The

Issue

02
Welding
Institute

2017

www.welding-and-cutting.info Technical journal for welding and allied processes

The next level in robotwelding



 


 

The strong connection

“World Robotics Report 2016“: An introduction to automated Low temperature high velocity
European Union occupies top brazing – Part 2: Trolley- and oxygen fuel (HVOF) spraying
position in the global automation continuous conveyor machines process and its potential
race applications
 Out now!
ogue
Reference Catal
ISO 5817
Tablet.
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The International Standard ISO 5817: 2003 „Welding; Fu-
sion-welded joints in steel, nickel, titanium and their alloys
(beam welding excluded); Quality levels for imperfections“
lists the quality requirements for production of arc welded
steel joints.
This international standard is a fundamental technical stan-
dard and specifies the basic standardized requirements
for the evaluation of welded joints in the various fields of
application of welding, such as pressure vessels, metal
construction, piping, rolling stock etc. Fur thermore, this
standard shall be used as the basis for the evaluation of
testpieces for the approval testing of welders and welding
procedure qualification tests according to ISO-Standard.
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rectly various imperfections and their specific representa-
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standard.
It may also be used by manufacturers, operators and test
bodies for aid and decision elements to evaluate the wel-
ded joints during production in a clear manner.

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 EDITORIAL

Mandatory CPD; it‘s not all stick!

The Welding Institute requires its Professional Members to commit to

Continuing Professional Development (CPD) through its Rules of Pro-
fessional Conduct. The Engineering Council has directed that com-
pulsory monitoring of CPD will be introduced in January 2017, manda-
tory recording in January 2019, and sanctions for non-compliance in
January 2020.

Please read the Editorial on page 96, to understand more about how CPD will deliver your professional
development plan and benefit you and your job.

EurIng Chris Eady BSc(Hons) MSc CEng MRAeS FWeldI

Associate Director Professional Affairs
The Welding Institute

Welding and Cutting 16 (2017) No. 2 63

 CONTENTS WELDING AND CUTTING 02/2017

News 66 “World Robotics Report 2016“: European

Union occupies top position in the global
automation race
68 “Encompass“ strengthens Europe’s
leading position in metal additive manu-
facturing
69 TWI secures contract for bespoke under
ground storage tanks monitoring system
in Malaysia
70 On its 25th anniversary, EWF is at the
forefront of the next industrial revolution
71 The “Weldaprime“ project: developing an

74
Steel framework with mounted heat
exchanger by Geha B.V. (Photo: Geha B.V.) anti-corrosion zinc-free primer for steel

From Companies 72 Bührer AG: Ceramic functional coatings

with interesting properties, produced by
plasma spraying
74 Geha B.V. is using “ewm Xnet“ quality
management software to optimise its pro-
duction processes
76 The expert’s choice – automated TIG
orbital welding
78 Robotic floating bobbin FSW in 3 mm
thickness Al alloys (Technology Briefing)
Food and beverage industry with instal-
lations from Krones: The welding tech-
nology comes from Polysoude, France.
(Photo: Krones AG)
76 80

81
“Arc-Eye“ adapts welding program in real
time to larger front opening
Additive manufacturing by friction and
forge processes (Technology Briefing)
The “Arc-Eye“ 82 Short Messages
laser sensor
86 Products
mounted in front
of the robot weld-
ing torch.
Welding Practice 88 Robotic arc welding

Events 92 “HANNOVER MESSE 2017”: Adding

value with Industry 4.0
93 The way to the stars: “ITSC 2017“ in
Düsseldorf
94 The power of powder: particulate
engineering event attracts international

80
delegation to TWI

Reports 103 An introduction to automated brazing –

Part 2: Trolley- and continuous conveyor
machines
107 Flexible robot systems for digitised pro-
duction

93
109 Advantages and refinements of cold-gas-
spray-coated induction solutions for
modern cooking utensils and beyond

64 Welding and Cutting 16 (2017) No. 2

 The
Issue

02
Welding
Institute

2017

www.welding-and-cutting.info Technical journal for welding and allied processes

Robotic welding used in automotive

Technical journal for welding and allied processes of
the DVS – German Welding Society, Düsseldorf,
the Professional Division of The Welding Institute, Cambridge,
and the Institut de Soudure, Paris
production. (Photo: ABB)
88
Produced in Collaboration between

Specialist Articles 112 Compensation for part tolerances during

welding of Al-Si-coated 22MnB5 sheet
metal using modified GMA welding
processes
Olaf Schwedler, Benjamin Schlosser,
An excellent example of a trolley-
machine, seen here brazing copper
tubes into a brass fitting with a braz-
ing filler metal paste. (Photo: Johnson
103
Sven Jüttner
Matthey Metal Joining, Royston, Hert-
118 Low temperature high velocity oxygen fordshire/UK).
fuel (HVOF) spraying process and its
potential applications
Min Liu, Ji-fu Zhang, Kun Yang,
Ke-song Zhou, Chang-guang Deng

117 Editorial Preview

122 Books
122 Imprint/Ad Index

National Pages 90 Information from the DVS – German

Welding Society
96 The Welding Institute News

Two-armed insertion of a shaft into a

bearing. (Photo: Tekniker)
107

Welding and Cutting 16 (2017) No. 2 65

 NEWS
“World Robotics Report 2016“: European Union
occupies top position in the global automation race
By 2019, more than 1.4 million new in-
dustrial robots will be installed in factories
around the world – that’s the latest forecast
from the International Federation of Ro-
botics (IFR). In the race for automation in
manufacturing, the European Union is cur-
rently one of the global frontrunners: 65%
of countries with an above-average number
of industrial robots per 10,000 employees
are located in the EU. The strongest growth
drivers for the robotics industry are found
in China; however, in 2019 some 40% of the
worldwide market volume of industrial ro-
bots will be sold there alone. So says the
2016 “World Robotics Report“, as published
in autumn 2016 by the International Fed-
eration of Robotics (IFR).
“Automation is a central competitive
factor for traditional manufacturing groups,
but is also becoming increasingly impor-
tant for small and medium-sized enterpris-
es around the world“, says Joe Gemma,
President of the International Federation.
The industrial robots boom 2019
The number of industrial robots de-
ployed worldwide will increase to around
2.6 million units by 2019. That’s about one
million units more than in the record-
breaking year of 2015. Broken down ac-
cording to sectors, around 70% of industrial
robots are currently at work in the automo-
tive, electrical/electronics and metal and
machinery industry segments. In 2015, the
strongest growth in the number of opera-
tional units recorded here was registered
in the electronics industry, which boasted
a rise of 18%. The metal industry posted an
increase of 16%, with the automotive sector
growing by 10%.
European Union well on course
towards automation – China mak-
ing up ground
The strongest growth figures in Europe
are being posted by the Central and Eastern
European states – the rise in sales was
about 25% in 2015. Also 2016 a similar
growth rate is forecasted (29%). The posi-
tive trend is expected to continue. The av-
erage growth will remain steady at around
14% per year (2017-2019). The biggest
climbers in sales of industrial robots are
66
the Czech Republic and Poland. Between
2010 and 2015 the number of new robot in-
stallations climbed in the Czech Republic
by 40% (compound annual growth rate)
and in Poland by 26% (CAGR).
In a worldwide comparison, the Euro-
pean Union member states as a whole are
particularly far advanced regarding au-
tomation. This is evident from the robot
density existing in the automotive industry,
for example. Half of the top 10 nations with
the most industrial robots per 10,000 em-
ployees belong to the European Union. The
highly developed nature of automation in
Europe is also clear from looking at the
manufacturing industry. Of the 22 coun-
tries with an above-average robot density,
14 are located in the EU. The robot density
in the big Western European economies is
still currently ahead of up-and-coming Chi-
na. The largest gap in this respect is with
Germany (301 vs. 49 units) – the smallest
being with the United Kingdom (71 vs. 49
units).
China, the market for growth
With a national 10-year plan – entitled
“Made in China 2025“ – the country is aim-
ing to become one of the top technological
industrial nations within just a few years.
However, in order to achieve Beijing’s target
of a robot density of 150 units by 2020, some
600,000 to 650,000 new industrial robots
will have to be installed throughout China.
By comparison: Around 254,000 units were
sold in the global market during 2015. Nev-
ertheless, today China is already a leading
sales market. At around 68,600 units sold,
the statistics for 2015 were 20% above the
previous year’s figures, thereby exceeding
the volume of sales for all European mar-
kets combined (50,100 units). Total sales
will increase by 30% in 2016 and between
2016 and 2019 by 20% on average to more
than 400,000 units in 2019. This will be 40%
of the total sales in 2019.
The Republic of Korea and Japan come
in second and third place, as the world’s
largest sales markets for industrial robots.
The number of units sold in 2015 grew by
55% in the Republic of Korea and by 20%
in Japan. Together with Singapore, these
two countries lead the rankings of the glob-
al automated economies for robot density
in manufacturing. With a stable economic
situation, it may be expected that both Ko-
rea and Japan will see average annual
growth of 5% in sales of robots from 2016
to 2019.
North America on path to success
The USA is currently the fourth largest
single market for industrial robots in the
world. Within the NAFTA area (USA, Cana-
da and Mexico), the total number of newly
installed industrial robots rose by 17% to a
new record of some 36,000 units (2015).
The “leader of the pack“ was the USA, ac-
Welding and Cutting 16 (2017) No. 2
counting for three-quarters of all units sold.
5% growth was recorded. With a compara-
tively much smaller amount of units, the
demand in Canada increased by 49% (5,466
units), while that in Mexico grew by 119%
(3,474 units). With a stable economic situ-
ation, it may be expected that North Amer-
ica will see average annual growth of 5 to
10% in sales of robots from 2016 to 2019.
The USA plays a leading role when it
comes to automation in the automotive in-
dustry. US car makers are ranked third in
robot density, behind Japan and the Re-
public of Korea. The US automotive indus-
try has performed well over the last six
years. 2015 proved to be the most success-
ful year since 2005. Major manufacturers
from the US, Europe and Asia embarked on
restructuring programmes resulting in the
installation of some 80,000 industrial robots
between 2010 and 2015.
This is the largest investment worldwide,
second only to China at around 90,000
units. This commitment is reflected in the
increasing number of new jobs: The num-
ber of people employed in the automotive
sector grew by around 230,000 between
2010 and 2015.
Welding and Cutting 16 (2017) No. 2
Robots and jobs
The enormous automation pro-
grammes with robots had a positive effect
on employment not only in the US. In the
German automotive sector, the number of
employees likewise increased parallel to
the growth of robotic automation: The in-
crease between 2010 and 2015 averaged
2.5% – the operational stock of industrial
robots showed a parallel increase averaging
3% per year. The positive effect of automa-
tion on the number of jobs is confirmed by
a study recently published by the
Mannheim Centre for European Economic
Research (ZEW), in partnership with the
University of Utrecht/Netherlands. In
essence, reduced production costs result
in better market prices. The increasing de-
mand then triggers more jobs.
Outlook 2019
At the end of 2016, the number of newly
installed industrial robots has increased by
14% to 290,000 units during the year. For
2017 to 2019, continued growth averaging
at least 13% per year is forecasted (com-
pound annual growth rate – CAGR). Robot-
ics manufacturers have made preparations
for these kinds of growth prospects. To this
end, production capacities have been in-
creased, and the majority of European
manufacturers are operating new locations
in the large sales markets of China and the
USA.
As far as technological trends are con-
cerned, companies will, in the future, be
concentrating on the collaboration of hu-
man and machine, simplified applications
and light-weight robots. Added to this are
the two-armed robots, mobile solutions
and the integration of robots into existing
environments. There will be an increased
focus on modular robots and robotic sys-
tems, which can be marketed at extremely
attractive prices.
The demand among customers for in-
dustrial robots will likewise be driven by a
whole assortment of factors. This includes
the handling of new materials, energy effi-
ciency, better developed automation con-
cepts, enabling the real-world factory and
the virtual world to be interlinked with one
another, as per the definition of “Industry
4.0“ and the “Industrial Internet of Things“.
(According to press information from IFR;
www.ifr.org)
67
 NEWS
“Encompass“ strengthens Europe’s leading position
in metal additive manufacturing
“Encompass“ is a three-year European
project that aims to significantly improve the
overall productivity of the laser based metal
powder bed fusion technology process chain,
principally through the creation of an inte-
grated design decision support (IDDS) sys-
tem.
Additive manufacturing (AM), often re-
ferred to as 3D printing, has significant po-
tential to enable novel products with im-
proved performance, improved material ef-
ficiency, reduced environmental footprint
and reduced production costs. Commercial
metal AM machines have been available for
many years, and the interest from industry
for the adoption of this technology for pro-
duction of end parts is steadily increasing.
However, for these technologies to be widely
adopted by industry as a viable production
method, process chain productivity needs to
be significantly improved. The specific cate-
gory of metal AM that stands at the heart of
the “Encompass“ project is laser powder bed
fusion (L-PBF), where metal powder is fused
together to form solid material by means of a
laser based energy source.
Increase the productivity of the
process chain
Whilst metal AM is used for prototyping
and has begun to penetrate some smaller
markets, it is not yet entirely competitive on
a larger scale, especially with respect to pro-
Intercooler for Swansea formula student car,
aluminium. (Pictures: Renishaw AMPD)
68
duction speed and costs. Where metal AM is
being used, the current state of the process
chain is typified by non-integrated process
stages dependent on the knowledge of ex-
perts for appropriate decision making. To in-
crease the productivity of the process chain
and to bring it a significant step further to-
wards industrial manufacturing, a better mas-
tering of all stages of the process chain and
their interaction is necessary. Although metal
AM is highly flexible, the change from one
production lot to the next usually requires
operator intervention and time to optimise
new build files and processing strategies. The
trend towards mass customisation of prod-
ucts requires a high degree of digitisation as
well as tools and systems that are highly au-
tonomous and automated to reduce produc-
tion time and costs.
The three key overall challenges to in-
dustrial exploitation of metal AM can be sum-
marised as:
1. Time and cost for manufacture of com-
ponents through the whole process
chain,
2. Time and cost to get from component
design to production and
3. Reliability and robustness of the process.
To address these challenges, the overall aim
of the “Encompass“ project is to create an in-
tegrated design decision support (IDDS) sys-
tem for the whole L-PBF process chain to
flexibly optimise the exploitation of metal
AM.
The three key process chain steps tackled
in the project are the component design
process, the L-PBF build process itself and
the post-build processes (including post-pro-
cessing and inspection). The integration at
digital level enables numerous synergies be-
tween these steps and in addition, the steps
themselves are being optimised to improve
the capability and efficiency of the overall
chain. This will enable a significant reduction
in time and cost, and an enhanced level of
quality for safety critical parts.
Consortium of 11 European
project partners
To achieve this, a consortium of 11 part-
ners, consisting of companies, research cen-
ters, and universities involved in AM, has
teamed up. The three year project, which
started in October 2016, aims to create a sys-
Hydraulic block manifold, stainless steel.
tem to flexibly optimise the exploitation of
metal AM. Rather than focusing efforts only
on increasing the productivity of the L-PBF
build process itself, “Encompass“ considers
the process chain holistically which will have
a direct positive impact on productivity,
which will benefit equipment manufacturers,
designers, part-component producers and
end-users.
To steer the development and enable
demonstration of the performance of the ID-
DS system, test cases from automotive, aero-
space and medical industries have been se-
lected. The industry wide adoption of the ID-
DS system will enable an uptake of L-PBF in
a multitude of other sectors. The successful
implementation of the “Encompass“ project
will enable a significant reduction in time
from ‚design to piece‘, increase the process
chain productivity, and reduce cost of pro-
duction. The solution is envisaged to be un-
der validation mid-2019.
Project partners are: The Manufacturing
Technology Centre Limited LBG (MTC),
Fraunhofer Gesellschaft Zur Foerderung der
Angewandten Forschung e.V. (FHG), Ren-
ishaw Plc (Renishaw), The University of Liv-
erpool (ULIV), Rolls-Royce Plc (Rolls-Royce
PLC), Industria De Turbo Propulsores S.A.
(ITP), Depuy (Ireland) Unlimited (Depuy Ire-
land), ESI Software Germany GmbH (ESI
Software), Altair Engineering Limited (Altair
Eng), European Federation for Welding Join-
ing And Cutting (EWF) and Centro Ricerche
Fiat Scpa (CRF). The project has received
funding from the European Union’s “Horizon
2020“ research and innovation programme
under grant agreement No. H2020 – FoF-
2016-723833-ENCOMPASS. The project is an
initiative of the ,Photonics and Factories of
the Future Public Private Partnerships’. (Ac-
cording to press information from EWF)
Welding and Cutting 16 (2017) No. 2
 TWI secures contract for bespoke underground storage
tanks monitoring system in Malaysia
TWI – The Welding Institute, Cam-
bridge/UK, has won a contract with the Uni-
versity of Technology, Malaysia (UTM) worth
£ 100,000 to develop a new condition moni-
toring system for underground storage tanks.
The team at TWI will deliver the project –
the first of its kind in Malaysia – in partner-
ship with technical experts from the univer-
sity which focuses on intensive research into
engineering, science and technology.
The new system will be designed to ad-
dress and supersede the limitations of cur-
rent underground storage tanks inspection
techniques such as manual gauging, inven-
tory control and leak detection methods, all
of which are unable to detect tank leakage
until it has already occurred.
TWI’s solution will use acoustic emis-
sion (AE) which is proven for the screening
of corrosion and erosion as well as crack
growth monitoring. The system will employ
transducers installed permanently into the
underground storage tank, enabling opera-
tors to improve their preventative mainte-
nance strategies by condition monitoring of
their assets‘ integrity.
The system is expected to bring a range
of benefits to underground storage tank op-
erators including:
• more accurate identification of vessels
that have a higher risk of defect or
could reach the end of their specified
lifespan earlier than expected, en-
abling the operator to budget more ac-
curately for repair or replacement, and
the prioritisation of affected vessels to
ensure continued service and life ex-
tension.
• provision of continuous monitoring da-
ta that can be used to determine safety
and security levels of vessels, enabling
operators to assess whether individual
units are economically viable to con-
tinue operating or whether large costs
would be incurred.
• provision of structural health monitor-
ing evidence that can be used to justify
the life extension of older vessels to op-
erate safely for a given period of time,
enabling greater control over planning
and budgeting.
• a reduction in the potential environ-
mental hazards associated with under-
ground storage tanks – arising from
faulty installation, inadequate operat-
ing or maintenance procedures as well
as wear and tear – such as seepage of
petroleum or other substances. This
can result in contaminated soil and
groundwater, with attendant health and
environmental risks, and the potential
for fires and explosions.
TWI’s team will spend approximately seven
months on the fast track development proj-
ect, following which they will also provide
theoretical and applied training on the new-
ly commissioned system to key representa-
tives of Malaysia’s oil and gas industry.
Ángela Angulo, Senior Project Leader
who will manage the project for TWI said
‚We are delighted to have secured this con-
tract with the Universiti Teknologi
Malaysia, which will potentially lead to the
vital monitoring, for corrosion and leak de-
tection, of some 6,000 underground storage
tanks across the country. Our vision for the
realised system is that it will bring signifi-
cant benefits to end user operators includ-
ing a reduction in cost, shutdown inspec-
tions and maintenance intervals; an in-
crease in safety levels; and better control
over long term operational and financial
assets management’.
For more information visit www.twi-
global.com. (According to press information
from TWI)

