Vitamins:

a brief guide
A Sight and Life publication
 Vitamins: a brief guide

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 Vitamins are organic nutrients which are essential for life. The human

What is
body requires these nutrients to ensure normal metabolism, growth and
physical well-being. Most vitamins are not made in the body, or only in in-
sufficient amounts to meet our needs. They therefore have to be obtained

a vitamin?
primarily through the food we eat.

Vitamins are classed as micronutrients, and are present in food in
minute quantities compared to macronutrients (protein, carbohydrates and
fat). In industrialized countries, the average adult eats approximately 600 g
of food per day on a dry-weight basis, of which less than 1 g consists
of vitamins.

Each of the 13 vitamins known today has specific functions in the body,
which makes each of them unique and irreplaceable. No single food contains
the full range of vitamins, and inadequate vitamin intake results in vitamin
deficiency disorders. A balanced and varied diet is therefore
vital to meet the body’s vitamin requirements.

Of the 13 known vitamins, four are fat-soluble, namely vitamins A, D, E and
K. The others are water-soluble: vitamin C and the B-complex, consisting of
vitamins B1, B2, B6, B12, niacin, folic acid, biotin and pantothenic acid.

Sorghum crop in Kenya

Local fruits on a market in Bangladesh
of vitamins
The history

Vitamin Alternative name Discovery Isolation Structure Synthesis

Vitamin A Retinol 1909 1931 1931 1947
Provitamin A β-carotene 1831 1831 1930 1950
Vitamin D Calciferol 1918 1932 1936 1959
Vitamin E Tocopherol 1922 1936 1938 1938
Vitamin K Phylloquinone 1929 1939 1939 1939
Vitamin B1 Thiamine 1897 1926 1936 1936
Vitamin B2 Riboflavin 1920 1933 1935 1935
Vitamin B3 Niacin 1936 1936 1937 1994
Vitamin B5 Pantothenic acid 1931 1938 1940 1940
Vitamin B6 Pyridoxine 1934 1938 1938 1939
Vitamin B7 Biotin 1931 1935 1942 1943
Vitamin B9 Folic acid 1941 1941 1946 1946
Vitamin B12 Cobalamin 1926 1948 1956 1972
Vitamin C Ascorbic acid 1912 1928 1933 1933

This data has been assembled in good faith and on the basis of extensive secondary research it should be noted, however, that some
sources disagree concerning individual dates.
 A century ago, a Polish-American scientist attempted to isolate the first
vitamin (B1) from rice bran. Casimir (born Kazimierz) Funk named his dis-

The discovery covery “vitamine”, believing that this was an amine vital for life. This coin-
age has come down to us in the slightly altered form of “vitamin.” Funk’s
breakthrough discovery played a decisive role in the development of an en-

of the concept of tire scientific framework of thought, which the world now takes for granted.

Funk (1884 –1967) was the first scientist to suggest the existence of an

vitamins entire family of organic substances essential for life, and the first to give
these substances a name that made their function clear – even though most
vitamins were later shown not to be amines. He was not the only scientist
working in this field at the time, but he was, one might say, the Godfather
of the vitamins movement.

In a distinguished scientific career spanning two world wars, Funk studied
and worked in Europe and the United States. He had roles in academia
and industry, improved manufacturing methods for commercial drugs, and
became President of the Funk Foundation for Medical Research. Although
he never received a Nobel Prize for his work, the Polish Institute of Arts and
Sciences of America presents the Casimir Funk Natural Sciences Award
annually to a Polish-American scientist.

Various types of rice sold on a market in Bangladesh

 The first vitamin to be named was vitamin A. The use of the letter A was
the brainchild of the American biochemist Elmer McCollum. He rejected

How the vitamins Casimir Funk’s term ‘vitamine’ in favor of ‘Unidentified dietary factor
fat-soluble A’ because the substance discovered by McCollum did not contain
nitrogen (amines are organic compounds derived from ammonia, and

got their names always contain nitrogen).

