazon River
approximately 2.2 km. Phase conductors are rail and ground-
wires are 3/8” EHS. The sags are 270 m for phase conductors
and 110 m for ground wires. This configuration is depicted
in Fig. 1. The equivalent nodal admittance matrix is obtained
by using a cascade of several uniform overhead lines with
distinct heights, 35 uniform lines were used and finite length
expression for the per-unit-length parameters were used to
derive each section similarly to what was used in [14]. A
frequency sweep from 0.01 Hz up to 1 MHz using 350 samples
was considered.
The results for the idempotent grouping are presented in
Fig. 2a. Figure 2b depicts the condition number for the
complete system, Yn , Yoc and Ysc . The condition number is
the ratio between largest and smallest eigenvalues presented
in each of these matrices. The grouped idempotent matrices
have a lower condition number regardless of the frequency
band considered.
III. F REQUENCY D OMAIN R EALIZATION
The goal is to obtain rational approximation of a given nodal
admittance matrix Yn such as
N
X Rn
Yn ≈ Yn = sR−1 + R0 + (4)
n=1
s − an
where N is the number of poles (assumed known prior to
the fitting process), an are the common set of poles, Rn
is the matrix of residues which is either real or in complex
conjugates, and R0 and R−1 are real constant matrices. In
the remainder of this work, we assume that the rational
approximation can be achieved using only proper functions,
i.e., R−1 is a null matrix.
For a stable time-domain response associated with Yn , a
passivity enforcement procedure after the fitting is required.
There are a number of available techniques to perform the
passivity enforcement [15]–[18]. Here, we opt to use the
 �� an accurate fitting of the frequency response 160 poles were
�����
considered. It was not possible to enforce passivity for this
Yoc configuration. Figure 3 depicts the behavior of the eigenval-
��������� [�]

����� Ysc
ues of Yn and Yn where it can be observed a noticeable
��-� mismatch at the lower frequencies. Furthermore, this rational
��-� approximation will present an unstable time response as the
��-� pole-residue approximation is not passive.
��� �� ���� ���
��������� [��]

(a) Behavior of the grouped idempotent, Yoc

����
Yn
���
��������� ������

Y oc
��� Y oc

���

���

�
��� �� ���� ���
��������� [��]

(b) Condition number for Yn , Yoc and Ysc

Fig. 2. Behavior of the grouped idempotent

approach proposed in [16]. It should be pointed out that there Fig. 3. Comparison of eigenvalues of Yn and Y n using MRT
are some cases where the passivity enforcement can reduce
the quality of the fitting significantly. Thus it is important to The first issue in the realization of the frequency response
reduce the perturbation of the original approximation to attain of the grouped idempotent matrices is the definition of their
its accuracy. asymptotic behavior in the higher frequency range. Here, we
One challenge in the direct fitting of (4) relies on the postulate that for a very high frequency both matrices tend to
fact that in most cases there is a large ratio between the a real positive define matrix given by R0 /2. Then we subject
smallest and the largest eigenvalues. Thus the overall fitting both matrices to VF assuming a strictly proper functions, i.e.,
N
may present an accurate response and the smallest eigenvalues X Rn
may have a poor fitting leading to inaccuracies when open Yoc − R0 /2 =
n=1
s − an
circuit responses are involved. To overcome this limitation
K
there are some possibilities. One is the usage of Modal Vector X Rm
Ysc − R0 /2 = (5)
Fitting, MVF [19], [20] which has a much slower numerical s − pm
m=1
performance for the pole determination procedure and a very N K
expressive increase in memory requirements; the other is the X Rn X Rm
Yn ≈ R0 + +
usage of a Modal Revealing Transformation (MRT) [21]. A n=1
s − an m=1
s − pm
brief summary of the direct fitting of and the MRT is presented 
in Appendix B. where the poles (an and pm ) and the residue matrices Rm