YO U R I D E A S
WILL BECOME
BOUNDLESS HERE
COMING SOON: THE NEW MESSE ESSEN

HALL 6 www.messe-essen.de
 NEWS
On its 25th anniversary, EWF is at the forefront of
the next industrial revolution
The pervasive digital transformation
process underway is forever changing all
economic and social activities. As the pace
of technology change accelerates, it is quick-
ly transforming the economic landscape, by
breaking barriers of entry in any given mar-
ket and creating new opportunities for in-
cumbents and newcomers alike. As in other
economic activities, manufacturing is also
going through that change, regardless of in-
dustry or fabrication method employed,
from traditional welding all the way to the
most advanced additive manufacturing
techniques.
Ongoing digital transformation
The ongoing digital transformation and
the increasing global competition are put-
ting an increasing pressure on manufactur-
ing businesses and leading European Busi-
ness Associations and their member com-
panies are emphasising quality, efficiency
and leading-edge technology to differentiate
their products. At the intersection of the
three lies a highly professional and mobile
workforce, able to meet those new require-
ments with a broader skillset than their
predecessors. And all entities engaged on
skilling the workforce for this new world
have a clear need to keep abreast of this
change. This is the challenge that EWF – Eu-
ropean Federation of Welding, Joining and
Cutting is taking head on, with a proven
track record of 25 years developing an ad-
vanced, comprehensive and sophisticated
qualification system that is currently adopt-
ed in over 31 countries, and has become a
de facto standard regarding welding quali-
fications in manufacturing.
This different approach to the develop-
ment of the skillset required by manufac-
turing forces traditional educational models
to evolve or face potential obsolescence.
This arises from their difficulty to respond
both in flexibility and modularity as well as
of a lack of support for digital learning tools,
which are fundamental requirements for the
current and future workforce, increasingly
mobile and for which lifelong learning so-
lutions are a critical asset to compete on fu-
ture projects and work assignments. Addi-
tionally, a more fluid connection between
businesses and formal and informal educa-
tions is needed.
70
Robot welding steel construction.
Again, EWF experience in improving
and advancing an harmonised qualification
system is an invaluable asset, given the ex-
perience in the most diverse business and
technical environments. As the Federation
prepares to celebrate its 25th anniversary in
November, it is hard at work renewing its
system to provide a modular approach to
qualifications, as well as creating a specific
one for additive manufacturing, the next
frontier of manufacturing.
Partnering for a renewed industri-
al Europe
Beyond the work done at improving its
core qualifications system, there are a num-
ber of relevant initiatives underway that
EWF is actively engaged in, in order to sup-
port the needs of a renewed industrial sector
in Europe. EWF will further strengthen its
partnership with EFFRA – European Facto-
ries of the Future Research Association –, as
well as work closely with the European Cen-
tre for the Development of Vocational Train-
ing (www.cedefop.europa.eu) in devising a
framework that streamlines the transition
from education into the workforce, ensuring
skills match business needs.
To ensure that there is a broader accept-
ance and adoption of the EWF system as a
relevant best practice, the recognition and
close coordination with the most relevant
standards bodies is of paramount impor-
tance. EWF will further strengthen its status
as a Liaison Organization for both the Eu-
ropean Committee for Standardization
(https://www.cen.eu/) and the International
Organization for Standardization
(https://www.iso.org/), as it also ensures
that the qualifications provided by its mem-
bers are broadly accepted by the industry,
including the new challenges that technolo-
gies like Additive Manufacturing bring in
terms of qualified personnel.
Also, given the relevance of Joining with-
in the Manufuture Technology Platform,
EWF has taken a leading role on the Man-
agement Committee of this sub platform
(http://www.joining-platform.com/) and is
pursuing an active participation on the Ad-
ditive Manufacturing one (http://www.rm-
platform.com/). The Federation has also re-
cently launched a product, “EMFWeld“,
aimed at a specific need identified by the
industry, that is to assess the exposure of
workers to electromagnetic fields, a key re-
quirement from EU directives. Lastly, EWF
will continue to work closely with all relevant
stakeholders at the European level, support-
ing the growth of a competitive and ad-
vanced European Manufacturing sector.
As it celebrates its 25th anniversary, EWF
is at the forefront of the next industrial rev-
olution, expanding its harmonised qualifi-
cation system to ensure European business-
es have the most qualified professionals to
continue at the leading edge in technology
adoption and, as a result, in global compet-
itiveness. (According to press information
from EWF)
Welding and Cutting 16 (2017) No. 2
The “Weldaprime“ project: developing an anti-corrosion
zinc-free primer for steel
The “WeldaPrime“ project aim was to de- The project aim was to develop a
primer which is zinc-free, has low
velop a primer which is zinc-free, has low or-
organic content and can be
ganic content and can be applied as a thin
applied as a thin coating to provide
coating to provide weld-through capability weld-through capability without
without affecting weld quality and yet pro- affecting weld quality.
viding adequate corrosion protection.
Steel, especially carbon steel, is used
widely in a number of industry sectors, such Attributes of the
as oil and gas, chemical, construction and zinc-free weldable
marine industries. The protection of carbon primer.
steel against corrosion is critical not only in-
use but also during transportation and stor-
age at the steel yard. Zinc-based primers are
the most commonly used method for corro-
sion protection of the steel, protecting the
steel via sacrificial galvanic protection mech-
anisms. However, maintaining a balance be-
tween corrosion protection and weldability
can be a challenge.
Typically, coatings thicker than 25-50 μm
are necessary to achieve good protection
against corrosion but this can lead to diffi- developed. The use of sol-gel chemistry and on 1 February 2014 and was coordinated by
culties in the welding process due to the in- suitably functionalised nano-additives al- the European Federation of Welding, Joining
ability to strike a weld through the thick lowed the development of a unique low-or- and Cutting, has reached its end. The project
primer. Additionally, the incorporation of or- ganic but flexible, durable and weldable was sponsored by the EC FP7 Research for
ganic materials from the coating in the weld primer. the benefit of SME associations. More infor-
or entrapment of zinc fumes and gas can The project “WeldaPrime – Self-re- mation is available online at www.wel-
make the weld porous and have a significant pairable Zinc-free Weldable Anti-Corrosion daprime.com. (According to press informa-
negative impact on weld quality. Primer for the Steel protection” that started tion from EWF)
Thus, removal of the primer is often un-
dertaken by grinding or blast-cleaning before
welding, leading to an additional step and
hence additional costs. In addition, by-prod-
ucts like zinc fumes from zinc-rich primers
have a significant health hazard associated
with them and can potentially lead to zinc
fever for the welders. Overall, the use of tra-
ditional zinc-rich primers can lead to in-
creased post-weld cleaning costs, reduced
quality, greater rework, and an overall reduc-
tion in productivity.
The “WeldaPrime“ consortium wanted
to provide the European steel fabrication in-
dustry with an enabling technology that al-
lows the steel to be protected with a new,
high performance primer coating, with high
levels of corrosion protection simultaneously
with good weldability and without the use of
zinc.
Through the three years‘ project, the fo-
cus of “WeldaPrime“ project partners
achieved an understanding of the key chem-
ical and nano-structural components neces-
sary to allow such a primer coating film to be “WeldaPrime“ versus commercial benchmark.

Welding and Cutting 16 (2017) No. 2 71

 FROM COMPANIES
Bührer AG: Ceramic functional coatings with
interesting properties, produced by plasma spraying
With many metallic components in me-
chanical and plant engineering, the designer
wishes for properties which are to be found
rather with ceramics than with metals. Sur-
face coatings made of various ceramic ma-
terials may help here. Depending on the ma-
terial, they are characterised by high hard-
ness, wear, corrosion and chemical resist-
ance and electrical breakdown strength or
by good thermal insulation. Bührer AG, a
specialist for coating using thermal spraying
processes, is now placing its faith in a new
system which is suitable for the application
of such ceramic coatings.
In comparison with metals, ceramics
have some very interesting advantages such
as high hardness as well as resistance to ag-
gressive chemicals and high temperatures.
On the other hand, they also exhibit various
disadvantages, particularly with regard to
toughness, impact strength or dynamic load-
bearing capacity. Therefore, pure ceramic
components are utilised rather rarely in me-
chanical engineering. Instead of these, one
more interesting possibility from the view-
point of the designers is to exploit the posi-
tive properties of both material categories
by applying the ceramic to a metallic base
material, e.g. a shaft, in the form of a com-
paratively thin coating. However, since the
two material categories do not enter into
any chemical or metallurgical compounds,
this requires the utilisation of comparatively
robust methods. For coating by plasma
spraying, the ceramic particles must be heat-
ed up to temperatures above their melting
point within just a few fractions of a second
and strike the surface to be coated at a com-
paratively high velocity.
Demonstrator
component with
sprayed-on coat-
ing which consists
of hard, chemical-
ly resistant and
abrasion-proof
chromium oxide
(Cr2O3) and is
ground to the cor-
rect dimensions.
(Photo: Klaus
Vollrath)
72
workpiece as a result of their small size. The
Atmospheric plasma spraying
component is cooled during the coating
(APS)
and therefore does not become hotter than
This is achieved by the extremely high
150°C. Any distortion during the applica-
temperatures of a plasma torch in which
tion of the coating is prevented by the uni-
gas is heated up to several 10,000°C. The
form heat input and cooling. The targeted
utilised process is designated as atmos-
coating of defined regions is easy to achieve
pheric plasma spraying (APS). The energy
by masking. Precoating with a primer made
source is a direct voltage arc between sev-
of (for example) nickel-chromium is only
eral electrodes. This arc causes the flow of
required in exceptional cases. The attain-
a gas mixture which is ionised by the high
able coating thicknesses are 0.1 to 0.2 mm
temperature so that a very hot plasma
as a rule but may even be 0.5 mm in some
forms. The gas mixture largely consists of
applications. If thicker coatings are desired,
argon to which other gases such as nitro-
these should be built up gradually in sev-
gen or hydrogen are added depending on
eral passages in order to avoid the forma-
the application. A corresponding design of
tion of cracks. The powders are offered as
the working head leads to a swirl so that the
finished mixtures with defined composi-
arc rotates. The material to be applied is
tions and grain size distributions.This per-
then input into the gas jet emerging at a
mits uniform characteristics and thus an
high velocity in the form of a fine powder
easily manageable application process. In
with grain sizes of 5 to 120 μm.
the case of sliding and sealing faces, the de-
manded dimensional accuracy and surface
quality are set by corresponding machining
– mostly by grinding.
Properties of ceramic coatings
A really wide spectrum of materials can
be applied with plasma spraying. These in-
clude not only ceramic materials but also
metals, so-called self-flowing alloys
Atmospheric plasma spraying head mounted on
(NiCrBSi basis), as well as special materi-
a robot arm. The powder is supplied to the cen-
als. Since a wide spectrum of other flame
trally emerging plasma jet from above. (Photo:
Klaus Vollrath) spraying technologies is still being utilised
in the company, plasma spraying primarily
Due to the extremely high temperature concentrates on high-melting oxide ceram-
of the plasma, the ceramic particles are ics which cannot be applied with other
melted completely in fractions of a second processes at all or not as well.
and strike the target area as liquid droplets. The materials utilised particularly fre-
Thus, they cling tightly to the surface and quently include chromium oxide (Cr2O3),
interlock there with tiny projections and re-
cesses. This results in a firmly adherent,
dense coating made of the desired ceramic
material.
Outline conditions and coating
thicknesses
In spite of the high temperatures in the
plasma, the temperature input into the
workpiece itself is not all that high. This is
because the plasma cools down once again The region of this shaft to be coated for a new
very quickly after leaving the torch and the hydraulic motor was stripped and the other re-
individual ceramic particles do not trans- gions were protected by masking. (Photo: Klaus
port any great heat quantities into the Vollrath)
Welding and Cutting 16 (2017) No. 2
an extremely hard ceramic with a Vickers
hardness of 1,500 HV. Moreover, it is resist-
ant to oxidation and corrosion by acids,
lyes or alcohol and temperature-resistant
Coating of a new part: (top) finish-stripped and
masked before the coating and (bottom) the
finish-ground Cr2O3 coating. (Photo: Klaus Voll-
rath)
Specimen components with different ceramic
coatings: (top) aluminium oxide (Al2O3), (cen-
tre) chromium oxide (Cr2O3) and (bottom) titani-
um oxide (TiO2). (Photo: Klaus Vollrath)
up to approx. 540°C. However, its high brit-
tleness causes a certain sensitivity to im-
pact-like stresses. The area of utilisation
includes, amongst others, slide ring seals
for high-speed shafts as well as pumps,
mixers and miscellaneous rotating parts in
the field of chemical plant engineering.
Another frequently utilised material is
titanium oxide (TiO2), a semiconductive,
rather ductile ceramic with a medium wear
resistance and good tribological properties.
However, its chemical resistance is low. Ti-
tanium oxide is often utilised together with
chromium oxide as a mixed ceramic in
order to improve the ductility and the ther-
mal shock resistance.
Moreover, an important role is played
by zirconium oxide (ZrO2) which is often
utilised as a mixed ceramic with an addi-
tion of yttrium oxide (Y2O3). It is charac-
terised by temperature resistance up to
1,300°C, good elongation properties as well
as resistance to wear and erosion. Further-
more, it has good thermal insulation and is
resistant to attacks by hot gas. One impor-
tant area of utilisation therefore relates to
coatings for combustion chambers, nozzles
or turbine blades for gas and aircraft gas
turbines as well as turbochargers.
Aluminium oxide (Al2O3) which is not
quite as hard as chromium oxide is utilised
frequently too. It acts as an electrical insu-
lator, is resistant to many acids and lyes and
exhibits a good resistance to attacks by cor-
rosion, wear and erosion. Emphasis should
also be placed on its high electrical break-
down strength even at high temperatures
up to 1,500°C.
Areas of utilisation result for both new
and wear parts not only in mechanical en-
gineering but also in medical technology
and textile machine engineering where the
objective is to limit the wear caused by
high-speed threads.
protection of the operator. Therefore, it is
mostly utilised with a robot in a totally en-
capsulated cabin. In interaction with the
robot controller, the numeric controller of
the installation also guarantees the high
uniformity and reproducibility of the appli-
cation process. Parameters saved once can
be reproduced exactly again. For rotation
parts, the cabin is equipped with an addi-
tional numerically control rotation axis. In
contrast, problems may be caused by hol-
low parts with inside diameters of less than
200 mm since the head cannot be moved
into these. Here, help may be provided by
diagonal spraying, at least in the region
close to the edge.
However, the coating then becomes all
the thinner, the further it comes inside and,
as a rule of thumb, it is true that the coating
can only extend approximately as deep in-
side as the diameter of the borehole. In
contrast, with a diameter of more than 200
mm, a head designed especially for this
purpose can be moved in completely and
thus line this totally from the inside.
(Redaktionsbüro Klaus Vollrath, Aarwan-
gen/Switzerland; Bührer AG, Otelfingen/
Switzerland)
In interaction with the robot controller, the NC
of the installation guarantees high uniformity
and reproducibility. Parameters saved once can
be reproduced exactly. (Photo: Bührer)

For rotation parts, the cabin is equipped with an Possibilities and limits
additional numerically controlled rotation axis. In the case of manual application, the
(Photo: Klaus Vollrath) process would require the complicated full

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Welding and Cutting 16 (2017) No. 2 73

 FROM COMPANIES
Geha B.V. is using “ewm Xnet“ quality management
software to optimise its production processes
“Customers require an increasing
amount of data, and we are able to meet this
need,” says Franc van Wilgen, managing di-
rector of Geha B.V., summing up the biggest
advantage of “ewm Xnet“. The Dutch com-
pany manufactures fans, ventilator covers
and steel structures for heat exchangers at
its plant in Nieuw Amsterdam, close to the
border with Germany. These products are
used all over the world for air cooling in
processes in the chemical, oil and gas in-
dustries, including processes carried out in
very demanding climatic conditions. Quality
certifications and traceability are becoming
more and more important where such criti-
cal components are concerned.
“ewm Xnet“ quality management
software
“ewm Xnet“ is a modular quality man-
agement software designed by the Münders-
bach/Germany-based welding machine
manufacturer EWM. The first module con-
tinuously tracks and documents all the weld-
ing parameters that are crucial for the weld-
ing process. This data is used for quality as-
surance. Further analyses of the data help
to identify measures that could result in
more economical production. With the sec-
ond module – the “WPQ-X Manager“ – users
can create welding procedure specifications
(WPS) and welding procedure qualification
records (WPQR) themselves and manage
the qualifications of welders. The third mod-
ule will map the entire components man-
agement. This includes assigning the weld-
ing data to the corresponding workpieces.
One of five interconnected welding machines
for the welding of fans at Geha B.V. Data is
transferred via a LAN. (Photo: EWM AG)
74
Interconnecting welding
machines
In March 2016, Geha linked together five
of its welding machines – one of which dates
from 2002 – and the first “ewm Xnet“ module
was installed. Geha had already undertaken
all the necessary preparation work, includ-
ing laying a LAN cable and setting up a serv-
er. Installation by sales partner Kumoweld
and EWM was completed in a day. Since
then, Geha has used “ewm Xnet“ to log all
the data for the five welding machines com-
pletely automatically online: data is saved
directly to the server during the welding
process. This allows it to be analysed and
evaluated by welding coordination person-
nel, both in real-time and also at a later
point. “We have too much steel in the pro-
duction department to allow data transfer
via WiFi,” says van Wilgen, explaining why
the firm uses LAN technology.
An alternative method is offline data
recording on a storage medium in the weld-
ing machine. This technology is useful for
machines that are used on external con-
struction sites, for example, or for premises
where a network is not viable. Welding data
can therefore be recorded, documented and
analysed even without a network by using a
USB flash drive.
Quality certification
Only correct welding parameters pro-
duce error-free welding data and thus a
high-quality seam. Before “ewm Xnet“ was
introduced, Geha could only go as far as re-
assuring customers that welding had been
carried out in accordance with their speci-
Steel framework
with mounted
heat exchanger by
Geha B.V. (Photo:
Geha B.V.)
fications. Now, the company can use the da-
ta at any time to prove that the stipulated
parameter settings were actually adhered to
during production – and that the required
level of quality has been attained. This ap-
plies both to individual parts and to serial
parts. “If there are any queries, there is no
need for any discussion with the welder, be-
cause the facts and figures speak for them-
selves,” says van Wilgen. “This means we
can actually prove the quality is up to stan-
dard, rather than just saying that it is.”
Van Wilgen believes that the continuous
logging of welding data is the only way to
meet requirements, such as those in EN 1090
standards. “This type of data collection will
continue to increase in the future, especially
in view of the traceability it provides,” says
van Wilgen, confidently.
Improving productivity
Recording data and certifying quality is
only one aspect of “ewm Xnet“, however. The
software can do much more with the right
analysis of the data. Not only can it track
welding data, it also provides information
on welding time and non-productive time.
An analysis of these times can lead to meas-
ures that reduce non-productive time, there-
by increasing productivity. “Customers only
pay for welding time. High non-productive
time means high additional costs,” points
out van Wilgen. “ewm Xnet therefore also
helps to increase productivity.”
Monitoring quality, not the welder
“ewm Xnet“ is a support tool for admin-
istration and the data recorded is completely
Welding and Cutting 16 (2017) No. 2
 Welding data is fed
into the network via
a gateway – the
small box mounted
on the front of the
power source. Older
models manufactured
in 2002 or later can
also be easily inte-
grated into the net-
work. (Photo: EWM
AG) Real-time view of the welding data overview
on the computer of the welding coordination
personnel. (Photo: EWM AG)

transparent. The aim of an economic pro-
duction system is higher productivity, and
this is achieved when a welding company is
able to weld a high number of seams in a
short time while maintaining a high level of
quality. Quality is always the number one
priority at Geha. With “ewm Xnet“, this high
level of quality can be proven and produc-
tivity can be increased by means of the rele-
vant measures. “The system is not intended
to make the welder work harder, but
smarter,” says van Wilgen, emphasising the
advantages of “ewm Xnet“. For him, quality
is clearly paramount, but without compro-
mising productivity.
vant consumption parameters – such as gas,
electricity and welding consumables – are
set to zero. Upon completion, the consump-
tion data can be read out and then processed
and presented in different ways – as total
costs, costs per component or even costs per
individual weld seam.
Reliability of “ewm Xnet“
Ultimately, only a test on a real com-
ponent could demonstrate whether “ewm
Xnet“ did actually exhibit the promised
characteristics and deliver the stipulated
parameters. Geha designed, implemented
and then analysed a project in three differ-
ent ways specifically for this purpose. The
welding processes and the welding se-
quence were the key parameters that were
changed in this test. The final analysis of
the components focused on comparing the
results that had been theoretically predict-
ed beforehand with the results that had ac-
tually been achieved. These outcomes were
identical, meaning that “ewm Xnet“ passed
Geha’s test with flying colours. “We’re now
ready to take the next step with EWM and
install the second module, the ‘WPQ-X
Manager’,” says van Wilgen, looking to the
future. (According to press information
from EWM AG)