In 1921, the British biochemist Sir Jack Cecil Drummond suggested com-
bining the use of letters of the alphabet with the term ‘vitamin’ to denote a
range of related organic micronutrients. These micronutrients consequently
became known as vitamins A, B, C and so on.

The eight water-soluble B vitamins were originally thought to be a single
substance class, but were subsequently found to be chemically distinct from
one another, which is why they are differentiated by means of suffixed
numbers – B1, B2 and so forth.

Locally grown legumes on a market stall in Zambia

 While plants and micro-organisms can themselves produce the vitamins
necessary for the metabolism, humans and animals lost this ability during

Vitamins in the course of evolution. Lacking the enzymes necessary for synthesizing
vitamins in the body, humans and animals therefore have to take these in
via the diet (with the exception of vitamin D, which is synthesized via

human nutrition the action of sunlight).

It was recognized more than 3,500 years ago that foods containing vitamins
are essential for health and well-being. The earliest records to have come
down to us on this subject relate to the use of specific foods like liver – which
contains vitamin A – to prevent diseases such as night blindness. Never-
theless the concept of vitamins per se was quite unknown until very recently.

A balanced diet is necessary for adequate vitamin intake. A lack of the nec-
essary vitamins in the diet can lead to vitamin deficiency disorders, such as
scurvy (vitamin C deficiency),and beriberi (vitamin B1 deficiency).

Since the beginning of the 20th century, our knowledge of the biological
function of vitamins on the molecular and cellular level has increased signi-
ficantly. This understanding is reflected by the award of 20 Nobel Prizes
in this field between 1928 and 1967. Despite intensive research efforts, how-
ever, no additional vitamins have been added to the list of 13 vitamins
defined during the 20th century.

Fruits, vegetables, dairy and

animal products provide a well-balanced diet
 A
The prime natural sources of vitamin A
Vitamin Animal products:

Fat-soluble
Liver, egg yolk, butter, whole milk, cheese
Vegetable products in the form of carotenoids (provitamin A):
Certain fruits (i.e. melon, apricot), green leafy vegetables
(i.e. spinach, broccoli), carrots, pumpkins, palm oil

The role of vitamin A

> Plays a role in mechanisms required for sight (11-cis retinal is the
chromophore in the visual cycle)
> Essential for growth and development
> Required for healthy skin, epithelia and mucosa
> Effects on certain endocrine glands
> Important for fertility
> Essential for proper immune functions
β-Carotene: Provitamin A, biological antioxidant

Physical symptoms of vitamin A deficiency

> Delayed growth and development
> Night-blindness
Retinol | β-carotene > Ocular lesions and xerophthalmia
Discovery of active ingredient: 1909 | 1831 (Provitamin A) > Cutaneous lesions (dry and rough skin)
Isolation: 1931 | 1831 (Provitamin A) > Impaired immune functions
> Destruction of epithelial tissue (i.e. in lungs, intestines,
urinary tract, genitals)

Prime natural sources Groups at risk of deficiency:

> Pregnant and lactating women
  Animal products Vegetable products > Infants and young children
> Populations suffering from poor nutrition (i.e. only rice, maize,
potatoes as staple foods)

Liver | Egg yolk | Dairy products Fruits | Leafy vegetables | Carrots

 D
The prime natural sources of vitamin D
Vitamin Animal products (main source for D3 ):

Fat-soluble
Oily fish, egg yolk
Plant products (main source for D2):
Mushrooms
Other:
Synthesized in the skin by the action of ultraviolet light
Vitamin D3 is superior to vitamin D2 in increasing and maintaining
25(OH)D serum levels

The role of vitamin D

> Regulation of metabolism of calcium and phosphorus
> Essential for normal bone development and maintenance
> Plays a role in innate immunity by stimulating immune cells proliferation
and cytokine production