When an FDE is used to represent a NuL, the usage of the and Rn are obtained independently. Initially, we considered
MRT has shown to improve considerably the quality of the that the number of poles used to fit the grouped idempotent
rational approximation. This can be seen when one compares was not necessarily equal. Considering different values led
the results shown in [22] with those obtained in [23]. One to unnoticeable improvement in the rational approximation or
issue with the MRT relies on the definition of the actual in the number of passivity violations. Therefore, we opted to
mode revealing transformation, i.e., if it can be accurately consider the same number of poles for both realizations, i.e.,
represented as real constant matrix and the frequency used K = N.
in its definition. However, depending on the frequencies of In order to assure a stable time response we need to enforce
interest there are some small deviations and some issues with passivity. Unlike the case when MRT is considered, we have
passivity enforcement might occur. For instance, consider a two independent system and some possibilities arise for the
rational approximation of the wide river crossing based on assessment and enforcement of passivity. We have considered
MRT as proposed in [23]. The difference here lies in the some possible configurations as follows:
frequency range of interest, we consider the response from (a) Enforce the passivity to both matrices combined, i.e., in
0.01 Hz up to 1 MHz instead of 10 Hz to 500 kHz. For Yn ;
 (b) Enforce the passivity in each matrix independently, i.e.,
in Yoc and then in Yoc ;
Table I summarizes the results for the different approaches to
passivity enforcement. In this table, # pv stands for the number
of passivity violations intervals, val means the value of the
largest passivity violations and tpe is the time in seconds to
impose the passivity. All these results were obtained using an
off-shelf computer, 2.5 GHz Intel Core i7 with 16 GB of RAM.
It was rather expected that Yoc presented the largest passivity
violation given that this matrix has the weakly observable
eigenvalues. What came as a surprise was the considerable
increase in the computation time associated with the passivity
enforcement when both matrices are considered together and
as a consequence it has a more pronounced effect in the
accuracy of the eigenvalues at the lower frequency range.

(a) Fitted elements of Y oc

TABLE I
E VALUATION OF DISTINCT PASSIVITY ENFORCEMENT APPROACHES
Matrix # pv val freq. pv (kHz) tpe (s)
Y oc 8 -0.0988 712 307.7
Y sc 5 -0.00351 428 136.75
Y oc + Y sc 9 -3.394 499.5 1934.68

Fig. 4 presents the fitting results of both matrices carried

out independently, which show highest accuracy. It can be
observed in this figure that in fact the smallest elements are ac-
curately represented. Given that both idempotent have a lower
rank than the original equivalent matrix, it makes little sense
to compare the eigenvalues of these matrices independently.
However, we can compare the eigenvalues obtained from the
sum of both rational approximation. This result in presented
in Fig. 5 where a very close agreement can be seen. In fact, if
we compare the quality of the proposed fitting to those found
using MRT, we notice a higher accuracy. (b) Fitted elements of Y sc
One advantage of this approach lies in the possibility to deal Fig. 4. Rational Approximation of Y oc
with larger order systems. For instance, when we considered
the MRT for the rational approximation, there was some
limitation regarding the effect of the passivity enforcement.
In [14] we could use up to 80 poles, for a minimum frequency
of 10 Hz. Here, it was found that if 1 Hz is considered as
the lowest frequency we could only use up to 100 poles.
Larger orders would lead to either unstable systems or to
a scenario where the passivity enforcement heavily modifies
the frequency response. By diving in two grouped idempotent
matrices, we used 80 poles for each, i.e. 160 poles in total,
and with the separate matrices we had a rather straightforward
passivity enforcement performance.

IV. T IME -D OMAIN R EALIZATION

For the assessment of the accuracy of the fitted response in
a time-domain test, a simple configuration is considered where
a step voltage is applied to a single phase at the sending end
while the other terminals remain open. For the time-domain, Fig. 5. Comparison of the eigenvalues of Y n and its rational approximation,
a recursive formulation of the rational approximation is con- Y n , for a separate passivity enforcement.
sidered [24], [25]. These results are compared against the one
 obtained using the Numerical Laplace Transform [26]–[29].
Given that the NLT does not carry any rational approximation,
instead it solves the whole system in the complex frequency
domain, it can be considered as an accurate response. We need
to create two Norton equivalents, one for each of the grouped
idempotent matrices as shown in Fig 6a. In this figure, Ih1 and
G1 are the Norton equivalents associated with Yoc and Ih2
and G2 xare related
R0 x
to the discrete-time realization of Ysc . The
RI

actual circuit for the time-domain test is shown in Fig. 6a. A

step-like voltage with a 50µs rise time was used as input. The
xS0 x SI
time responses
(x , a)
R0
are, a) shown in Fig. IV. It can be noticed that
(x RI

the grouped
R 1 R idempotent matrices with independently forced
2

xS0
passivity provided x
accurate results for the excited phase as
RI

well for the induced voltages as both approaches provided (a) node # 7.
0.30
essentially the same results as the curves are superimposed.
0.25
1 7
2 8 0.20

Voltage [V]
3 9
0.15
4 NuL 10
5 11 0.10
Ih1 G1 Ih2 G2 U
6 12
0.05 NLT
Terminal #1 Terminal #2
Idemp
(a) Iime-domain equivalent. (b) Circuit for the test. 0.00
Fig. 6. Time domain test. 0 50 100 150 200 250
Time [us]
(b) node # 10.
V. C ONCLUSIONS Fig. 7. Time domain responses.