Optimising maintenance times

The maintenance of machines is expen-
sive but necessary in order to extend the
service life of the machine and ensure high-
quality performance.
Costs for replacement parts need to be
added to the cost of lost working time while
maintenance is being carried out. Under-
taking maintenance work at as late a stage
as possible has a number of advantages. It
means components remain in use for as long
as possible and no fully functioning com-
ponents are replaced. This cuts costs for re-
placement parts. Lost working time is also
postponed and maintenance intervals are Detailed view of the welding data. The analysis enables productivity to be improved;
increased as much as possible, meaning that quality can subsequently be certified. (Photo: EWM AG)
working time is used for productive welding,
Impressed by the quality of
not maintenance work. The welding data
EWM products: the Geha
obtained using “ewm Xnet“ allows compa-
team. From left:
nies to determine the optimum time for F. van Wilgen (managing
servicing and maintenance: as late as pos- director of Geha),
sible and as early as necessary. B. Menningen (EWM),
J. E. de Boer (owner of Geha),
Final costing R. Timmer (service technician
In the past, cost calculation at Geha was at sales partner Kumoweld),
a complex manual task that was also prone B. Vinke (Geha welding coor-
to error. With “ewm Xnet“, the costs can now dinator), P. Tent (technical
department manager).
be calculated precisely and also much faster.
(Photo: EWM AG)
Before a contract or project starts, the rele-

Welding and Cutting 16 (2017) No. 2 75

 FROM COMPANIES
The expert’s choice – automated TIG orbital welding
Market leader, Krones AG, from Neu-
traubling/Germany, designs, develops,
manufactures and installs systems around
the world for filling and packaging technol-
ogy, conforming to the High-Purity Stan-
dards. Krones AG provides systems world-
wide to breweries and drink manufacturers
as well as to the food, chemical, pharma-
ceutical and cosmetic industries. In order
to maintain its dominant market position,
Krones must take into account all general
conditions in its installations and particu-
larly, the specific interconnection of all in-
dividual aggregates in complying with the
highest quality criteria. As a result of this
philosophy, Krones AG has become a global
market leader, filling or labelling more than
one in four bottles throughout the world.
The plant in Flensburg, approximately
5 km from the Danish border, is the compa-
ny’s most northerly production location.
Bottle cleaning systems, pasteurisers, crate
washers and steam tunnels are constructed,
manufactured and assembled there. The
Krones’ “MetaPure“ bottle-to-bottle PET-re-
cycling plant is also located at the plant, to-
gether with the pilot plan for cleaning and
product treatment. Many corporate ap-
provals recognise the high quality of Krones’
recycling for direct use of containers which
come into contact with foodstuffs.
Continual investment in joining and, in
particular, the latest welding technology, is
key to the famous Krones quality. “Every-
thing that is produced here has to be welded
– and it has to be extremely high quality ac-
cording to the High-Purity Standards,” ex-
plains Frank Schimpf, quality inspector at
Flensburg. “To achieve this, we have har-
monised almost all worldwide relevant reg-
ulations to create our own ‘B+’ standard.”
Special attention is paid to the stainless steel
parts of the installation that touch the prod-
uct. Consequently, the proportion of auto-
mated TIG orbital welding is increasing
steadily at Flensburg where, as in its other
plants, Krones trusts in technology from
Polysoude, Nantes/France.
Recommendations, regulations and
standards on surface finishes, which will
subsequently come into contact with cus-
tomers’ products such as drinks or medi-
cines, define the required quality of stainless
steel welded connections, conforming to
both European and American laws. The
76
book “Hygiene in Food Processing“(1) written
by world’s leading experts provides a com-
prehensive and authoritative publication of
good hygiene practice for the food and bev-
erage industry. The authors focus on hygien-
ic equipment design which strongly recom-
mends the use of automatic orbital TIG
welding for pipework.
The hygienic, aseptic, sterile and particle-free
design of the weld seam surface is smooth and
clean, enabling thorough cleaning as product
residue cannot adhere and no germs can settle.
These are properties which can normally only be
met by using automated TIG orbital welding.
(Photo: Polysoude)
A good manual welder could produce
quality welds, however, an automated or-
bital welding machine guarantees quality
together with sustained consistency. Only
in this way can the quality, which Krones
supplies, be produced repeatedly, whilst at
the same time ensuring high levels of effi-
ciency. Automated orbital welding delivers
the smooth weld seams required for ade-
quate cleaning. The seam roots end flush
with the internal pipe wall and there is min-
imal heat input with only the lowest levels
of oxidation, which can be removed easily
by etching, if necessary.
Food and beverage in-
dustry with installa-
tions from Krones. The
welding technology
comes from Polysoude,
France. (Photo: Krones
AG)
A guaranteed reproducible welding result – for
example mechanical parameters for tube-end
preparation, documented by the Polysoude
“P4“ system.
Orbital welding equipment on stainless steel
tube.
When high quality welds are required,
orbital TIG welding is the ideal technology
for tube-to-tube or tube-to-tubesheet weld-
ing applications. With or without filler wire,
this is a stable, reliable process that can be
used on steel, stainless steel, titanium and
nickel and aluminium alloys, for example.
The development of a welding program
guarantees a high-quality weld through au-
tomation. The welding cycle can be repeated
as often as necessary with the same result.
On all of these machines, the welding pa-
rameters can be checked and compiled into
a printable protocol for guaranteed trace-
ability.
Welding and Cutting 16 (2017) No. 2

High-quality welding results – work on tubes
and fittings is carried out primarily using closed
welding heads. (Photo: Polysoude)
The efficiency of this equipment is due
to a precise programming facility. Unlike
power sources of the last generation, the
“P4“ from Polysoude allows the operator to
find matching weld programs by using a
touchscreen or personal computer (PC). The
user specifies basic information, relating to
the size and material of the tubes to be
joined. The system consults its in-built data-
base to find similar applications or suggests
weld parameters determined by progressive
calculation. The proposed welding proce-
dure can finally be optimised by an expert
help menu or “Welding Assistant“. Modern
orbital welding equipment is designed for
real-time monitoring of the key weld param-
eters; a complete weld protocol can be gen-
erated and stored or outputted as a printed
document.
Orbital welding equipment on stainless steel
tube with backing gas for the oxidation-free
welds. (Photo: Polysoude)
Welding and Cutting 16 (2017) No. 2
Preferentially, fusion welds are carried
out using portable inverter power sources,
combined with closed orbital welding heads.
The closed chamber welding heads, such as
Polysoude’s “MW“ range, are especially de-
signed to meet the requirements of hygienic
applications. Inside the welding head, the
shielding gas flows directly to the weld zone.
Thus, all welds are oxidation-free, complying
with hygiene requirements.
Krones’ welding specialist is invariably
pleased with the benefits of this welding
system: “We have programs at our disposal
in the machine with which we can create a
provisional welding instruction (pWPS)
simply by entering the nominal diameter,
wall thickness, type of material and current.
Now, welds and pWPS created in this way
have satisfied every process test carried out
by independent test centres. All pWPS were
able to be adopted as welding instructions
(WPS – Welding Procedure Specification).
The quality requirements demanded by all
of the regulations can be called up at any
time with guaranteed repeatability.”
“The benefits are obvious”, explains the
welding expert, “we manufacture in all Ger-
man plants at the same quality level in ac-
cordance with these stipulations; they are
valid for all molten welding processes on
steels, titanium and alloys thereof.” Flens-
burg managers agree about the evaluation
of the possibilities offered by the “P4“ for
documenting the joining process: “When
compared with conventional machines, the
logging process and its significance are con-
siderably better”. Both X-ray and destruction
tests show that documentation and reality
go hand in hand. There has not been a single
complaint, despite more than 100,000 welds
being made per year.
This is why automated TIG orbital weld-
ing of pipe components is continually in-
creasing in importance. The process, as pro-
vided by Polysoude, has a huge impact on
quality, as it creates the smooth weld seams
required for comprehensive cleaning, to-
gether with a weld seam sealed flush with
internal pipe walls, essential factors for the
germ-free production of drinks, food and
pharmaceuticals. (According to press infor-
mation from Polysoude)
References
[1] Woodhead Publishing Series in Food, Tech-
nology and Nutrition no. 88 titled “Hygiene
in food processing“ edited by H. L. M.
Lelieveld, M. A. Mostert, J. Holah and B.
White, Cambridge, UK.
 FROM COMPANIES
Robotic floating bobbin FSW in 3 mm thickness
Al alloys (Technology Briefing)
Background
TWI has developed a technique called
floating bobbin friction stir welding (FBF-
SW), shown in the figure to the right. This
technique uses a bobbin shaped tool and
penetrates the material to be joined from
the edge, which eliminates kissing bonds.
Also, the bobbin tool is allowed to float in
the tool holder so it naturally takes up a po-
sition where the forces on the top and bot-
tom shoulder are equal as the tool traverses.
This feature eliminates the need for a down
force to be applied by the welding machine
unlike conventional friction stir welding
(FSW) techniques and also this compensates
for any misalignment between the compo-
nents to be joined and the tool.
Development of the FBFSW technique
has been conducted on conventional FSW
or milling machines on flat components. If
a floating bobbin tool could be operated by
a robot, many of the limitations and financial
restrictions of conventional FSW would be
addressed. This would also greatly expand
the potential applications of FSW for thin
section complex three dimensional compo-
nents.
Objective
Demonstrate the feasibility of robotic
FBFSW of a range of 3 mm thickness alu-
TWI’s “RoboStir“ FSW machine.
78
minium alloy grades in both flat and curved
configurations.
Experimental approach
A tool holder was designed and manu-
factured to suit the robot in TWI’s facility
in South Yorkshire/UK. A series of trials
were conducted in flat and curved 3 mm
thickness components. Welds were select-
ed for visual inspection, macrographs and
tensile tests.
Results and conclusions
1 The FBFSW technique has been imple-
mented successfully on the TWI “Robo-
Stir“ FSW machine;
2 Robotic FBFSW has produced sound
Macrograph of the butt weld
made between 3 mm thick-
ness AA6082-T6 components
at a traverse rate of 9 mm/s.
Robotic 1 m long FBFSW BoP weld in 3 mm thickness AA6082-T6 to assess
distortion.
Floating bobbin
FSW. (Photos: Cour-
tesy of TWI Ltd.)
welds in different grades of 3 mm
thickness aluminium alloys (flat and
curved AA6082-T6 components, and
flat AA6005-T6 and AA5083-H111
components).
Recommendations
This project has established that sound
welds can be made in flat and curved com-
ponents using the floating bobbin technique
using a less rigid machine platform, such as
the TWI “RoboStir“ FSW machine. Further
technique development and assessment of
joint properties are required. Thin section
aluminium alloys are used extensively in
transport structures, so this work will be of
interest to TWI Member companies in the
aerospace, railway, shipbuilding and auto-
motive industries.
Xingguo (Sam) Wei,
TWI, Cambridge/UK
Welding and Cutting 16 (2017) No. 2
 national Thermal Spr

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 FROM COMPANIES
“Arc-Eye“ adapts welding program in real time
to larger front opening
With the “Arc-Eye“ laser sensor Valk
Welding, Haarlem/The Netherlands, has de-
veloped a solution of its own for precisely
following welding seams. The “Arc-Eye“
laser sensor ensures that the welding torch
precisely follows the welding seam in real-
time, thus making the highest welding qual-
ity possible. That is why welding seam
searching with the laser sensor is being used
more and more instead of searching with
gascup or welding wire.
The “Arc-Eye“ laser sensor mounted in front of
the robot welding torch.
Valk Welding has now added “Adaptive
Weaving“ to the software that provides the
communication between the laser sensor
and the welding robot. This feature uses the
camera to directly register a front opening
that is bigger than the specification. With
“Adaptive Weaving“ the software adapts the
welding parameters in the program in real-
time and the pendulum movement of the
welding robot is widened and the speed re-
duced. This makes it possible to achieve a
welding seam with sufficiently volume. The
welding robot stops if the front opening is
too big.
80
The tolerance differences and tensions
that occur during the preliminary process
and the welding process make it necessary
to check whether the position of the welding
seam corresponds to the programmed po-
sition. Deviations cannot be predicted,
which means that the program always has
to be corrected first. A search cycle with gas
head searching or wire searching is therefore
first scheduled in the welding program,
which then corrects the deviations in the
program. A laser sensor mounted in front of
the robot torch scans the welding seam as
early as during the welding process and nav-
igates the welding robot in realtime along Athco-Engineering’s
the welding seam. Not only is this a much heat recovery system
faster method, it is also the most precise. “Process Therm“.
The laser sensor generally used for this
projects a laser line onto the welding seam. ing the welding robot’s inability to track the
However in practice the cameras are affect- welding seam. The use of the “Arc-Eye“ laser
ed by reflections that can result in unfore- sensor means that Athco-Engineering is now
seen problems. Valk Welding has solved this able to weld the first thermoplates with a
problem by scanning the process in a circu- welding robot.
lar motion. A low-reflection 3-D image of The thermoplates are made of thin-
the welding seam is taken with a single scan plate 2 mm stainless steel plates that are
and without being adversely affected by re- welded on the top side. The plates are easily
flections. deformed during the welding process due
Denmark’s Athco-Engineering A/S, from to their thickness and the large amount of
Kolding, is at the cutting edge in the design heat applied. This presents a huge obstacle
and construction of thermoplates, which the to automating the process. The plate defor-
company uses in equipment such as heat mation cannot be reduced, which makes it
exchangers for the process industry. 80 of impossible to correct the deviations in the
the over 100 employees work continuously welding program. Only a laser sensor on the
on welding the thin-plate stainless steel ther- robot is able to continue to follow the weld-
moplates. The company has been working ing seam realtime. Valk Welding has devel-
on robotising the process for some time, but oped its “Arc-Eye“ system for that purpose
keeps coming up against problems concern- to the extent that the laser sensor commu-
“Arc-Eye“ 3-D scan.
Welding and Cutting 16 (2017) No. 2
nicates directly with the robot control. The
“Arc-Eye“ laser sensor is mounted in front
of the welding torch and carries out circular
scans to make a complete 3-D image of the
welding seam without being affected by re-
flections from the stainless steel. The “Arc-
Eye“ thus determines the track to be fol-
lowed by the welding robot so that an exact
and reliable welding seam is obtained.
The heat exchangers, which are used in
the food, dairy and chemical industry as well
as in the process industry, have to meet the
strict requirement set in those sectors. The
thermoplates are therefore TIG welded in
order to eliminate leakage. For that purpose
the Valk Welding welding robot system is
equipped with a TIG robot torch and serves
two 6.5 m working stations which are served
in turn by the robot on a 14 m track. Athco-
Engineering is able to weld both the largest
thermoplates of 6 m x 2 m as well as the
smaller versions on the robot.
A heat exchanger is made of 50 up to 200
plates. A manual welder easily spends 20
hours on welding a large thermoplate all
around. The welding robot does that in a
quarter of the time with a higher degree
of accuracy and above all, a constant qual-
ity. Athco-Engineering therefore does not
only achieve cost savings but also greatly
improves its quality. By using the welding
robot system the company is now able to
increase its productivity and use a number
of manual welders for less monotonous
work. (According to press information from
Valk Welding)

Additive manufacturing by friction and forge

processes (Technology Briefing)
Prototype part pro-
Background
duced by LFW:
Purchase prices and machining costs
a) Concept design;
for high performance materials are current- b) Part manufac-
ly relatively high, especially for titanium and tured by LFW and
nickel alloys. Delivery times may also be re- part machined (top
strictive, particularly for thick section forms half).
and/or large volume requirements. For oth-
er materials, such as high strength alumini-
um alloys and high performance steels, ma-
chining costs may be more modest, but pur-
chase costs can still be relatively high.
Friction welding techniques (including
rotary friction welding (RFW), linear friction
welding (LFW) and friction stir welding
(FSW)) offer the potential for an additive
manufacturing approach to be used to build
up near net shape parts. This is achieved
by the successive welding of relatively
small/simple shapes to each other and/or
to a base component. The approach can be
used to dramatically reduce the volume of
raw materials needed, decrease the cost of
the part (when compared to machining
from solid), reduce the overall production
timescales and limit the amount of energy
consumed.

Objectives
• Establish the current status of additive
manufacture as applied to high value
Hierarchy of cost factors.

components, covering the range of ponents of relevance to a number of

possible materials and technologies
used, including friction welding
processes.
• Identify a number of representative
parts suitable for additive manufacture
Concept designs for additive manufacturing by by friction welding and produce a se-
friction welding. (Photos: Courtesy of TWI Ltd.) ries of technology demonstrator com-
industry sectors.
• Evaluate the weld structures and prop-
erties generated in the demonstration
components and estimate the possible
cost and time savings that can be
achieved by the friction additive manu-
facturing approach.