Physical symptoms of vitamin D deficiency

> Rickets in children
> Osteomalacia in adults
Groups at risk of deficiency:
D2 Ergocalciferol > Populations suffering from poor nutrition (i.e. only rice, maize,
D3 Cholecalciferol  potatoes as staple foods)
Discovery of active ingredient: 1918
Isolation: 1932

Prime natural sources

  Animal products Vegetable products

Oily fish | Egg yolk –> D3 Mushrooms –> D2

 E
The prime natural sources of vitamin E
Vitamin Animal products:

Fat-soluble
Milk, butter, eggs
Vegetable products:
Vegetable oils, cereal germ, vegetables (i.e. spinach,
lettuce, cabbage, avocados), nuts

The role of vitamin E

> Biological antioxidant
> Protects lipids (cell membranes), proteins, and DNA from
oxidation and thereby contributes to cellular health
> Assists fertility

Physical symptoms of vitamin E deficiency

> Leads to destruction of red blood cells
> Impaired immune function
> Long-term impact includes neuromusclar diseases
Groups at risk of deficiency:
> Newborn babies, particularly premature
> Individuals unable to efficiently absorb fats from the intestine
Tocopherols and Tocotrienols
Main vitamin E activity:
α-Tocopherol (Natural RRR- and all-rac α-Tocopherol)
Discovery of active ingredient: 1922 | Isolation: 1936

Prime natural sources

  Animal products Vegetable products

Dairy products | Eggs Vegetable oils | Vegetables | Nuts

 K
The prime natural sources of vitamin K
Vitamin Animal products (main source for K2):

Fat-soluble
Some dairy products (i.e. cheese & curd cheese),
meat including liver
Vegetable products (main source for K1):
Green leafy vegetables (i.e. parsley, spinach), cauliflower
Other:
Fermented soybeans

The role of vitamin K

> Essential anti-haemorrhaging agent (promotes blood clotting)
> Helps to maintain bone health
> Emerging evidence for potential role in cardiovascular health

Physical symptoms of vitamin K deficiency

> Ecchymosis
> Petechiae
> Hematomas
> Oozing of blood at surgical or puncture sites
> In infants, birth defects such as underdevelopment of the face,
K1 Phylloquinone nose, bones and fingers
K2 Menaquinones Groups at risk of deficiency:
Discovery of active ingredient: 1929 > Newborn babies (due to lack of intake)
Isolation: 1939

Prime natural sources

  Animal products Vegetable products

Dairy products | Meat | Liver Green vegetables | Cauliflower

 B
The prime natural sources of vitamin B1

Water-soluble
Vitamin Animal products:
Offal (liver, kidneys, heart), fish, meat (porc)
Vegetable products:
Cereals, leafy vegetables, fruits (dried), pulses, nuts
Other:
Brewer’s yeast

The role of vitamin B1

> Energy metabolism (co-enzyme)
> Essential for metabolism of carbohydrates, lipids, proteins (co-enzyme)

1
> Required for proper functioning of the nervous system and
muscles, which has implications for proper functioning of the
cardiovascular system

Physical symptoms of vitamin B1 deficiency

> Beriberi (still occurs in South-East Asia)
Groups at risk of deficiency:
> Alcoholics

Thiamine
Discovery of active ingredient: 1897
Isolation: 1926

Prime natural sources

  Animal products Vegetable products

Offal | Fish | Meat Cereals | Vegetables | Fruits | Pulses

 B
The prime natural sources of vitamin B2

Water-soluble
Vitamin Animal products:
Offal (liver, kidneys, heart), eggs, meat, milk, cheeses
Vegetable products:
Cereals, vegetables
Other:
Brewer’s yeast

The role of vitamin B2

> Essential for the metabolism of carbohydrates, lipids and proteins
(co-enzyme in many reactions)

2
> General effect on tissues and organs (maintains health of mucosa)
> Stimulates growth and reproduction
> Plays a role in sight mechanisms
> Conversion of vitamin (B6, folic acid and niacin) into their active
co-enzyme forms