This work has focused on the investigation of the adequacy

of an Idempotent decomposition and grouping for the rational real matrices. For a uniform overhead line the structure of the
approximation20of the nodal admittance matrix associated with Yn is as follows
an FDE. The approach is applied to the time-domain modeling 
Ys Ym

of a NuL associated with a wide river crossing. The extension Yn = (6)
Ym Ys
of this method to other equivalents is to be addressed in future
works. using a real transformation matrix K given by
One advantage of the idempotent decomposition and group- 
I I

ing lies in the natural separation of small (with poor ob- K= (7)
I −I
servability) and large eigenvalues thus avoiding the error
magnification typically found during time-domain responses where I is an identity matrix. Then, we can write the Folded
of an FDE. It was observed that the grouping allows to Line Equivalent can then be obtained by
an independent fitting of each group and also to impose 
Yoc 0

−1
passivity enforcement in each grouped matrix. This procedure YF LE (s) = K · Yn · K = (8)
0 Ysc
has improved the overall computation time associated with the
passivity enforcement. Further work is needed in case not 2 where Yoc = Ys + Ym is related to open-circuit currents
but more groups are involved in the representation of an FDE. and Ysc = Ys − Ym is associated with short-circuit currents.
Unfortunately, this approach cannot be used directly to FDE as
A PPENDIX in this case the structure of the nodal admittance is as follows
 
Ys1 Ym
A. Folded Line Equivalent Yn = T . (9)
Ym Ys2
For the case of uniform overhead lines it is possible to If the matrix transformation K is applied to Yne it leads
improve the rational modeling of the nodal admittance matrix to (10) and presents no actual gain in decoupling Yne .
Yn using the so-called Folde Line Equivalent. This is partic-  
ularly useful for short lines to avoid the usage of small time- 1 Ya Yb
Yne = (10)
steps. This methodology consists in decomposing Yn using 2 Yc Yd
where i.e, if λ(s) is the eigenvalue matrix at s, we calculate κ(s0 )
T as
Ya = Ys1 + Ys2 − Ym − Ym  
T max |λ(s)|
Yb = Ym − Ym + Ys1 − Ys2 κ(s0 ) = max . (14)
T
(11) min |λ(s)|
Yc = −Ym + Ym + Ys1 − Ys2
T Then the eigenvector matrix T at s0 is rotated to minimize
Yd = Ys1 + Ys2 − Ym + Ym the imaginary part in the least squares sense and approximated
B. Direct Fitting and MRT by T0 = < (T). The MRT matrix is then obtained from the
nearest orthogonal approximation of T0 using SVD, i.e., T0 =
To accurately obtain the poles, the first procedure is to U·ΣVH and Q = U· VH , then the following modified nodal
ensure that the system to be fitted is asymptotically correct. admittance matrix is evaluated as
For the case at hand here this implies that instead of directly
fitting (4), we first determine R0 . Practically, this implies Yeq = QT · Yeq · Q (15)
evaluation (4) at a very high frequency, typically around
which is then subjected to the rational approximation thus
100 MHz. Given that we are dealing here with a NuL, it can
be shown that N
X Rm
  Yeq ≈ + R0 . (16)
<(Yc1 ) 0 s − pm
Yn (∞) = R0 = (12) m=1
0 <(Yc2 )
The model (16) is enforced to be passive and the inverse trans-
where Yc1 is the characteristic admittance of the line segment formation is applied to obtain the final rational approximation
closest to terminal #1 and Yc2 being the one related to N
terminal #2 of the NuL. For the configuration considered
X Q · Rm · QT
Yeq ≈ + Q · R0 · QT . (17)
here, we can assumed that Yc1 = Yc2 . We then submit the m=1
s − p m
following to VF
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