Welding and Cutting 16 (2017) No. 2 81

 FROM COMPANIES
Servo-hydraulic “LinFric“ LFW machine.
Approach
Following discussions with industry rep-
resentatives, a supporting flange was selected
as a case study for a manufacturing assess-
ment and economic review. Thirty demon-
strator components were manufactured and
subjected to differing post-weld heat treat-
ments prior to undergoing metallographic
and tensile assessment. An economic assess-
ment was undertaken which compared com-
ponent production by friction additive man-
ufacture with the conventional approach of
machining from a solid billet.
The assessment considered both fixed
and variable costs associated with material,
production and post-production costs.
Conclusions
This report has identified that net shape
manufacture by LFW is rarely applied on
components in the engineering industry. This
is partly due to the fact that LFW machines
are seen as expensive, and there is a lack of
knowledge and confidence in this joining
process.
This report aims to give a better under-
standing of the LFW process, the functionality
of the machines, the weldability of materials,
the advantages and limits and potential fu-
ture applications and an economic assess-
CAD design of the L-Frame clip.
82
ment to highlight the cost sav-
ings capable with the implica-
tion of LFW in the manufacture
of components.
Working closely with an
aircraft manufacturer through-
out this programme of work has
helped identify a component
(the L-Frame clip) which was
suitable for near net shape
manufacture by LFW. The com-
ponent is currently being ma-
chined from solid, which was a
precondition for this study.
A technical review has been carried out
on a set of L-Frame clips and has identified
that with a heat treatment cycle, parent ma-
terial properties can be achieved across the
weld zone and the fracture location is moved
outside of the heat affected zone (HAZ).
The economic assessment revealed that
LFW can offer significant cost and time sav-
ings when comparing to machining from sol-
id. This saving will be significantly dependant
on the shape of the component, number of
components to be manufactured and the ma-
terial which is being used.
Recommendations
Further investigations would be desirable
for the testing of the welded components.
These tests could include investigations to
characterise how a material performs under
specific loading conditions. These tests would
include fatigue, compression, creep, bending,
shear and torsion of the component to sim-
ulate its lifetime in an aircraft.
Another investigation worth further in-
vestment is the impact from the varying heat
treatment and how they affect the hardness
in the parent material and weld zone. This
would allow a wider understanding of the
effect of heat treatment on mechanical prop-
erties of linear friction welded parts.
In the aerospace industry most welded
parts have to undergo a NDT post process
before they can be utilised. No NDT data was
available on the L-Frame clip welds and this
could be part of further studies following on
from this piece of work.
The impact of the grain flow of the
blanks on the mechanical properties of the
component could also be investigated. It is
believed that the strongest welds can be
achieved by welding the blanks with the
grain flow in the same direction, parallel to
the tensile force.
A. J. S. Robelou, M. Bömcke,
TWI, Cambridge/UK
Short Messages
Jens Schleicher: “Above all, my aim for the fu-
ture is to set new impulses for the overall sales
and service organisation from the perspective of
customers and markets as a basis for achieving
above-average growth.”
New Managing Director Marketing
and Sales at Abicor Binzel
Jens Schleicher has joint the Abicor
Binzel group as new Managing Director Mar-
keting and Sales since mid of November
2016. The business graduate is taking over
this function from Prof. Dr. Emil Schubert,
who had held overall responsibility for both
divisions, marketing and sales well as re-
search and development, before. Prof. Dr.
Emil Schubert is continuing as chairman of
the managing board and will now be focus-
ing more on the development of innovative
product and process solutions. By strength-
ening the executive management team, in-
cluding also Dr. Torsten Müller-Kramp (pro-
duction) and Holger Saalmann (commercial
administration), Abicor Binzel is continuing
the international growth-oriented strategy
in order to expand the market position
steadily and to further enhance the clear
brand image. “With Mr. Schleicher we have
gained an experienced marketing and sales
executive who will contribute with his in-
ternational experience in various manage-
ment positions and will drive forward the
development of Abicor Binzel sales and serv-
ice structures worldwide as a basis for
healthy growth,” says Prof. Dr. Emil Schubert.
Mr. Schleicher started his professional career
with an apprenticeship as industrial man-
agement assistant at Schott AG in Mainz. Af-
ter studying business administration in
Mainz and Valencia, he returned to the mar-
keting division of Schott AG. During his next
occupational career with the Voith AG he
took over the commercial management of
the Middle East region for the Turbo seg-
ment, located in the United Arab Emirates.
Most recently, he was Vice President for
channel sales and marketing at Oerlikon
Leybold Vacuum GmbH in Cologne, before
Welding and Cutting 16 (2017) No. 2
joining Abicor Binzel as head of the market-
ing and sales division.
FMP joins Castolin Eutectic Group
The Castolin Eutectic Group, a division
of MEC Holding GmbH with headquarters
in Bad Soden/Germany, had announced the
acquisition of Furnace Mineral Products
(FMP), Inc, on 1 February 2017. A privately
owned corporation based in Toronto/Cana-
da, FMP specialises in the research, devel-
opment, manufacture and field application
of innovative, inorganic-hybrid coatings.
These coatings have found success primarily
in the power generation industry but are
also applicable across a spectrum of indus-
tries where innovative wear or corrosion
protection solutions are required. FMP en-
joys a strong presence in the USA as well as
more recently also succeeded entering mar-
kets in the Middle East and Asia. Adding
FMP to the Castolin Eutectic Group compli-
ments other recent acquisitions like Whertec
Inc. and Monitor Coatings, to strengthen the
Group’s position as a leading global player
in providing the broadest range of innovative
protective coating solutions to the industry.
Good order situation at Cloos
In the second half of 2016 Carl Cloos
Schweisstechnik GmbH, Haiger/Germany,
could win several major orders. Both region-
al customers and customers from important
international export markets trust in the
Haiger welding specialists. So Cloos could
record remarkable success again in China
after a slight order stagnation during the last
two years. In addition, the company realises
further growth on the German core market.
Here, mainly highly automated and complex
robot systems are in demand. “Already today
Everything from one hand...


welding

expanding

cutting

pulling





testing


cleaning

Sale 
Rental 
Service 
Special
. TECHNODATA GmbH . Leverkuser Strasse 65 . D-42897 Remscheid .
. TEL +49 2191 463 10 0 . FAX +49 2191 463 10 11 . info@tda-gmbh.de http://www.tda-gmbh.com
Welding and Cutting 16 (2017) No. 2
tool carriers, robots, power sources and mas-
ter controllers successfully communicate
with each other in Cloos automation sys-
tems all over the world,“ says Managing Di-
rector Sieghard Thomas. Also in welding
technology, the particular challenges are
digitalisation and networking. The special
strength is in the wide range of competences
because, from the idea to the development,
construction and production through to
training and customer service, Cloos offers
complete solutions from one source. Due to
the positive development, the different pro-
duction departments are well utilised. That’s
the reason why the company will consider-
ably increase the production capacities. It
has already started with a new production
hall on the former Ritto/LKH site in Haiger.
Cloos bought the neighboured company
premises already in 2012. Another extension
of the production areas shall be made within
the next few years. As a global company, the
traditional company wishes to grow not only
in Haiger but also at the international sites.
The welding solutions become increasingly com-
plex and often have automated loading and un-
loading systems.
Thin plate panel line delivery to
Vard Tulcea Shipyard
Pemamek, Loimaa/Finland, has signed
an agreement to deliver a thin plate panel
line to Vard Shipyard in Tulcea/Romania.
The new solution will ensure a high-quality
GERMANY
applications 
Orbital-welding
Consultation Production  Selling
production of demanding thin plate panels
used in building vessels, such as special
cruise ships. Fincantieri S.p.a as a majority
shareholder, Vard Group AS is specialised in
designing and building complex vessels.
Thanks to the company’s long traditions and
thorough expertise, Vard is one of the major
key players in the global shipbuilding indus-
try. The delivery to Vard Tulcea Shipyard is
an advanced 12 m thin plate panel line with
several cutting-edge features. The panel line
is equipped with, among others, a web
mounting and welding solution as well as a
hydraulic one-sided welding station, panel
cutting-, blasting- and marking station. Ad-
ditionally, an integrated stiffener mounting
and welding system are included in the so-
lution. To complete the comprehensive de-
livery, the panel line includes a robotised
welding station specifically designed to weld
pre-assembled T-beams, but also other sec-
ondary structures onto the panels. The robots
are equipped with Lincoln “PowerWave“
power sources and are programmed with Pe-
mamek’s “WeldControl 200 Create“ software.
Pema “Thin plate“ panel line, in combination
with a Pema Robotised welding station, will
be built in Pemamek’s brand new expansion
of development and production premises in
Finland. The solution is scheduled to be in-
stalled during the summer 2017.
The delivery from Pemamek enables Vard Tulcea
Shipyard to manufacture high-quality thin pan-
els that are particularly needed for specials
ships like cruisers. (Photo: Vard Group AS)
TUBE WELDING and TUBE EXPANDING
for HEAT EXCHANGER and BOILER MANUFACTURER
83
 FROM COMPANIES
Robert Saller, the new member to the Delo
Management Board.
Delo enlarges Management Board
Delo Industrial Adhesives, Windach/
Germany, has appointed Robert Saller (53)
as a new member to the Management Board.
Having held a number of different posts
since joining the company in 1990, he helps
strengthen the management team since 1
January 2017. As a Managing Director, he
will be responsible for several divisions, in-
cluding international sales, product man-
agement, business development manage-
ment and equipment technology. Together
with the existing Managing Partners Sabine
Herold and Dr Wolf-Dietrich Herold, Robert
Saller will guide the fortunes of the family-
owned company. With an increase in sales
from 30 to 80 million Euro between 2010
and 2016, the company now expands its
leadership team to continue this growth and
set the course for future development.
Robert Saller obtained his engineer’s degree
in automotive engineering from the Munich
University of Applied Science. He joined De-
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84
lo in 1990 as an application engineer and
was appointed director of Delo’s interna-
tional sales division eight years later. In 2003,
he was given the added responsibility of
product management within the company.
AWL-Techniek continues to
expand
2016 has been a successful year for AWL,
Harderwijk/The Netherlands. Not only did
the company reach a record high of
100,000,000 Euro intake, it also strengthened
its relationship with its customers. With
branches fully operational in the Nether-
lands, Czech Republic and China, the com-
pany already has a great footprint. However
the ambitions of this Dutch company go fur-
ther. At the end of 2016 AWL established a
new business in Mexico and the first em-
ployees started working there. For 2017 the
plan is to build another (3rd) hall at the
Czech facility to keep up with the growth ex-
pansion of the company. In addition AWL is
2016 has been a sucessful year for AWL, Harderwijk/The Netherlands.
looking at opportunities to develop its own
facility in America. The continuous push on
R&D is helping the company to serve the de-
manding automotive industry, now and in
the future. Modularisation is one of the key
pillars in the R&D program as customers are
able to define their own personal standard
based on standard building blocks that have
already proven their quality and reliability.
With modularisation customers get more
value for their money. In addition R&D is fo-
cusing on future developments such as Vir-
tual Reality, Augmented Reality, applications
for cobots (collaborative robots), vision and
extensive automation. All these develop-
ments will contribute to AWL’s further
growth. In the field of robotised laser welding
AWL is living up to its reputation, too. Not
only did the company improve its laser weld-
ing applications, it applied the knowledge
and expertise in a variety of markets. For the
future the company is broadening its scope
to a variety of joining technologies to ensure
global productivity for its customers.
Welding and Cutting 16 (2017) No. 2
       
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 FROM COMPANIES
Products
Fig. 1
Roll-guided wire feed hose
“Rolliner 3G“ (Fig. 1) is the continuation
of the roll-guided wire feed hose, which has
been successful for 10 years, with significant
improvements. The individual elements
contain a pair of rollers and are connected
to one another via joints. Each element is
turned by 90° to the adjacent element,
whereby the welding wire is guided entirely
by rollers. As a result, the friction is signifi-
cantly reduced in comparison to conven-
tional wire guide hoses. Between the indi-
vidual pairs of rollers there is a conical guide,
which during threading leads the wire to the
next pair of rollers, thus ensuring trouble-
free threading over narrow radii. Due to its
low friction, “Rolliner 3G“ allows significant-
ly longer wire runs between the pay-off pack
and the wire feeder. In many cases it is pos-
sible to avoid additional drives. “Rolliner
3G“ is not a wearing part and is mainte-
nance-free for several years. The welding
process becomes more stable as less slip-
page occurs due to the low forces in the wire
transport system. “Rolliner 3G“ can be short-
ened or extended without tools. For shorting
the use of a separation tool is recommended.
• Effortless threading by means of a
patented, conical guide of the wire from
roller pair to roller pair
• Bending radius minimum 70 mm at
wire threading and during operation
• Wire diameter up to 1.6 mm
• Tool-free assembly and extension.
(Migal.Co GmbH, Wattstraße 2, 94405 Lan-
dau (Isar)/Germany; www.migal.co)
“CMT“ functionality added to the
“TPS/i“ power source
With the “TPS/i CMT“ welding system
(Fig. 2, Photo: Fronius International GmbH),
Fronius is combining the smart functions of
its latest power source platform with the ad-
vantages of the most stable welding process.
The “Cold Metal Transfer“ (CMT) welding
86
process produces outstanding results with
diverse materials while the “TPS/i
MIG/MAG“ power source impresses with its
extensive range of settings and applications.
The centrepiece of the “TPS/i CMT“ is the
improved “PullMig“ welding torch. Not only
is it lighter, more robust and more durable
than its predecessor, but above all it is cooler.
As well as wearing significantly more slowly,
the welding torch also impresses with its
more stable arc. Fronius has also optimised
the wirefeed through the addition of a dy-
namic and precise servomotor. This allows
the push-pull welding torch to work in per-
fect harmony with the TPS/i’s rapid arc con-
trol. Ease of use has not been overlooked ei-
ther: the handle of the welding torch no
longer needs to be opened in order to thread
a new wire. The “CMT“ welding process sig-
nificantly reduces the heat input in compar-
ison to other MIG/MAG processes. This re-
sults in spatter-free material transfer yielding
optimal welding results. The process offers
particular advantages when joining different
materials, for example steel and aluminium,
as well as sheets of a lighter gauge. The en-
hanced range of options will most of all ben-
efit users who regularly need to weld differ-
ent materials, such as repair work. The
“TPS/i CMT“ is designed for all types of ma-
terials and is able to produce sheet joints in
thicknesses from 0.5 to 6 mm. The welding
system is also intended for use with com-
ponents of different shapes in small batches,
where robot-assisted welding is not finan-
cially viable. Existing “TPS/i“ power sources
that already have the “Standard“ and “Pulse“
function packages installed can easily be up-
graded for the “CMT“ process. (Fronius UK
Ltd., Maidstone Road, Kingston, Milton
Keynes, MK 10 0BD/UK; www.fronius.co.uk)
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Modular designed ultrasonic
laboratory flaw detectors and
systems
Due to the compact system design and
the modular “PROline“ (Fig. 3) system, the
company provides the ideal inspection de-
vice/system for every ultrasonic application
and space condition. Thus the laboratory
test devices /systems can be adapted to in-
creasing requirements and growing range
of applications. “PROline“ laboratory flaw
detectors and systems are developed and
manufactured in Germany according to
highest quality standards. They guarantee
an excellent inspection quality due to the
use of the latest ultrasonic technique and
a process-safe operation. The user can flex-
ibly program up to eight channels per ul-
trasonic flaw detectors (cascadable) and up
to four independently gates. Multiple ul-
trasonic flaw detectors can be operated to-
gether via ultrasonic instrument software
on a personal computer, so that 8, 16, 24
and more channels can be configured and
operated together. The “PROlinePlus“ in-
spection and evaluation software is char-
acterised by a high usability. Its specialty
is the complexity reduction focusing a clear
inspection result display. The clear struc-
ture enables the customer himself to create
inspection plans for the production opti-
misation with little training effort. With the
deposit of various inspection plans, differ-
ent component types can flexibly be tested
consecutively. The screen of the laboratory
flaw detectors/system shows beside the A-
Scan display (ultrasonic HF display) in
colour scales, line- and multi-line scans (B-
, C- and D-Scans). An automated evalua-
tion, creation of inspection reports and
documentation of results saves time and
creates inspection reliability. (Vogt Ultra-
sonics GmbH, Ehlbeek 15, 30938 Burg-
wedel/Germany; www.vogt-ultrasonics.de)
Welding and Cutting 16 (2017) No. 2

Fig. 4
Torches in three lenghts
The problem is well known: If the welder
is seeking to produce a high quality welding
seam in difficult to reach areas, he normally
is forced to purchase expensive custom-
made torches which increases production
costs. As a specialist for welding solution
problem solving, Dinse has now developed
an ingenious, modular concept. It offers the
possibility to choose from nine different ro-
botic welding torch models (Fig. 4) the exact
performance, angle and the length that per-
fectly matches the individual welding appli-
cation. All models, including wear parts, are
available directly from stock. For the cus-
tomer this means flexibility in welding com-
plicated geometries. He defines the require-
ments – Dinse delivers the configured torch
immediately. The torch necks are available
in 0°, 22° and 45° angles and, in addition to
DVS Technical Codes on Plastics Joining Technologies
This book contains more than 100 significant DVS codes that deal with the joining of plastics in the field of piping,
containers and apparatus construction as well as series fabrication.
From the content:
welding, adhesive bonding and
mechanical joining processes
testing and design calculation of
joints and constructions
DVS Media GmbH • Aachener Straße 172 • 40223 Düsseldorf • T +49. (0)2 11. 15 91-162 • F +49. (0)2 11. 15 91-250 • vertrieb@dvs-hg.de • www.dvs-media.eu
Welding and Cutting 16 (2017) No. 2
the standard length, it is also possible to se-
lect either long L (+70 mm) or extra long XL
(+150 mm). This means, that each torch
model is available in nine variations: 72
times more flexibility. Further advantages
are the high duty cycle and maximum pro-
ductivity resulting from Dinse dual-circuit
cooling as well as no gas loss thanks to sep-
arate shielding gas hose. (Dinse GmbH,
Tarpen 36, 22419 Hamburg/Germany;
www.dinse.eu)
TWI’s ultrasonic testing courses
offer learning options to suit
everyone
The TWI Virtual Academy’s new suite
of online courses and blended learning op-
tions in non-destructive testing (NDT) is
receiving a great deal of interest globally.
practical application of
joining processes
training and examination of
qualifi ed personnel Also available as USB-pen
Taught by the same industry-leading lec-
turers who deliver TWI’s classroom based
training, the new online courses cover
Time-of-Flight Diffraction, Phased Array
Ultrasonic Testing and Ultrasonic Testing
of Welds (Levels 1 and 2). These courses
offer personnel a direct route to certifica-
tion or simply an appreciation of the fun-
damentals of practice. The TWI Virtual
Academy offers a range of options under
each online course title:
• Blended learning
• Pre-course eLearning
• Refresher courses
• Appreciation courses
It is the flexibility of the learning opportu-
nities from any location, the range of study
options and the length of study time that
is proving attractive to industry. As well as
providing convenience and cost efficiency,
online training can also work to prepare a
candidate in advance for classroom train-
ing. All three classroom based UT courses
currently come with free access to pre-
course eLearning in advance of a class-
room taught module to familiarise stu-
dents with theory and key concepts, giving
students an advantage before they start out
on their chosen route. To find out more
about the free pre-course eLearning
package, or to browse the courses available
visit www.twivirtualacademy.com, email
trainexam@twitraining.com or call +44
(0)1223 899500. (TWI Ltd, Granta Park,
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5th edition,
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87
 WELDING PRACTICE
Robotic arc welding
The development of automated arc
welding solutions continues to be driven by
the requirement for higher product quality,
productivity and reduced costs. In addition,
good manufacturing system flexibility,
which is essential for responding to the dy-
namic behaviours of the market and there-
fore keeping products competitive, has be-
come a key development target for the man-
ufacturing industries. As a result, robotic
welding processes offer attractive alternative
solutions to traditional manual operation
and hard automation.
Since the first application of a welding
robot in industrial production in the early
1960s, robotic welding has expanded across
a range of manufacturing industrial sectors.
Between 2010 and 2013 alone, over 600,000
industrial robots were commissioned glob-
ally [1]. Robotic welding has been recog-
nised as the most popular industrial appli-
cation of robotics worldwide [2]. It is esti-
mated that approximately 25% of all in-ser-
vice industrial robots are employed for weld-
ing operations [3]. Automotive manufactur-
ing (Fig. 1) represents the most active in-
dustry sector in terms of robotic welding
adoption (approximately 40% of total global
robot supply), followed by the electrical and
electronics industry (approximately 20% of
total global robot supply). Apart from resist-
ance spot welding, the two most common
robotised welding processes for production
purposes are metal inert gas (MIG) welding
and tungsten inert gas (TIG) welding respec-
tively.
Basics of robotic arc welding
A basic robotic arc welding system is
formed by two subsystems: the welding
Fig. 1 • Robotic welding used in automotive production. (Photo: ABB)
88
equipment delivering the energy from the
welding power source to the workpiece, and
the robot providing relative positioning of
the heat source and the workpiece. Normally
six-axis industrial robots comprising a three-
axis lower arm and a three-axis wrist are
used, since they enable the welding torch
mounted at the wrist to achieve all the posi-
tions necessary for three-dimensional weld-
ing. Traditionally, general purpose industrial
robots are employed, carrying arc welding
torches as end effectors. Many robot manu-
facturers have recently developed arc weld-
ing-specific robots, which are smaller and
less expensive. This reduction of the re-
quired capital investment has further in-
creased the sale of robotic welding systems.
Another recent development in welding ro-
botics has been the introduction of seven-
axis robots, which feature an additional axis
in the lower arm providing additional flexi- Fig. 2 • Seven-axis welding robot.
(Photo: Motoman)
bility and saving floor space (Fig. 2). The ma-
jor characteristics of industrial robots are
summarised in Table 1. extend not only a welding robot’s working
range but also its accessibility, especially
Table 1 • Typical characteristics of an industrial when welding complex and large geome-
arc welding robot. tries. The control of a manipulator is often
integrated with that of the robot, which en-
Payload 2 to 30 kg
ables the synchronised and simultaneous
Axes 6 to 7
control of the two mechanisms. The inte-
Velocity Up to 5 m/s
grated control allows coordinating motion
Acceleration Up to 25 m/s
between the robot and manipulator (work-
Repeatability ≥ 0.05 mm
piece) which maintains the optimum weld-
Communications Profibus, DeviceNet, CANopen,
ing positions (higher deposition rate and
Ethernet/IP and serial channels
quality) and possibly increases the welding
IO capabilities Digital/analogue IOs
speed (higher productivity). Fig. 3 shows a
six-axis industrial robot integrated with a
In a production environment, workpiece cold metal transfer (CMT) arc welding sys-
manipulators are frequently implemented tem and a two-axis workpiece positioner at
as part of the robotised system. The devices TWI, Cambridge/UK.
Process sensing
Robotic welding is a challenging com-
bination of welding, robotics, sensor tech-
nology, control systems and artificial in-
telligence. Driven by the increasing de-
mands of improved quality, productivity
and flexibility, precise and adaptive control
of the robotic welding processes has be-
come a crucial target for the development
of modern systems. Sensing technologies
designed for welding and its automation
are the essential elements for enabling this
desired level of control. The sensors are
applied to observe and measure process
parameters, acting as the sources of input
Welding and Cutting 16 (2017) No. 2
to the control system. By acquiring and Fig. 3 • Robotic
analysing the input information from the CMT welding cell
sensors, the control system adapts output at TWI (Photo:
of the robotised welding process in accor- TWI)
dance with the defined welding procedure
specifications.
There are various types of sensors
available for robotic arc welding applica-
tions. Depending on their functions, the
sensors are classified into two categories:
process and geometrical. The former
measure the process parameters of the ro-
botic welding process (e.g. arc voltage, cur-
rent, wire feed speed and torch rotation),
which determine the stability of the
process. The latter measure the weld joint
geometry (e.g. gap sizes, weld size changes,
deviation from the nominal path and ori-
entation changes) and are used for weld
Fig. 4 • Laser
searching, seam tracking and real-time scanning used in
adaptive welding. robotic arc weld-
ing. (Photo:
Table 2 • Typical sensors used in robotic arc Servo-Robot)
welding.