Physical symptoms of vitamin B2 deficiency

> Skin and tissue membrane lesions (lips, tongue,
fissures at corners of mouth)
Riboflavin > Ocular symptoms (corneal vascularisation associated with
Discovery of active ingredient: 1920 sensitivity to bright light, impaired vision, itching)
Isolation: 1933 > Inflamed mucosal membranes
Groups at risk of deficiency:
> Individuals whose food intake is unadequate
Prime natural sources > The elderly
> Chronic dieters
  Animal products Vegetable products > Individuals who exclude milk products from their diet

Offal | Eggs | Meat | Milk | Cheeses Cereals | Vegetables

 B
The prime natural sources of vitamin B3

Water-soluble
Vitamin Animal products:
Offal (liver, kidneys, heart), fish, meat
Vegetable products:
Cereals, pulses, fruit (avocados, figs, dates, prunes), nuts
Other:
Synthesized from tryptophan

The role of vitamin B3

> Required for the energy supply to all metabolic reactions in the body
> Required for growth

3
Physical symptoms of vitamin B3 deficiency
> Pellagra
> Skin lesions
> Digestive inefficiency
> Insomnia
> Fatigue
> Loss of appetite
Groups at risk of deficiency:
Niacin; PP; Nicotinic Acid; Nicotinic Amide > Chronic alcoholics
Discovery of active ingredient: 1936 > Individuals whose staple diet is maize or barley
Isolation: 1936 > Patients with Hartnup’s disease
Identification with nicotinic acid: 1937

Prime natural sources

  Animal products Vegetable products

Offal | Fish | Meat Cereals | Pulses | Fruits | Nuts

 B
The prime natural sources of vitamin B5

Water-soluble
Vitamin Animal products:
Offal (liver, kidneys), meat (chicken, beef), egg yolk, milk, fish
Vegetable products:
Cereals, nuts, vegetables (i.e. white mushrooms)
Other:
Synthesized by intestinal microorganisms

The role of vitamin B5

> Required for the synthesis of co-enzyme A and acyl carrier protein (ACP)
> Key role in metabolism of carbohydrates, proteins and fats

5
> Important for maintenance and repair of tissues and cells
(skin, hair, and membranes)
> Helps in healing of wounds and lesions
> Pantethine (dimeric form of vitamin B5) normalizes blood lipid profiles

Physical symptoms of vitamin B5 deficiency

> Nausea
> Vomiting
> Headaches
Pantothenic Acid > Tingling sensations (‘burning feet’ syndrome)
Discovery of active ingredient: 1931 Groups at risk of deficiency:
Isolation: 1938 > Individuals whose diet is lacking in the other B vitamins

Prime natural sources

  Animal products Vegetable products

Offal | Meat | Egg yolk Cereals | Nuts | Vegetables

 B
The prime natural sources of vitamin B6

Water-soluble
Vitamin Animal products:
Chicken, liver (cattle, pig), fish (salmon, tuna, sardines,
halibut, herring)
Vegetable products:
Nuts (walnut, peanut), corn and whole grain cereals,
bread, vegetables, fruit

The role of vitamin B6

> Required for the majority of biological reactions (i.e. amino acid
metabolism, antibody production, neurotransmitter synthesis,
red blood cell formation)

6
Physical symptoms of vitamin B6 deficiency
> Deficiency of vitamin B6 alone is uncommon;
usually it occurs in combination with a deficit in other B-vitamins
> Poor growth
> Kidney stones
> Depression
> General fatigue
Pyridoxine > Dizziness
Discovery of active ingredient: 1934 > Nerve problems
Isolation: 1938 > Irritability
> Convulsions
> Cutaneous lesions
Groups at risk of deficiency:
Prime natural sources > Pregnant and breastfeeding women
> The elderly
  Animal products Vegetable products > Underweight individuals
> Alcoholics