Function Sensor
Welding current Hall effect sensor
measurement Current shunt
Arc length control Voltage sensor
Distance control Capacitive sensor
Tactile (electrical contact) sensor
Weld edge
searching Proximity sensor
Tactile (mechanical contact) probe
Weld seam Eddy current sensor
tracking Through-arc sensing (weaving
with electric measurement)
Vision sensor
Laser scanning (Fig. 4)
arc, fume, high current, molten metal, TWI has established good experience in
Weld penetration Infrared radiation sensor
monitoring Ultrasonic sensor spatter, and other factors involved in arc robotic welding through its services in
Weld pool Vision sensor welding can interfere with the sensors. De- generic research, contract R&D, technical
monitoring Thermal imaging veloping a control system which can fully information, consultancy, standards draft-
Eddy current sensor utilise the information obtained by the ing, training and qualification. For more in-
Weld quality
inspection Ultrasonic sensor sensors and effectively translate it to the formation, please contact TWI.
Laser scanning
fabrication is still a difficult task. (Information copyright Lei Xu, TWI,
Cambridge/UK)
Key issues Summary
The benefits of implementing robotic Robotic arc welding is an essential com- References
arc welding are evident but there are some ponent of today’s manufacturing plants. The [1] International Federation of Robotics, 2014,
World Industrial Robot Statistics 2014,
issues associated with it which should not primary benefit of robotic arc welding is the
http://www.ifr.org/industrial-robots/statis-
be ignored. Robotised technology is a good production of high-quality welds in a shorter tics/.
solution to fill the burgeoning skills gap in cycle time, with manufacturing flexibility [2] United Nations and International Federa-
welding fabrication industry, but using and another major advantage. Through exten- tion of Robotics, 2000, World Industrial Ro-
programming the industrial robots is still sive application in many manufacturing in- botics 1996: Statistics and Forecast, New
York: ONU/IFR.
a complex and difficult task for regular op- dustry sectors, robotic welding has been de-
[3] J. N. Pires, A. Loureiro and G. Bölmsjo, 2006,
erators. Despite the fact that modern sens- veloped to a mature production method. Welding Robots: Technology, System Issues
ing techniques for robotic arc welding are Strong industrial need continues to drive and Applications, London: Springer-Verlag.
readily available and reasonably reliable, the rapid development of robotic arc weld-
it is still challenging to effectively and effi- ing and associated technologies to overcome
ciently apply them in some applications. technical difficulties and expand their ca-
The high temperature, intense light from pability.

Welding and Cutting 16 (2017) No. 2 89

Education and certification as DVS’s top subjects at
“SteelFab 2017“
For the first time, DVS – German Weld-
ing Society successfully initiated the German
Pavilion at the “SteelFab“ fair in Sharjah,
United Arab Emirates. However, not only
that: Together with DVS Media GmbH, GSI
SLV-TR and Messe Essen GmbH, DVS was
represented at “SteelFab“ in the Expo Centre
Sharjah from 16 to 19 January 2017 with its
own booth for the first time. On DVS’s joint
booth, the visitors showed their interest,
above all, in education and certification for
welders in the Arabian region.
Therefore, Professor Dr.-Ing. Heinrich
Flegel, President of DVS, and Dr.-Ing. Roland
Boecking, General Manager of DVS, desig-
nated the premiere with the interested in-
quiries on DVS’s joint booth at SteelFab as
successful. Both not only gained an impres-
sion of the most important trade fair for steel
processing in the region but were also in-
volved in the opening ceremony. There, Pro-
fessor Flegel and Dr. Boecking explained the
significance of the society in joining tech-
nology to the representatives of the emirate,
the economy and Sharjah fair. During a visit
to three production workshops of Unger
Steel, Onyx Building Systems and
Eversendai which produce steel structures
in particular, they gained an insight into the
working sequences of firms in the United

“SteelFab 2017“ was opened by Sheikh Khaled Bin Abdullah Bin Sultan
Al Qasimi (Chairman of Sharjah Department of Seaports and Customs and
Chairman of Hamriyah Free Zone Authority, 3rd from right). Professor Hein-
rich Flegel (President of DVS, 4th from right) and Dirk Sieben (CEO of DVS
Media GmbH, 2nd from left) were allowed to participate in the ceremonial
opening. (Pictures: DVS)
(From left to right:) Dirk Sieben (CEO of DVS Media GmbH and AUMA Re-
spondent), Sheikh Khaled Bin Abdullah Bin Sultan Al Qasimi (Chairman of
Sharjah Department of Seaports and Customs and Chairman of Hamriyah
Free Zone Authority) and Professor Heinrich Flegel (President of DVS) in
conversation on the German Pavilion.

On the joint booth of the DVS – German Welding Society, DVS Media GmbH, The virtual welding trainer on DVS’s joint booth met with great interest
GSI SLV-TR and Messe Essen GmbH, attention centred on discussions about amongst the visitors.
educational subjects.

90 Welding and Cutting 16 (2017) No. 2

Arab Emirates. These structures are needed
not only mainly for high-rise buildings but
also for the buildings at “EXPO 2020“ which
will take place in Dubai in three years.
On its joint booth, DVS dealt with the
demand for education and certification pos-
sibilities in the field of welding. The booth
officer explained the structure of the society
with its education division and the compre-
hensive range of education on offer. In this
respect, she drew attention to the various
career paths in welding technology which
were also portrayed with pictures on the fair
wall. On the booth of the representatives of
GSI SLV-TR, Turkey, a foreign company of
GSI – Gesellschaft für Schweißtechnik In-
DVS presents itself at fairs in Turkey and Iran
From 9 to 12 February 2017, DVS pre-
sented itself at “WIN EURASIA MetalWork-
ing“ in Istanbul, Turkey, together with DVS
Media, GSI SLV-TR (a foreign company of
GSI – Gesellschaft für Schweißtechnik In-
ternational mbH) and Messe Essen. At the
request of DVS and the German Engineering
Federation (VDMA), the German Pavilion
was a successful contact point for questions
of visitors and firms for the first time. Here,
the implementation company Hannover
Fairs International GmbH looked after the
concerns of the German exhibitors in a com-
mitted way.
The welding simulator on the joint booth of DVS, DVS Media, GSI and Messe Essen at “WIN EURASIA MetalWorking“ attracted the visitors.
Welding and Cutting 16 (2017) No. 2
ternational mbH was able to provide infor-
mation about the practical training at GSI.
As a supplement to the subject of “Education
in welding technology“, the visitors were giv-
en an initial insight into the world of welding
on the virtual welding trainer. Any interested
visitors to the fair were able to directly test
their welding abilities themselves under
competent instruction.
Messe Essen also showed its satisfaction
on DVS’s joint booth. It provided informa-
tion about the international trade fair
“Schweissen & Schneiden“ which will this
year welcomed as guest in Düsseldorf from
25 to 29 September. Messe Essen was happy
to answer any open questions about this as
Not only knowledgeable visitors but also
visitors unfamiliar with the subject obtained
information on the joint DVS booth. The
guests on the booth were just as interested in
questions about DVS’s activities as in the trade
journals “Welding and Cutting“ and “Joining
Plastics“. However, it was primarily the virtual
welding trainer which attracted the visitors
magically at this foreign fair too. Everybody
was able to follow the practical demonstra-
tions on a large screen and, of course, to test
their own welding ability themselves. The next
“WIN EURASIA MetalWorking“ will take place
in Istanbul from 15 to 18 March 2018.
well as about the various foreign fairs which
DVS supports.
All in all, the 27 German exhibitors on
the German Pavilion were very satisfied with
the results at “SteelFab“. A lot of deals were
concluded and new contacts established. In
this respect, the implementation company
Dega-Expoteam GmbH offered competent
advice and assistance to the German ex-
hibitors. Already for 2018, some firms have
registered their interest in taking part in the
German Pavilion.
“SteelFab 2018“ will take place in Shar-
jah for the 13th time from 14 to 17 January.
DVS not only presented itself in Turkey
but will also do so in Iran: the trade fair
“AMB IRAN“ in Tehran will open its doors
from 23 to 26 May 2017. Together with Messe
Essen, DVS will be involved here with a
booth for the first time. The fair will offer,
amongst other subjects, the main focal
points of welding technology, robots, chip-
producing machine tools, precision tools,
measuring technology and quality assur-
ance. With the various contents and the cur-
rent situation in Iran, this foreign fair is re-
garded as one of the most coveted markets
worldwide.
91
 EVENTS
“HANNOVER MESSE 2017“:
Adding value with Industry 4.0
“Hannover Messe 2017“ opens in a few
weeks. The show, which runs from 24 to 28
April, will sport a rich array of highlights, in-
cluding a record 500-plus Industry 4.0 ap-
plications, self-learning robots with near-
human touch sensitivity, and advanced
technology solutions for a more sustainable
energy future. “The technologies needed for
the successful digitalisation of industrial
production are fully developed and ready to
go,” commented Deutsche Messe Managing
Board member Jochen Köckler. “The task
now is to ensure that decision makers from
industry and the energy sector understand
the direct, long-term benefits that digitali-
sation can offer them and their organisa-
tions, business models and employees,” he
added. “Challenging people to ‘think outside
the box,’ highlighting all the various ways in
which digitalization can add value, and
opening up new markets – that’s what this
year’s ‘Hannover Messe’ is all about, with
its lead theme of ‘Integrated Industry – Cre-
ating Value’.” The show will have around
6,500 exhibitors and feature Poland as its of-
ficial Partner Country.
With Industry 4.0, integrated energy, dig-
ital twins, machine learning, predictive
maintenance, smart materials, and net-
worked and collaborative robots (cobots),
companies of all sizes today have a multi-
tude of high-tech solutions to choose from.
But often they find it difficult to predict what
value these sorts of solutions might add.
Which is where “Hannover Messe 2017“
comes in. Köckler: “The world’s leading
trade fair for industrial technology will pres-
ent solutions for all parts of the industrial
92
landscape. It’s a landscape in which me-
chanical engineering and IT are converging.
This is digitalisation, and ‘Hannover Messe’
will show visitors how to recognize its ben-
efits and make them their own.”
Predictive maintenance through
machine learning
Digitalised production processes gener-
ate vast quantities of data which are then
analysed by various upstream and down-
stream systems. In the not-too-distant fu-
ture, manufacturing systems will incorpo-
rate machine-learning technologies that
analyse this data centrally and feed the re-
sults back to the production machines in
question, thereby enabling them to learn
and self-optimise. As such, machine learn-
ing is fundamental to predictive mainte-
nance – a highly promising aspect of Indus-
try 4.0 that will feature prominently at the
upcoming “Hannover Messe“.
Putting people first
However, despite the ongoing and rapid
spread of digitalisation, people will always
be absolutely critical to success in industry.
Industry 4.0 technologies will help make fac-
tory workers’ duties more interesting and
varied. Instead of focusing on repetitive
manual tasks, factory employees will in-
creasingly be called upon to solve problems,
make decisions, innovate and drive value-
adding initiatives. But this will not happen
in a vacuum. Manufacturers need to invest
in upskilling and education measures to pre-
pare their workforces for Workplace 4.0. “In
tomorrow’s agile, flexible factories, employ-
“Hannover Messe“
Preview on 9 February
2017 in Hall 19 at the
Hannover Exhibition
Center: Dr. Jochen
Köckler, Member of
the Managing Board
Deutsche Messe, Han-
nover/Germany.
ees will be experts in the use of virtual reality,
augmented reality, smart glasses and tablets.
All of these exiting new digital factory tools
will feature prominently at ‘Hannover Messe
2017’,” Köckler explained.
Cobots – the intuitive usability of
a smartphone
Prominence will also be given to collab-
orative robots. Today’s cobots, as they are
known, are as simple to operate as a smart-
phone. Moreover, they are self-learning and
connected to the cloud. As time goes on,
they are getting cleverer and cheaper to buy,
making them a cost-effective gateway to the
benefits of Industry 4.0, particularly for
smaller companies. Much like drones today,
cobots will eventually develop into a mass
market that will give rise to a wealth of totally
new business ideas.
Digitalisation as a driver of new
business models
Integrated Industry will reach far beyond
the walls of smart factories. The goods pro-
duced by smart factories will stay connected
with their manufacturers throughout their
service lives, supplying a constant stream of
valuable data. This data will enable the man-
ufacturers to develop additional web-based
services and to pursue new business oppor-
tunities outside the confines of their tradi-
tional industries. At the upcoming “Han-
nover Messe“, industrial subcontractors will
demonstrate how digitalisation helps them
to offer innovative and highly customised
solutions more quickly than ever before.
“The biggest value-adding potential of digi-
talisation lies in the development of com-
pletely new business models and in the mar-
kets these business models tap into,” ex-
plained Köckler. “Hannover Messe’ is in-
creasingly turning into a platform for previ-
ously unheard-of partnerships. For instance,
partnerships between IT companies and en-
Welding and Cutting 16 (2017) No. 2
gineering firms, or between startups and
major corporations. From radical, highly dis-
ruptive new business ideas to proven 4.0
business models – it will all be there this
April.”
Technologies for the energy
transition
Digitalisation is also transforming the
energy industry. Without digitalisation, it
will not be possible to make the switch from
today’s outmoded centralised power plants
to modern, highly efficient energy systems
that are based on renewables and distrib-
uted generation structures. Under the “In-
tegrated Energy” banner at the upcoming
“Hannover Messe“, the world’s leading
providers will highlight the changes the en-
ergy industry will undergo as well as the in-
dividual technologies that will play a critical
role in this transformation. “Hannover
Messe“ will showcase integrated solutions
all along the energy value chain – from gen-
eration, transmission, distribution and stor-
age, right through to alternative mobility so-
lutions,” explained Köckler.
Poland: a strong partner in
Europe
Innovation and growth – two key areas
in which Poland is set to shine as the official
Partner Country at “Hannover Messe 2017“.
This April at the world’s leading trade for in-
dustrial technology, Poland will be stepping
out on stage in front of an international au-
dience to make its case as an attractive part-
ner in a large and diverse range of industries.
Apart from domestic reindustrialisation, the
country’s main economic focus is on open-
ing up foreign markets and supporting in-
novative Polish companies. Around 150 of
these companies will feature at this year’s
“Hannover Messe“. Together, they will
mount a Partner Country showcase that will
center on the themes of energy and IT. “Han-
nover Messe 2017“ will be officially opened
by German Chancellor Angela Merkel and
Polish Prime Minister Beata Szydlo.
Köckler: “In light of the current geopo-
litical situation, Poland’s participation as
Partner Country sends an important signal
about the strength of the European Com-
munity. ‘Hannover Messe’ turns 60 this year.
Now, more than at any other time in its his-
tory, it is a platform for free and fair trade –
both in Europe and around the world.”
More information is available online at
www.hannovermesse.de (According to press
information from Deutsche Messe AG)
Welding and Cutting 16 (2017) No. 2
The way to the stars:
“ITSC 2017“ in Düsseldorf
“Thermal Spray Paves the Way to the
Stars!“ will be the motto of this year’s “ITSC
– International Thermal Spray Conference
& Exposition“. After six years, ITSC is once
again stopping off in Germany. In Düssel-
dorf from 7 to 9 June 2017, this globally lead-
ing specialist event in the field of thermal
spraying will focus on optimum tribological
properties in engine technology, modern
corrosion and wear protection in power sta-
tion or offshore applications, improved ther-
mal barrier coatings in turbine technology
as well as a large number of other applica-
tions of surface technology. In over 400 spe-
cialist contributions, internationally leading
experts will discuss current and future tech-
nological developments.
An accompanying trade exhibition will
provide information about the current spec-
trum of installations and services. In an “In-
dustrial Forum“, exhibitors and companies
will also present products and applications
and invite the guests to enter into a dialogue
close to practical needs. In total, around 50
exhibitors from 12 nations will introduce
their solutions accomanying the conference.
All the leading companies in the sector will
be represented and thus show in an impres-
sive way what high status ITSC has in the
field of thermal spraying. The organisation
of the trade exhibition is in the hands of
Messe Essen which has optimum contacts
at its disposal because it has staged this
event for many years.
The next generation in the sector will al-
so be promoted by letting it speak in front
of the international public. In the lecture se-
ries entitled “Young Professionals“, up-and-
coming scientists will report on their present
work. The best speaker will be determined
by the auditorium and honoured with the
Oerlikon Metco Young Professionals Award.
Every year, ITSC is alternately staged on
a different continent in the world. In this re-
spect, this renowned international sectoral
platform is organised by DVS and ASM-TSS
(Thermal Spray Society ASM International).
With the successful mixture of a conference
and an exhibition, the expert world of ther-
mal spraying is offered an exchange of
knowledge with colleagues from all over the
world. Participation on discounted condi-
tions will still be possible until 11 May 2017.
Information and registration at:
www.dvs-ev.de/itsc2017 (According to press
information from DVS and Messe Essen)
Opening of the
last “ITSC 2016“
which took place
in Shanghai/Chi-
na. (Picture: DVS)
93
 EVENTS
The power of powder: particulate
engineering event attracts
international delegation to TWI
IOM3 PEC Chairman Dr Cem Selcuk from
TWI introducing the event.
Delegates from across Europe travelled
to TWI’s headquarters in Cambridge/UK at
the end of 2016 for a one-day event revealing
the latest developments in powder metal-
lurgy. ‘Advances in particulate engineering
for defence, safety and security applications‘
was organised by two Institute of Materials,
Minerals and Mining (IOM3) committees:
Particulate Engineering and Defence, Safety
and Security.
The day featured speakers from across
the powder industry, including specialists
in additive manufacturing, non-destructive
testing (NDT) and material characterisation
and qualification. Additive manufacturing
was also one of the event’s key themes:
specifically how this increasingly popular
manufacturing technique has the potential
to benefit the defence and security industry.
Morning session
Following an introduction by Particulate
Engineering Committee (PEC) Chairman Dr
Cem Selcuk, the first speaker on the agenda
was TWI Associate Director Dr Richard Free-
man, who also serves as industry sector
manager for aerospace. He shared with the
audience his insight into the development
of a Nadcap (National Aerospace and De-
fense Contractors Accreditation Program)
audit checklist for laser and electron beam
additive manufacturing, which had been a
collaborative undertaking led by experts
from across the aerospace industry.
94
TWI Associate Director Dr Richard Freeman
delivering the day’s first talk.
Richard’s talk highlighted the impor-
tance of standardisation and stringent qual-
ity control, especially at a time when the ad-
ditive manufacturing industry is experienc-
ing huge growth. With areas of assessment
including the quality of powder feedstock,
the forthcoming Nadcap audits will have im-
plications for supply chain considerations
for any supplier to the aerospace and de-
fence industries. Audits are expected to be-
gin as soon as this April.
The day’s second presentation was given
by Executive Director of the European Pow-
der Metallurgy Association (EPMA), Dr Li-
onel Aboussouan. He gave an overview of
the current state of the European powder
metallurgy industry, covering trends, oppor-
tunities and emerging technologies. He
made frequent reference to the EPMA Vision
2025 document, which sets out a roadmap
for the industry for the coming years.
Following a break, Cem Sapmaz of Nurol
Technology, based in Ankara, presented on
particulate applications for end users in the
defence industry. His talk revealed how
Nurol had been able to incorporate partic-
ulate materials such as boron carbide, sili-
con carbide and aluminium oxide into bal-
listics ceramics. The company has also been
using nanotechnology to further hone the
characteristics of its products. Cem’s pres-
entation included many fascinating photo-
graphs showing the results of field tests. He
used these to highlight the importance of
particulate characteristics such as particle
size, distribution and morphology, as well
as chemistry and purity levels, in achieving
a product with a homogeneous microstruc-
ture and good mechanical properties.
The morning’s final session saw Dr Mi-
hai Iovea of Romania’s Accent Pro 2000
(AP2K) take to the stage. Mihai’s company
has developed bespoke NDT solutions for
powder metallurgy, including in-line X-ray
digital imaging scanners capable of survey-
ing parts on the fly. With inspection systems
combining microfocus X-ray tubes and
AP2K’s own image enhancement and analy-
sis software, the company’s NDT products
are configured for automatic defect detec-
tion. An image resolution of five microns en-
sures even the smallest flaws are picked up.
Much of the technological advancement
shown by AP2K was the result of European-
funded collaborative projects, illustrating
the value of the European Commission‘s
support in generating innovation.
Afternoon session
After a lunchtime meal and networking
break, during which the attendees gathered
for a group photo in front of the world’s first
friction stir welded plane, which sits on dis-
play outside TWI‘s headquarters, the pro-
gramme resumed.
First up was Dr Jason Dawes from
Coventry’s Manufacturing Technology Cen-
tre. Presenting on qualifying powders for ad-
ditive manufacturing, he underlined the im-
portance of using a good-quality powder
feedstock – not only to promote manufac-
turing efficiency and output, but also to safe-
guard the ultimate structural integrity and
quality of the finished parts.
The importance of using quality powder
was echoed in the next presentation, given
by the University of Sheffield Advanced
Manufacturing Research Centre’s Dr James
Hunt. He spoke of the link between powder
variability and process efficiency, including
a mention of how unwanted moisture in
powder feedstocks can lead to the creation
of parts exhibiting low ductility. Discussions
after the talk raised the point that, with the
growing demand from the additive manu-
facturing industry for feedstock, now is a
good time for new powder suppliers to enter
the market who can offer bespoke products
that meet specific additive manufacturing
needs.
The next presentation moved the focus
from powder feedstock onto material char-
acterisation. Dr Hiroto Kitaguchi from the
Welding and Cutting 16 (2017) No. 2
Attendees assembled outside TWI in front of the world’s first friction stir welded plane.

University of Birmingham revealed the re-
sults of work he had been carrying out for
the aerospace sector to develop nickel-
based superalloys that combine very high
strength with exceptional high-temperature
performance. The presentation provided an
interesting insight into how thermal history
can affect the microstructure of a material.
The final speaker at the event was Istvan
Szabo, based at the Brunel Innovation Cen-
tre at TWI. He presented on smart non-de-
structive testing methods for powder me-
tallurgy parts. His work at BIC has focused
on using digital radiography and computed
tomography, which he showed have the po-
tential to form part of a fully integrated sys-
tem providing total coverage of manufac-
tured components as part of a production
process.
Wrapping up
After the conclusion of the day‘s presen-
tations, delegates were offered tours of TWI
and BIC’s facilities. A final refreshment break
and networking opportunity gave everyone
a chance to discuss potential inter-country
collaborations, showing the value in bring-
ing a diverse range of organisations together
under a common interest at informative but
informal events such as this.
To find out more about the work of
IOM3’s Particulate Engineering Committee,
visit www.iom3.org/particulate-engineer-
ing-committee. You can also find out more
at TWI’s dedicated additive manufacturing
website at www.twiadditivemanufacturing.
com. (According to press information from
TWI)

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Welding and Cutting 16 (2017) No. 2 95

 NEWS
THE WELDING INSTITUTE
THE NEWSLETTER OF THE WELDING INSTITUTE
Editorial
Mandatory CPD; it’s not all stick!
In my Editorial for Welding and Cutting Issue 5 of 2016, I wrote
that the Engineering Council had directed that Continuing Pro-
fessional Development (CPD) monitoring will be increasingly reg-
ulated, by introducing compulsory monitoring in January 2017,
mandatory recording in January 2019, and sanctions for non-com-
pliance in January 2020. This departure from voluntary compli-
ance is intended to ensure improved compliance with professional
development requirements.
In line with Engineering Council regulations for registered engi-
neering professionals, The Welding Institute already requires its
Professional Members registered as an Engineering Technician
(EngTech TechWeldI), Incorporated Engineer (IEng MWeldI), or
Chartered Engineer (CEng MWeldI), to commit to CPD through
number 6 in the Rules of Professional Conduct, which is:
“A member shall ensure that he/she keeps up to date in the technology in
which he/she practises to maintain his/her competence. To this end, mem-
bers are encouraged to adopt a formal approach to Professional Develop-
ment.”
It would be very easy for The Welding Institute to implement the
new Engineering Council guidance on CPD, by amending our pro-
cedures and increasing our scrutiny of members’ CPD records, but
monitoring performance and applying sanctions would focus only
on shortfalls and not maximise the benefits of CPD. Beyond the
commitment that all professional members have made under the
Rules of Professional Conduct, many members of The Welding In-
stitute are already undergoing mandatory recording and reporting
of their CPD for renewal of CSWIP competence assurance certifi-
cates and renewal of Certified EWF and IIW diplomas under the
Personnel Certification Scheme. Many members also routinely sub-
mit their CPD record cards to receive an annual CPD certificate.
To try to explain what type of activity is eligible for CPD, and to
encourage appropriate value of CPD across a range of activities,
we have developed a points-based CPD system. The guidance
provides the ‘points per hour’ for typical CPD activities, and sets
a limit for each ’type’ of CPD for its contribution to a minimum
total requirement of 100 points per year.
The CPD record card has also been revised to guide you to set out
your personal development objectives, record your CPD activities
and their learning outcomes, and then write an evaluation of how
your activities have supported your development.
We have consulted with members during the development of the
new guidance and have used our knowledge of the challenges that
members have faced previously in undertaking, recording and re-
porting CPD. I would like to use what we know to create some
questions and answers that may be useful in helping you to de-
liver your commitment to CPD:
Q: I’m an AWeldI, how much CPD do I need to report?
A: AWeldI is the non-corporate membership grade of The Welding
Institute, which is available to a wide range of individuals with
an interest in welding, materials joining and materials integrity.
96
March
April
2017
Many AWeldIs will be engaged in Initial Professional Develop-
ment (IPD) as they progress towards professional registration. IPD
should follow and be recorded in a Professional Development
Plan that has been designed to satisfy the UK-SPEC requirements
for the grade of registration being sought. AWeldIs who are not
seeking professional registration can make use of Institute events
and information services to update and improve their technical
knowledge in satisfaction of the general ISO 9001 requirement.
Whilst not part of the Engineering Council requirement, you are
encouraged to record this CPD for your own future benefit, for
use in appraisals and to support quality management audits.
Q: I’m an EngTech TechWeldI studying part-time for an HNC in
Fabrication and Welding, what sort of CPD do I need to record?
A: An HNC is a Level 4 qualification gained through formal edu-
cation. The work commitment will include lesson time, self-study,
revision and examination; for this reason, we recognise its value
as 3 points per hour of study. Formal education at and above this
level is eligible to deliver the entire 100 points of CPD required
each year.
Q: I am retired from full-time employment but want to retain my
CEng FWeldI, is this possible?
A: If a retired member is no longer professionally active, they can
inform the Institute and their commitment to CPD will become
dormant. However, many retired members do engage in volun-
tary activities with their local Branch of The Welding Institute, or
as volunteers to the Institute’s governance and operation, as Board
or Committee members, as Professional Review Interviewers, and
as assessors and mentors of applicants; all of these activities are
eligible for CPD and should be recorded.
Q: As a CEng MWeldI in a senior position in my company, I am
not taking courses or gaining more qualifications, and too busy to
attend conferences, what types of activity should my CPD in-
clude?
A: It is recognised that as professional careers progress, the bal-
ance of CPD activities moves away from training and education
towards work-based and experiential learning. Senior profession-
als are often engaged in project proposals, or researching new
equipment or materials for process or product developments, or
may participate in standards development or consultation activi-
ties, and the self-study involved should be recorded as CPD. At-
tendance of Branch events will always provide CPD credit, and
also creates networking opportunities to meet other professionals
in the local area. Even if participation in external conferences and
seminars, including The Welding Institute Annual Conference and
Technical Groups is not possible, the production of internal papers
and presentations should be recorded as CPD.
Q: How will I know when to submit my CPD record for review?
A: When you have recorded 100 points of CPD in a year, you are
welcome to submit your record for review and to receive a CPD
certificate in return. Those members who receive a CPD survey
request are invited to complete it to confirm their commitment to
CPD. Those professional members who will be part of the moni-
Welding and Cutting 16 (2017) No. 2
 THE WELDING INSTITUTE NEWS

toring process will be informed at the start of the monitoring pe-
riod, and provided with information and guidance on the require-
ments and the CPD activities available to them. You will be
required to submit your CPD record by the end of the monitoring
period.
Q: I am a Professional Member who has been asked to act as a
CPD reviewer, how will I know what CPD is eligible and whether
the quality of the CPD is acceptable?
A: The review of CPD under the monitoring system will be con-
ducted to ensure that Professional Members are actively engaging
in CPD. The guidance provided by the Institute sets out some typ-
ical types of CPD activity but it is not exhaustive or exclusive guid-
ance. The quality judgement on the CPD is made by the
Professional Member themselves, in their evaluation of how their
CPD activities have satisfied their personal development objec-
tives and benefited themselves and their role.
Q: I haven’t managed to record 100 points of CPD, will I lose my
professional registration?
A: The quantity and types of CPD given in the points-based sys-
tem are for guidance. The most important aspect of CPD is that
you have a formal approach to identifying your personal devel-
opment objectives and have taken opportunities to meet those ob-
jectives. Some members will find it easy to record many hours of
CPD in their normal work or study environment, and easily ex-
ceed 100 points in a year. Other members may feel that they have
little opportunity to engage in worthwhile activities to maintain
and update their knowledge. Whether you are included in the
monitoring process or not, if you are finding it difficult to identify
your objectives, or to find means of satisfying them, please contact
The Welding Institute to discuss your CPD needs and identify op-
portunities to deliver your commitment to continuing professional
development.
CPD delivers benefit to you, your employer and your customers.
It is important for everyone involved in delivery of product qual-
ity to maintain and update their technical knowledge. It is essen-
tial for professionally registered Technicians and Engineers to
undertake CPD. The Welding Institute provides an extensive
range of events and information services to provide you with ac-
tivities that will support your CPD needs. As I said in my previous
Editorial, don’t think about “doing CPD”, do CPD to maintain
your professional competence. More importantly, plan your pro-
fessional development and do CPD to deliver it.
EurIng Chris Eady BSc(Hons) MSc CEng MRAeS FWeldI
Associate Director Professional Affairs
The Welding Institute

New members (02 November 2016 to 3 March 2017)

Member No Name Member Grade EngC Registration Branch Prev. Member Grade

642039 FATERI, Sina Member CEng ECS 0

532912 FOWLER, Dominic Member IEng NWN 0
681008 NEWTON, Lloyd Member n/a SD 0
653637 BELL, Clive William Technician EngTech NWN
668156 HENSHALL, Arron Technician EngTech SC
628816 LUMBANTORUAN, Manahan Technician EngTech UNOS
631356 WEST, Mark Andrew Technician EngTech NUA
638101 ROBSON, Ian Technician EngTech TEE
578043 BEAL, Peter Technician EngTech TEE
553588 HENDERSON, Stuart Technician EngTech SCT
631840 BRUMPTON, Carl Technician EngTech NWN
695015 JANSE VAN RENSBURG, Cornelius J Technician EngTech UNOS

Celebrate your apprentices to secure your future

With SkillWeld 2016 now behind us, Tim Hulbert, UK & Ireland
VP at Air Products – a sponsor of the competition – explains
how companies can encourage the next generation of welders…

With a wide range of infrastructure projects on the horizon, talented

young welders are in high demand but, as we all know, short sup-
ply. By now UK companies in the industry will have realised that
in order to secure their own futures, they must encourage, nurture
and celebrate their apprentices. And SkillWeld – the annual compe-
tition for apprentices currently undergoing training in the welding
industry – is one of the most effective ways to do that.
Air Products has been a proud sponsor of SkillWeld for 17 years. Its
focus on improving welding skills in the UK gives companies the SkillWeld 2016 finalists

Welding and Cutting 16 (2017) No. 2 97

 THE WELDING INSTITUTE NEWS
Winner James Elliot shakes hands with Kevin Sherry from Air Products
opportunity to recognise the talent and skill of their apprentices and
it gives apprentices a chance to see how good they are when com-
pared with others across the country. So how does it work?
UK welding apprentices compete to progress from the regional
heats through to the national semi-finals and on to the grand final
which was held at the Skills Show at the National Exhibition Centre
in Birmingham this year.
The ten top welders who made it to grand final at SkillWeld 2016
were put through their paces for three intensive days of challenges,
to test their skills in three core welding processes: Manual Metal Arc
(MMA), Metal Active Gas (MAG) and Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG).
Each finalist was tasked with performing various joint configura-
tions and processes on different metals, including low-carbon steel,
stainless steel and aluminium. The judges, some of the UK’s leading
welding experts, used visual inspections, pressure testing and even
X-ray to score each weld.
The art of welding: an interview with Ray Lonsdale
For this edition of Welding and Cutting, The Welding Institute was
privileged to speak with critically acclaimed County Durham artist
Ray Lonsdale, whose distinc-
tive steel sculptures can be
found in towns across England.
Ray uses welding to create
striking, thought-provoking
steel artworks that often draw
on Britain’s industrial and
wartime heritage. His remark-
able art, which demonstrates
the tremendous versatility of
metal joining, is on permanent
display in towns including
Scarborough, Seaham and Mid-
dlesbrough.
In this exclusive interview, Ray
provides insight into the way he works, the route he took to get to
where he is today, and why he believes his work strikes a chord with
everyday working people.
‘To be honest I never actually decided on welding as a career. I was
taught to stick and gas weld by my dad when I was around 11 years
old (not in some child labour sort of way, it was at my pestering in-
sistence!). My dad was and still is a master welder who cut his teeth
98
Welding in action
In the end James Elliot, a talented young welding apprentice from
GE, was crowned the winner for his accumulation of points and
well-rounded performance.
James follows in the footsteps of previous winners who have gone
on to work on some of the biggest infrastructure projects in the
world, such as SkillWeld 2013 winner Kurt Rodgers, who now
works on Flamenville, one of the biggest nuclear power stations
under construction in Europe.
By encouraging and celebrating apprentices’ skills and achieve-
ments through initiatives like SkillWeld, businesses can ensure they
have the skilled and confident workforce required to maximise the
benefits from the Government’s massive investment in infrastruc-
ture over the next decade. I hope to see you all at SkillWeld 2017!
in the shipyards and has been known, in his day, to operate two sets
of welding gear at once when piece work was the order of the day.
‘I have never been formally trained in welding, as upon leaving
school I served my time as a fitter at Coles Cranes. It wasn't until 12
years later when I left to go self-employed that I taught myself to
MIG weld and use a plasma cutter, but for my first few jobs I had
an old Pickhill Bantam 180 amp stick set and a welding lens – no
screen, just a lens. Aye, things were tough when I were a lad.
‘Originally my business was general steel fabrication covering a
wide range of customers. The art side was introduced as something
to satisfy a need I had to create art, rather than another string to my
fabrication bow, as I never really thought it could develop into much
more than a hobby. I started making
sculpture from steel because I had
the equipment to hand and a degree
of knowledge as to how to manipu-
late it into something that bore no
functional purpose other than to
hopefully vent my frustrations.
‘The main welding process I use is
MIG, due to its flexibility, cleanliness
and speed. Everything I do is free-
hand, so it's a case of holding a piece
of steel in one hand and tacking it in
place with the other. Occasionally I
have a need for TIG, and stick is re-
Welding and Cutting 16 (2017) No. 2
 THE WELDING INSTITUTE NEWS
ally only used for site work during installa-
tion of a big piece.
‘When I decided I wanted to try and make
a living from art, my wife, Bev, couldn't
have been more supportive. If it wasn't for
her none of it would have happened. It
wasn't just a huge gamble me, it was a huge
gamble for “us”.
‘Inspiration for the work can come from
anywhere: religion, money, love, loss and
everything in between. I have even done a
piece inspired by piles – unsavoury I know,
but it sold very quickly and proved that
you just can't tell what will be successful
sometimes.
‘The big First World War sculpture every-
one knows as “Tommy” is actually called
“Eleven O One” and depicts the first
minute of peace (hence the title).
‘But I think the success of this and some of
my other public works that were built on spec is down to them
being for the ordinary working folk (my folk) and not of the high
and mighty. I also think that the industrial processes and obvious
levels of physical graft that go into each one means that people are
assured that I actually work for the money they cost.
‘If a piece makes someone cry then you know it works, and when
you build a piece on spec and put it out on loan then the public club
together to buy it, then that is something very special.
‘If I could give an award for welding it would be to the shipyard
lads. What they were doing in the heyday was something special
and I doff my filthy welding cap in their direction. As for the future,
I would like to do bigger work, but as long as I am busy doing the
job I love then I will consider myself a lucky man.
‘To anyone starting out in welding I would say “keep an open mind
to what can be done”.’
For more information on Ray’s work visit his website, www.two
redrubberthings.co.uk
The Welding Institute: what does it mean
to be a Member?
The Welding Institute, established in 1923, is one of the world’s fore-
most institutes for the research, development, education and pro-
motion of the vital and varied skills in welding and joining
technologies. As part of a globally respected organisation, Members
provide expert advice to industry as well as career development op-
portunities and inspiration to colleagues. Being a Member brings
many benefits, including the below:
The latest information
• Stay on-track technically with e-books from ebrary
• Regular mailings of the Institute’s and other publications deliv-
ered to your desktop and door
• Access to online welding information database Weldasearch, sup-
port from TWI’s Information Services staff and technical assis-
tance from its duty engineer  
Welding and Cutting 16 (2017) No. 2
Career advancement
• Tap into our powerful network and make both local and world-
wide connections
• Raise your profile through branches, committees, networks and
events
Tools to sharpen your skills
• Conferences and educational events – many of which are free to
attend as Members
• Free online webinars
• Extensive CPD opportunities and tools to record your profes-
sional development
Alongside these benefits, as a Member of The Welding Institute you
are entitled to use a post-nominal on your business cards, letters
and emails, enhancing your professional recognition.
If you are interested in joining The Welding Institute, and potentially
registering with Engineering Council, just send us your latest CV and
we’ll get in touch with detailed guidance on the most suitable grade
of membership and Engineering Council registration, along with an-
swers to any other questions you might have. Email theweldinginsti-
tute@twi.co.uk or visit www.theweldinginstitute.com/membership
to find out more.
Obituary: Jack Still
The Welding Institute North Scottish branch were saddened to hear
of Jack Still's death on 9th January.
Jack was a friend and colleague to
many past and present TWI mem-
bers. He was originally a member of
The Welding Institute’s Scottish
branch, going on to become   a
founder member of the North Scot-
tish branch. He has the honour of
being the only person to have held
the office of chairman twice (1995 to
1997 and 2004 to 2006).
After leaving school in 1955 Jack
joined the Dalzell steelworks, where
he took the opportunity to train as a metallurgist. He quickly took
an interest in the problems associated with fabrication, beginning a
lifelong interest in welding that saw him take major roles with
Motherwell Bridge, Redpath Dorman Long (a subsidiary of British
Steel), Babcocks, Britoil, Amerada Hess and Shell.
In 1988 Jack was awarded the Sir Charles Lillicrap medal for ‘the
application of fracture mechanics to offshore platform installation’.
in 2001 he was awarded the W H Hobart prize by the American
Welding Society for the best paper in the Welding Journal for the
previous year. He was the author of many papers relating to weld-
ing materials and associated topics.
As a colleague he had an exceptional knowledge of welding tech-
nology which he would always freely share with those around him.
He was a keen and active supporter of The Welding Institute and
sat on many panels. He will be missed  by all who knew him.
Alan Smith
North Scottish Branch
99
 THE WELDING INSTITUTE NEWS