Chicken | Liver | Fish Nuts | Cereals | Bread | Vegetables

 B
The prime natural sources of vitamin B7

Water-soluble
Vitamin Animal products:
Offal (liver, kidneys), meat (pork, mutton, poultry), egg yolk
Vegetable products:
Vegetables, cereals, nuts (walnuts, peanuts)
Other:
Synthesized by intestinal bacteria

The role of vitamin B7

> Involved in many cellular reactions
> Intermediary metabolism of carbohydrates, fats and proteins,

7
particularly in protein metabolism of hair roots and finger nail cells

Physical symptoms of vitamin B7 deficiency

> Deficiency due to lack of dietary intake is rare
> General fatigue
> Nausea
> Neurological problems
> Poor skin and hair quality
Groups at risk of deficiency:
Biotin; Vitamin H > Patients maintained on total parental nutrition
Discovery of active ingredient: 1931 > People who eat large amounts of raw egg white
Isolation: 1935 > Haemodialysis patients
> Diabetes mellitus sufferers
> Individuals receiving long-term anticonvulsant therapy
Prime natural sources

  Animal products Vegetable products

Offal | Meat | Egg yolk Vegetables | Cereals | Nuts

 B
The prime natural sources of vitamin B9

Water-soluble
Vitamin Animal products:
Liver, dairy products, milk, egg yolk
Vegetable products:
Dark green leafy vegetables, beets, wheat germ, yeast,
peanuts, oranges

The role of vitamin B9

> Required for the production of nucleic acids and in cell reproduction
(i.e. red and white blood cells, nerve cells)

Physical symptoms of vitamin B9 deficiency

9
> Tiredness
> Loss of appetite
> Fewer but larger red blood cells (megaloblastic or macrocytic anemia)
> Weakness
> Neurological problems
> Digestive problems
Groups at risk of deficiency:
> The elderly (due to lower food intake)
Folate (including folic acid and naturally occurring folates) > Underweight people
Discovery of active ingredient: 1941 > Alcoholics
Isolation: 1941

Prime natural sources

  Animal products Vegetable products

Liver | Dairy products | Egg yolk Leafy vegetables | Peanuts | Oranges

 B
The prime natural sources of vitamin B12

Water-soluble
Vitamin Animal products:
Offal (liver, kidneys, heart, brain), meat, eggs, fish,
dairy products

The role of vitamin B12

> Required for the formation of red blood cells to prevent anemia
> Essential growth factor
> Regeneration of folate
> Involved in fat and carbohydrate metabolism
> Essential for co-enzyme function, especially in cells of the nervous tissue,
bone marrow and gastrointestinal tract

12
Physical symptoms of vitamin B12 deficiency
> Pernicious anemia
> General fatigue
> Loss of appetite
> Gastric atrophy
> Neuromuscular pain
> Neurological problems (gait, memory)

Cyanocobalamin Groups at risk of deficiency:

Discovery of active ingredient: 1926 > Vegetarians
Isolation: 1948 > The elderly

Prime natural sources

  Animal products

Offal | Meat | Eggs | Fish | Dairy products

 C
The prime natural sources of vitamin C

Water-soluble
Vitamin Animal products:
Milk, liver (ox /calf)
Vegetable products:
Fruits (especially citrus fruits), vegetables, lettuce

The role of vitamin C

> Multiple roles at a tissue and cell level (synthesis of collagen,
absorption of iron, formation of carnitine and tyrosine)
> Biological antioxidant (free radical scavenger)
> Stimulates the body’s immune system: defenses against infections
and inflammation

Physical symptoms of vitamin C deficiency

> Scurvy (fatigue, loss of appetite and weight,
lowered immune resistance to infections)
Groups at risk of deficiency:
> Smokers (active and passive)
> Individuals with a low-vitamin diet

Ascorbic Acid
Discovery of active ingredient: 1912
Isolation: 1928

Prime natural sources

  Animal products Vegetable products

Milk | Liver Fruits | Vegetables | Lettuce