Obituary: Alasdair Cullen Wallace • Banavie opening bridge over the Caledonian Canal, near Fort
FREng, FICE, FIStructE, FWeldI William
(18 December 1928 – 30 August 2016) • Renfrew Bypass White Cart Viaduct, Glasgow (1968)
• Loch Lomond Water Supply – River Leven Barrage (1971)
Alasdair was a dedicated, innovative engineer • Bonar Bridge, Highlands (1973, see notes)
who took particular interest in nurturing young • Custom House Quay restoration, Glasgow (1975)
talent and seeking consensus in teams. • Kessock Bridge, Inverness – original design, and construction su-
His particular passion was bridges, and his idol pervision (1982)
was Thomas Telford, after whom his son is • Dornoch Bridge, Highlands
named. He was a Fellow of the Welding Insti- • Dartford Thames Crossing – design check and certification, London
tute for most of his career. His proudest career • Bell’s Bridge, Glasgow (1988)
moment was being elected a Fellow of the
Royal Academy of Engineering in 1984. White Cart Viaduct – M8 Renfrew bypass (1968)
After growing up in Lanark and completing military service in the The White Cart Viaduct is a high level multi-span crossing of the
RAF, Alasdair studied Civil Engineering at Glasgow University, White Cart Water on the M8 Motorway, providing access to Glas-
graduating in 1954. His first job was at Sir William Arrol, where he gow airport. The viaduct, originally completed in 1968, is a 23-span
worked on-site at Castle Donnington power station and surveying steel/concrete composite viaduct comprising haunched cantilever
rail bridges in London for two years before returning to the drawing river spans and anchor spans with a central suspended span over
office and honing his design skills until 1958. the White Cart Water.
From Arrol’s, the budding engineer moved on to Blackburn in When Alasdair designed this 800m long twin steel box girder
Dumbarton, where he worked on aluminium structures for fertiliser viaduct, it was in the vanguard of its time and was to feature in
storage in Holland, and on Haile Selassi’s palace in Ethiopia. many engineering journals for its innovative design. It was and still
In 1960, Alasdair moved to Crouch & Hogg in Glasgow, who were is a modern bridge. Alasdair had mastered the art of marrying
the second-largest consulting engineers in Scotland at the time. He bridge aesthetics with structural form to create an elegant solution
was to remain there for the rest of his career, concentrating on bridge of timeless quality.
design and becoming a partner in 1972, before eventually retiring It is easy to forget that there were no codes of practice on steel box
in 1990. girder bridge design and a first principles approach was required –
During his time at C&H, he was involved in a wide variety of proj- White Cart Viaduct was a great success for all concerned.
ects, mostly in Scotland, and received awards for his work on the
White Cart Viaduct (Sir Arnold Waters Medal and the BCSA Steel Bonar Bridge – Highlands (1973) winner of a Structural Steel Award
Design Award), Custom House Quay (Heritage Award presented and Saltire Award
at Windsor Castle by HRH the Duke of Edinburgh), Bonar Bridge
and finally Bell’s Bridge over the Clyde (both Saltire and Structural A 104m span tied bow-string steel arch with a rise of 19.5m
Steel Design Awards). These projects demonstrated his hallmark Bonar Bridge across the Kyle of Sutherland is a 104m long steel tied
combination of innovative design stretching the use of materials, arch with a composite steel deck that forms the tie system. It is a
attractive aesthetic and practical functionality. very elegant structure with a more complex behaviour and was one
Alasdair also led the joint engineers team with Ove Arup on of the longest of its type. It is a fine bridge and was to be an award
Kessock Bridge at Inverness, which provided a gateway to the winner.
Highlands via the A9, and was A reinforced concrete deck acts compositely with crossbeams at
opened in 1982. His proposed three metre centres allowing an unusually slender rib to be used.
design was superseded by that ‘It is a modern looking design, even today, but it has a stark elegance
of one of the first major design to it and over the years it has become a well known local landmark,
and construct bridge projects in much like its predecessors.’ – Discover Scotland
the UK.
In his retirement, Alasdair spent
much of his time continuing the Deceased members – March 2017
use of his skills by helping developments in his local community of
Tomatin in the Highlands. He also spent many happy hours wood- Name Number Grade Joined Branch
carving, creating reproductions of animals and birds. Frederick Atkey 504990 SenMWeldI 1958 London
He died peacefully in Ian Charles Community Hospital in Granton- (CEng with
on-Spey with his wife, Norah, and son, Telford, at his side. IStructE)
Trevor Horrocks 504813 Member 1989 North
Alasdair Cullen Wallace project summary: Western
• Liverpool tidal jetties John Russell Still AWeldI 1969 North
• Ethiopia Summer Palace (Jack Still) Scottish
• Ravenscraig Steelworks Foundations, Glasgow (1960) Derek Slater 504638 FWeldI 1957 London
• A82 rail bridge at Faslane, Argyll (1965)

100 Welding and Cutting 16 (2017) No. 2

 THE WELDING INSTITUTE NEWS
Important news on CPD for Members
of The Welding Institute
If you are a Member of The Welding Institute, you should be aware
that the way continuing professional development (CPD) is regu-
lated by the Engineering Council is changing.
Professional Members of The Welding Institute who are registered
with the Engineering Council have always been expected to under-
take and record CPD activities. It is a requirement of registration
and an important measure of registrants’ commitment to maintain-
ing and enhancing their professional ability.
But the Engineering Council will now be monitoring registrants’
recorded CPD activities more closely, so it is essential that regis-
trants take a structured approach to documenting their CPD.
To help its Members meet their CPD obligations, The Welding In-
stitute has produced a new CPD plan and record card, available for
all Members.
The plan lists various possible CPD activities and how many credits
each one contributes towards registrants’ annual targets.
Continuing professional development is not limited to training and
formal education – attending conferences, on-the-job training and
even reading can all count.
Members are first encouraged to identify their CPD needs and how
they will achieve them; then, after completing an activity that could
be considered CPD, to reflect on how it has benefited their ability
to perform their role. The whole process should be documented on
a CPD record card.
More detailed information on Engineering Council registrants’ CPD
obligations can be found on the  CPD page on the Engineering
Council website.
If Members are at all unsure of how they should approach CPD,
The Welding Institute can provide support. If you have any ques-
tions, or you would like a copy of the new CPD plan and record
card, email theweldinginstitute@twi.co.uk or call us on 01223
899000, and we’ll be happy to help.
New benefit for TWI Members:
free access to Welding Abstracts journal
TWI has made its monthly publi-
cation of worldwide abstracts re-
lating to welding technology
available to all Industrial and Pro-
fessional Members free of charge.
Welding Abstracts is an invalu-
able resource for anyone inter-
ested in technical knowledge relating to welding, allied processes
and the science of joining. Produced on a monthly basis by TWI’s
information scientists, it contains abstracts relating to every aspect
of welding technology, extracted from sources including books,
journals, conference proceedings, reports and newsletters.
Every abstract in Welding Abstracts is added to Weldasearch, the
world’s largest online database on welding, containing records dating
back 50 years. Access to Weldasearch is also free for all TWI Members.
Members can request the complete original articles of any of the ab-
stracts in Welding Abstracts from TWI’s Information Services team.
Welding and Cutting 16 (2017) No. 2
The team is also available to carry out searches on Weldasearch or
in TWI’s library, which contains more than 60,000 items relating to
materials, joining and structural integrity.
If you’re a Member of The Welding Institute or your company is an
Industrial Member of TWI, visit www.twi-global.com/weldasearch
to find out more.
Northumbria Branch Report
Date: 3rd November 2016
Title: Fracture mechanics applied to welding engineering and its
role in avoiding catastrophic failure.
Presenter: Phillipa Moore TWI
Venue: MACAW Engineering Ltd, Gosforth, Newcastle
The Northumbria branch of the Welding Institute October lecture
“Fracture mechanics applied to welding engineering” was given by
Phillipa Moore of TWI Ltd. The meeting was held at MACAW En-
gineering offices on the 3rd November 2016.
The presentation opened with some general information regarding
the relevance of specific historical events and their contribution to
modern day fracture mechanics. Beginning with the familiar case of
the Titanic, it was shown how the toughness properties of the ships
materials were limited (compared to modern materials), especially
at the temperature conditions under which the impact would have
taken place. Indeed, following the investigation, this lack of under-
standing was evident by the subsequent improvements to ship de-
sign and safety procedures but not on understanding the toughness
of the material. The rivets from pieces of hull recovered from the
seabed were also tested and shown to have very low toughness.
Focusing on welding, the presentation covered the popular tough-
ness case study of the WW2 liberty ships which suffered a number
of failures in service due to brittle fractures initiating at welds.
Brittle fracture is defined as fast fracture caused by cracks loaded
at low temperature, and this is below the transition temperature in
steels. The speed of crack propagation can be up to the speed of
sound and cause catastrophic results. This led on to the acknowl-
edgment of English metallurgist Constance Tipper who was the first
person to demonstrate the relevance of the ductile to brittle transi-
tion curve and the fact the Liberty ships cracked because of the ma-
terial properties, not simply because they had been initiated by
welds.
Moving onto the methods for characterising and measuring fracture
toughness, the origins of the crack tip opening displacement
(CTOD) test concept were covered. This CTOD (formerly COD) con-
cept was invented by Alan Wells, who developed the test after re-
turning from the US Naval labs and also invented the Wells Wide
Plate test. This showed that C(T)OD in a bend specimen was the
same as in a structure.
Research through the 1960s and 1970s the application of the CTOD
concept was advanced by North Sea oil and gas exploration and led
to the development of a standard CTOD test method.
An overview of fracture mechanics basics covered the main con-
cepts of crack driving force and material resistance (fracture tough-
ness). An overview of the test configuration was given along with
the relevant standards, including the current BS 7448.
101
 THE WELDING INSTITUTE NEWS
The complexities and challenges present when testing welds origi-
nates from the complex geometries, heterogonous microstructures
and residual stress distributions. Henryk Pisarski was acknowl-
edged for establishing the methods needed to carry out the fracture
toughness testing of welds.
An overview of how CTOD is defined numerically was given, the
equations derived by Mike Dawes allowing the development of the
CTOD design curve approach to fitness for service assessments.
The basics of fitness for service assessments was given and it was
explained how the maximum tolerable flaw sizes are used to de-
velop failure assessment diagrams using standards such as BS 7910.
This information can be used to define allowable flaw sizes in cer-
tain applications such as offshore platforms and pipelines which is
used to reduce repairs and avoid having to carry out PWHT which
assists in the reduction of costs. The work of John Harrison was ac-
knowledged in the generation of this approach.
In modern day engineering, prevention of brittle fracture is
achieved with a general approach using codes and standards. These
ensure adequate toughness, avoid high stress (through design or
stress relieving), and mitigate against defects using appropriate fab-
rication and inspection techniques. Items are also often proof tested
prior to service.
More advanced is the FFS method which considers critical elements
of a specific application to give a quantitative assessment of the risk
of brittle fracture.
Meeting report prepared by:
Mark Atkinson
Northumbria Branch of The Welding Institute Vice Chairman
Eastern Counties Branch of The Welding Institute
Event: Lecture preceding the AGM
Subject: From the Cosworth casting process to the future of metal-
lurgy
By: J Campbell, OBE, FREng, Professor Emeritus, University of
Birmingham,
Venue: TWI, Granta Park, Great Abington CB21 6AL
Date: Wednesday 11 January 2017
Report by: J Weston
the aid of a sheet of
paper he showed how
the aluminium alloys be-
came folded, bringing re-
fractory oxide surfaces
into close contact to form
cracks which he called
bifilms. The bifilms be-
come widely dispersed
in the cast metal; effec-
tively the liquid becomes full of cracks. He showed how the bifilms
could be opened by subjecting the liquid to reduced pressure – a
process that actually happens in solidifying castings. How then to
avoid this problem?
A clue was given in some work he had done on making tin-bismuth
cores for the Ford Escort plastic intake manifold. Folds formed at
mould edges during top pouring were eliminated when the casting
was filled from the bottom.
This knowledge led to an insistence that Cosworth have its own
foundry and John took us through the decisions that led to the ac-
quiring of the Hylton Road site in Worcester.
We were then taken through the new casting processes, particularly
its furnace design, that enabled metal to be melted and cleaned be-
fore being pumped smoothly in a bottom fill operation to fill the
moulds. The sequences described enabled castings to be made with-
out bifilms being present. With such clean, defect-free castings en-
gine failures were reduced to zero, there being no initiating ‘cracks’
present, and performance could be enhanced.
The presentation moved on to discussing the future metallurgical
implications of removing bifilm defects. John reviewed how
equiaxed castings, naturally containing bifilms trapped between
crystals, had low strength compared with cleaner metals as exhib-
ited in single-crystal turbine blades. In single-crystal castings the
oxide bifilms had been largely pushed out of the castings by the sin-
gle advancing solidification front. Such very clean metals have far
greater strength and toughness. Such benefits are comparatively
easily achieved in simpler, economical techniques which could be
easy for industry to adopt. The arrival of the bifilm concept, illus-
trated in the figure, has brought us to the edge of a new understand-
ing of metal behaviour and of ways of controlling material
performance.
 



Prior to its AGM the branch was treated to a gripping and challeng-
 <

 


ing presentation by John Campbell, Professor Emeritus, University
*=,, *=>, ),,,
of Birmingham: a history of the Cosworth casting process for For-
mula 1.
"



 

< "

John started his presentation with slides of the starting point: a For-
,0< *0< )0<
mula 1 car at speed, the Cosworth team given the task of producing a
winning engine, and the castings that made this possible. He then ?
"

@ ?
@
spoke about the way castings were being traditionally made by
melting and then top-pouring molten metal into very precise and A wide range of questions on topics from the melting process to the
complicated sand moulds. This process was well understood, as behaviour of bifilms in other metals were then asked by an appre-
were the methods of gating to ensure the mould filled completely. ciative audience. In passing a vote of thanks the secretary noted that
Why then did engine castings fail? the full story of John Campbell’s work is to be found in his book:
Very effectively, John then described how the turbulence of the cast- Quality Castings – A personal account of the development of the Cosworth
ing process caused entrainment defects, bifilms and bubbles. With casting process.

102 Welding and Cutting 16 (2017) No. 2


An introduction to automated brazing – Part 2:
Trolley- and continuous conveyor machines
Moving trolley machines
To make sense of this document it is first
necessary to take note of the complexity
scale of flame brazing machines shown in
Table 1. The system complexity levels 2 to 5
shown in this Table comprise the family of
machines that are often described as either
‘moving trolley’ or ‘sliding-bed’ machines;
while those in complexity level 6 are the
‘continuous’ systems.
As can be seen in Table 1, moving trolley
machines have complexity levels that lie be-
tween 2 and 5, and comprise three basic
models:
• Machines fitted with one trolley (Figs. 1
A, C, E, & F)
Fig. 1 • Typical layouts of the ‘family’ of moving trolley machines.
Welding and Cutting 16 (2017) No. 2
• Machines fitted with two trolleys (Figs.
1 B & D)
• Machines of specialised design (Figs. 1
E & F)
These machines are particularly suited to the
automated flame brazing of components that
satisfy one, or more, of the following criteria:
1. A series of different components each
required in relatively low volumes, e.g.
aluminium pipe-work assemblies for
the automotive industry.
2. Where the end product has a number of
joints at widely separated points, e.g. a
bicycle-frame.
3. Relatively large and delicate parts that
require particular care when being
REPORTS
loaded into the brazing fixture, e.g. a heat
exchanger where return bends are to be
brazed into position.
4. In those cases where the fixture needs
to be stationary for a prolonged period
while the parts are being loaded, e.g.
components that are of complex shape
and where complicated fixturing is nec-
essary.
A major attraction of this type of machine is
that very few fixtures are required, and those
that are present are generally easy to replace.
As a result of this feature a relatively wide
range of different parts can be processed on
a single machine. Because the number of
fixtures required on the machine is low, the
cost of converting the machine so that it can
braze other parts is relatively small. The
schematic diagrams shown in Fig. 1 are the
range of designs of trolley machines in com-
mon use.
Single trolley machines
These machines comprise a single work-
station adjacent to the brazing position. The
operator prepares the parts for brazing, ap-
plying alloy and flux at the appropriate stage
of this procedure, and then loads the parts
into the fixtures that are mounted on the
work trolley. The trolley is pushed manually,
or perhaps mechanically driven, to the braz-
ing station where the brazing cycle is initi-
ated in one of two ways:
1. The operator presses the ‘start’ button
once the trolley is in position at the
brazing station, or
2. The process cycle is automatically ini-
tiated once the trolley reaches the braz-
ing station. This is generally achieved
by mounting either a proximity switch
at the point in the brazing zone where
the trolley comes to rest, or by arranging
for the trolley to depress a reed switch
just prior to it reaching the brazing sta-
tion.
Once heating is initiated it continues for a
pre-determined period, and at the end of
the cycle the gas flames automatically revert
to the ‘pilot’ condition. The parts are allowed
to cool, the filler metal solidifies, and the
trolley is removed from the brazing station,
unloaded, reloaded, and the process cycle
repeated. Clearly, unless the machine oper-
ator is able to undertake some additional
103
 REPORTS

work on the components either before or af- Table 1 • An alternative version of the Process Complexity Table shown in Part 1 (Welding and Cut-
ter brazing, the time while the trolley is at ting, Issue 1/2017, p. 33) of this series of articles.
the brazing station is unproductive. It is this
System System description
factor that is often the motivation for the in-
complexity
stallation of a double trolley machine.
level

Double trolley machines 10 The fully automatic machine

Double trolley machines are available in 9 In-line, step-indexing machines
several forms, the schematic diagrams 8 Complex rotary indexing machines
shown in Figs. 1 B, C & D being typical ex- 7 Simple rotary indexing systems
amples. This type of machine can be either: 6 Continuous rotary machines and in-line continuous conveyor machines
1. Two single trolley machines that are 5 Complex shuttle machines
mounted on a common frame, or 4 Double trolley machines
2. A single machine with a T-shaped work- 3 Single trolley machines with various levels of complexity
track that permits one trolley to be 2
loaded or unloaded while the other trol- 1 Simple, bench-mounted array of two or more fixed burners
ley is at the brazing station. 0 Hand torch brazing processes
With systems where there are two trolley
machines in parallel, it is possible to process Fig. 2 • An excellent
different parts, which perhaps require dif- example of a trolley
ferent brazing times, on the one machine! machine, seen here
This is achieved by programming the PLC brazing copper tubes
into a brass fitting
controller of the machine so that the process
with a brazing filler
cycle that is undertaken on ‘Track 1’ is dif-
metal paste. (Photo:
ferent to that which is undertaken on ‘Track Johnson Matthey
2’. In cases of this type the electrical control Metal Joining, Roys-
circuits of the machine automatically ton, Hertfordshire/
arrange for the appropriate brazing cycle to UK).
be carried out when the parts arrive at their
respective brazing stations. The need for ef-
fective machine control is also discussed un-
der ‘heat pattern’ in the section devoted to
mechanically indexing machines later in this
monograph. The amount of ‘dead’ produc-
tion time associated with systems of this type
is minimised due to the fact that the operator
will be unloading brazed parts and loading
fresh parts on the first trolley while the sec-
ond trolley is at the work station. An excel-
lent example of part of a double trolley ma-
chine, fitted with piloted burners, is shown
in Fig. 2.

Machines of special design

The most common type of this machine
is the specialised shuttle unit illustrated in
Fig. 1(F). Such machines have two worksta-
tions and one brazing station. Both work-
stations serve as loading and unloading
points. While one half of the work trolley is
being unloaded and loaded the other half is
at the brazing station. It is quite common to
find that one person operates machines of
this type, this person moving from one work-
station to the other, keeping pace with the
machine. Where it is necessary to carry out
pre- or post-braze processing at the work-
station it is found that even with two opera-
tors machines of this type can be operated
Fig. 3 • The effect on process flexibility as machine complexity increases.
economically. The ‘moving burner’ ma- parts that are to be brazed very much easier
chine, Fig. 1(E), is a relatively recent inno- to achieve.
vation and, as can be seen, is really only an- As indicated in Table 1 of Part 1 (Welding
other form of the ‘Tee-track’ type. Its main & Cutting, Issue 1/2017, p. 33) of this series
advantage is that the work platens are not trolley machines cover the range between 2
required to move, the single burner array(s) and 5 on the flame process complexity scale.
being moved to either platen in sequence, This is important since the greatest numbers
this often making fixturing of any delicate of mechanisation applications are found to

104 Welding and Cutting 16 (2017) No. 2


Fig. 5 • Note how
the ‘returning’
work-track between
‘A’ & ‘B’ beneath the
machine does not
produce any brazed
assemblies.
lie in this range too. The reference to Fig. 3
shows that at complexity level 5 it is rea-
sonable to expect that the machine will be
capable of processing a maximum of about
ten different jobs. Clearly, as one moves
down the complexity scale towards level 2
the possibility to braze perhaps as many
as 30 to 50 different jobs on a single ma-
chine becomes a realistic prospect. This
factor clearly explains why trolley ma-
chines are so widely used in a production
environment where ranges of different
components are required in relatively
small batch sizes.
However, it is vital to remember from
Part 1 of this series that the system flexi-
bility that is inherent in a human operator
at ‘level nought’ on the scale tends to be-
come increasingly absent as one moves up
the complexity hierarchy.
In-line machines
There are two broad categories:
1. Continuously moving conveyor units
2. Step-indexing machines – but these are
almost never used for brazing proce-
dures and so are not discussed in any
detail in this article.
Continuously moving conveyors
Machines of this type, which lie at a
complexity level of about 6, find relatively
Welding and Cutting 16 (2017) No. 2
Fig. 4 • Axially sym-
metrical brass parts
being brazed on an in-
line continuous con-
veyor machine. (Photo:
VerMoTec GmbH, St.
Ingbert, Germany).
wide application in the mechanised brazing
of small self-fixturing, axially symmetrical,
components. Fig. 4 shows an in-line contin-
uous conveyor machine brazing axially sym-
metrical assemblies. Once the parts have
been brazed they are carried through a cool-
ing zone (this sometimes incorporates a wa-
ter-air mist spray to provide accelerated
cooling) to the end of the machine where
they fall from the end of the work track into
a collecting bin.
The number of components that the op-
erator(s) can assemble, apply filler material
and flux to, and place on the conveyor sys-
tem in a fixed time-period controls the out-
put rate. Since the work track is always in
motion, and the parts are transported
smoothly through the heating zone, it fol-
lows the loading rate per hour is also the
output rate per hour! In consequence no al-
lowance has to be made for ‘heating time’
when calculating the anticipated quantity
of parts that will be produced. To some ex-
tent, therefore, the operator, rather than the
machine, still plays a fundamental role in
the control of the output rate, however the
heat pattern will be the same for every part.
Machine sizes can vary greatly, one basic
criterion being the number of operators who
are to feed the parts onto the work track.
Some machines are designed to be used by
up to four operators, although smaller ma-
chines, designed to be operated by one or
two operators, are more commonly em-
ployed.
However, a major disadvantage of this
type of machine, particularly if fixtures have
to be used to maintain the parts in correct
alignment during the brazing operation, is
the amount of ‘dead’ work-track on the ma-
chine, Fig. 5. The ‘dead’ area arises due to
the fact that the work-track is ‘continuous.
As a result, at any given point in time up to
50% of it is moving along the underside of
the machine, while a further 16% or so of it
Fig. 6 • A plan-
schematic diagram of
a small continuous-
rotary machine. Note
particularly that the
burners are all mount-
ed externally (Photo:
VerMoTec GmbH, St.
Ingbert, Germany).
105
 REPORTS

is either just leaving, or just approaching the Fig. 7 • A contin-

top ‘active’ portion of the machine. uous rotary ma-
The fact of the existence of the ‘dead’ chine where braz-
production zone is not too much of a prob- ing is simultane-
lem if the conveyor system is comprised of ously carried out
at two points on
flat steel plates upon which self-fixturing
each assembly
parts can be placed. However, if even only
(Photo: VerMoTec
simple fixtures are employed, it is obvious GmbH, St. Ing-
that approximately 66% of them will always bert, Germany).
be travelling in the ‘dead’ production zone
and so be playing no part in the production
sequence.
It is evident that the cost-effectiveness
of such an arrangement is very hard to jus-
tify! In such circumstances the production
problem might be better resolved by using
a continuously rotating machine (see be-
low). Clearly, such a machine having a
work-track diameter of 1 m would equate
to the use of a 3 m long in-line conveyor
machine, but the continuous rotary ma-
chine would need only about 33% of the
number of fixtures required for the in-line
system! It is primarily as a result of the con-
sideration of the ‘fixturing factor’ men-
tioned above which explains the reason why
in-line step-indexing machines are only
very rarely constructed!

Continuously rotating machines

This type of machine can be considered
to be a circular form of the in-line continu-
ous conveyor. As already mentioned, a rotary
machine with a mean work-track diameter
of 1 m will have the same amount of ‘live’
working space as an in-line machine with
an overall length of 3 m. A schematic dia-
gram of a typical machine of this type is
shown in Fig. 6.
Therefore, not only will a far lower num-
ber of fixtures be required, but also the prob-
ability is that a rotary machine will fit more
easily into any available floor space than an
in-line machine with consequent additional
benefits to the costs associated with produc-
ing the parts! Therefore, not only will a far
lower number of fixtures be required, but
also the probability is that a rotary machine
will fit more easily into any available floor
space than an in-line machine with conse-
quent additional benefits to the costs asso-
ciated with producing the parts!
The continuous rotary design is partic-
ularly suitable for use where the parts to be
brazed are axially symmetrical but there are
other parts which can be produced equally
well on both continuous rotary or continu-
ous in-line machines. These considerations
imply that if one is thinking seriously about
Fig. 8 • A diagram of a large diameter continuous rotary machine. Note particularly that the burners
are located on either side of the work-track, and the presence of air-blast cooling.
installing an in-line machine the ‘plus
points’ for that type are equally valid for con-
tinuously rotating machines.
Two designs of machine are in common
use:
• Machines where the rotating table is fit-
ted with only externally mounted torch-
es. This type of machine tends to have
a maximum table diameter of 450 mm
(Fig. 6).
• Machines with a table diameter greater
than 450 mm. With such machines the
torches are located on either side of the
work-track.
With the smaller machine it is common for
the operator to remove the parts manually
as they return to the loading point at the end
of the process cycle. With the larger ma-
chine, it is common to find that self-fixturing
parts are ‘stripped’ from the machine auto-
matically. Because the components are lo-
cated on the continuously moving table of
the machine and the heating source is ap-
plied from the exterior, it becomes relatively
easy to produce brazed joints at different
points on the same component. The ma-
chine shown in Fig. 7 illustrates this con-
cept.
However, as mentioned earlier, there are
cases where the machine has a diameter
greater than 450 mm, and the parts to be
brazed are of a size that requires that they
are heated from both sides. A plan schemat-
ic diagram of such a machine is illustrated
in Fig. 8.
P. M. Roberts,
Delphi Brazing Consultants,
Congleton, Cheshire/UK

106 Welding and Cutting 16 (2017) No. 2

 REPORTS

Flexible robot systems for digitised production

To date, high variant diversity and qual-
ity requirements as well as small lot sizes
have stood in the way of the cost-effective
use of “classic” robot systems in small and
medium-sized enterprises (SMEs). With
their complex set-up, high space require-
ments (with separation from humans) and
inflexible programming, robot systems have
so far been incompatible with the customer-
focused production methods of SMEs.
To allow a higher degree of automation
at SMEs, the “SMErobotics“ initiative has
developed intelligent robot systems specially
tailored to the needs of such companies.
These systems, which require no separating
guards, can work with and alongside their
human colleagues. New technologies for in-
tuitive programming and robust sensor-
monitored program execution enable SMEs
to make efficient use of robot systems, also
when there are many different product vari-
ants, while further improving the throughput
and quality of their products. Graphical programming interface with which the worker generates the program from ready-to-use
modules. (Source: DTI)
Software: the key component
One of the goals of “SMErobotics“ is to tively specifies the assembly steps on the curacies in environment and on workpieces.
allow the worker to easily instruct the robot CAD model, independently of an actual robot This is vital for SMEs, because, for example,
and to control it in a reliable and time-saving system. Powerful planning/reasoning sys- robot systems often need to work on manu-
manner. This is made possible by the pro- tems then automatically compute the nec- ally prepared workpieces with tolerances or
gramming of assembly and handling tasks essary robot motions based on models of the deviations from the design data. In addition,
using intuitive graphical control panels. The individual components and the executing ro- the use of sensors for workpiece localisation
worker instructs the robot in easy-to-follow bot system. In tests, this enabled workers with and measurement extensively dispenses
steps using a skill-based graphical program- no robotics experience to program assembly with the need for fixed workpiece position-
ming system, i.e. one based on ready-to-use tasks between 10 and 15 times faster than ex- ing devices.
program modules (Fig. 1). perienced robot programmers with a hand- The described software modules for in-
In another graphical programming sys- held teach pendant (Fig. 2). tuitive programming and program genera-
tem for complex assembly tasks, such as the Robust, skill-based program execution tion were developed independently of spe-
assembling of gearboxes, the user interac- also allows a transparent approach to inac- cific models of robot. They are available as

CAD-based programming environment: assembly operations, such as the Welding for “lot size 1”: “CoWeldRob” scans workpieces and automatically
insertion of a shaft into a bearing, are described on the CAD model by locates weld seams, which the worker can adapt in a graphical system.
marking the relevant surfaces (yellow) or components. (Source: fortiss) (Source: Fraunhofer IPA / Photo: Rainer Bez)

Welding and Cutting 17 (2017) No. 2 107

 REPORTS
standalone modules and can be used by au-
tomation and industrial IT suppliers in their
system solutions.
Applications for welding
processes and flexible assembly
Having already been tested in initial
real-world trials, several robot cells and
workstations for human-robot collaboration
demonstrate the practical benefits of the
software components in typical SME pro-
duction scenarios.
Developed by Fraunhofer IPA (Fraun-
hofer Institute for Manufacturing Engineer-
ing and Automation), Stuttgart/Germany,
“CoWeldRob” is a welding cell for “lot
size 1”. Robust 3D sensors, extensive tech-
nology/process models and an intuitive
graphical user interface allow preassembled
components to be seam-welded in just a few
simple steps. The system scans new work-
pieces, identifies the required weld seams
and gives the welder appropriate parameter
suggestions for the welding process. In ad-
dition, having identified and localised
known workpieces, the system then gener-
ates the welding program fully automatical-
ly. The welder can either make changes to
the program on the user interface or have it
executed immediately. Any desired changes
are learned by the system and taken into ac-
count in subsequent tasks (Fig. 4).
Several applications are realised with a
two-arm robot that acts similarly to a human
worker. Thus, there is no need for clamping
or positioning, which makes for an especial-
ly cost-effective solution. “SMErobotics“ us-
es the two-arm robot to demonstrate the
welding of large components, such as for
the construction sector. The robot can move
the components with both arms and hold
www.robotinvestment.eu: for quickly checking
the cost of investing in a robot system.
(Source: DTI)
108
them with one arm while welding with the
other arm. Two-armed assembly is demon-
strated using the example of gearbox com-
ponents as well as components from the
aerospace industry. Sensor-monitored skills
allow the robust execution of insertion and
screwing operations, while powerful 3D sen-
sors enable components to be located and
picked up from positions inside the work-
space that are only approximately known
(Fig. 5).
That assembly processes with tolerances
in the micrometre range are also possible is
demonstrated by the precision assembly of
an entire component group without the
need for complex, product-specific fixtures.
The cell, which is currently being trialled by
Two-armed insertion of a shaft into a bearing.
an end user and is planned for future use in
(Source: Tekniker)
regular production, is capable of assembling
e.g. valve modules in several consecutive
steps. This also includes the insertion of a
spool with a tolerance of just 3 μm. Precise
object recognition and localisation allow se-
cure gripping of loose components from
bins as well as accurate navigation to the as-
sembly site, while sensitive sensors and se-
lectively compliant motions make for clamp-
ing-free assembly. Tests reveal a 30% lower
error rate in assembly of the spool than with
current manual execution (Fig. 6).
Tool for quickly checking the cost
Precision assembly of loose components.
of investing in a robot system (Source: TU Cottbus)
The online tool www.robotinvestment.eu
enables end users to quickly calculate the feedback and can first benefit of these new
cost of a robot system as well as their return technologies. With this network, “SMEro-
on investment. In addition, system integra- botics“ has a far-ranging technological
tors can also be directly contacted if there is know-how and consistently involves end
interest. The tool provides companies with users in order to deliver challenging solu-
an overview of the options and opportuni- tions and innovations in robot technology.
ties for an automation solution as well as an SMErobotics is coordinated by Fraun-
initial decision-making basis (Fig. 7). hofer IPA, one of the leading institutions for
applied research. By combining SME-spe-
Europe-wide project partners cific knowledge with the market background
In this research initiative leading Euro- of the industrial partners and the specific
pean robot manufacturers, system integra- focus on end users, “SMErobotics“ possesses
tors, research institutes and end users from well-grounded practical knowledge with re-
all over Europe are represented. Among the gard to flexible automation requirements.
partners of the initiative are robot manufac- Building upon that the initiative develops
turers Comau, Güdel, Kuka and Reis (now and tests project results in close collabora-
Kuka Industries) as well as the universities tion with different SMEs in real production
and research institutions Lund University, environments. The project partners are in-
DTI Danish Technological Institute, fortiss terested in collaboration with further SMEs
GmbH as An-Institute Technical University that contribute their experience and want
Munich (TUM) and the Robotics and to profit from latest technologies.
Mechatronics Center of the German Aero- Further information about “SMErobot-
space Center (DLR). “SMErobotics“ is being ics“ can be found online at www.smerobot-
supported by industrial end users and sys- ics.org. (According to press information from
tem integrators since 2014 that give specific Fraunhofer IPA)
Welding and Cutting 17 (2017) No. 2
Advantages and refinements of
cold-gas-spray-coated induction solutions for
modern cooking utensils and beyond
Abstract
obz innovation gmbh introduces the
patented solution of the cold gas spray coat-
ing of induction-capable cooking utensils as
well as their refinement in recent years. From
the fundamental idea and the advantages
over solutions existing until now right up to
modern high-tech cooking utensils, the de-
velopment process is portrayed using the ex-
ample of induction-capable coatings. Fur-
thermore, a preview of the use in other areas
of application is given for the developed coat-
ing solutions.
1 Introduction
The use of induction-capable coatings,
i.e. coatings which are electrically conductive
and magnetisable, is becoming increasingly
widespread, most clearly visible in the field
of induction hobs and the cooking utensils
appropriate for them. Induction cooking is
in a period of strong growth. For example,
more than half of the newly installed hobs
were already operated with this technology
in the middle of 2014 [1].
In this respect, the decisive factors are
the better energy efficiency, the increased
safety due to the reduced fire hazard and the
comfort compared with the other technolo-
gies. Not least because of the advantages with
regard to the regulation technology and the
speed with which different temperatures and
temperature profiles can be applied to the
cooking utensils, the further future of cook-
ing (“Cooking 4.0“) is also seen in this field.
2 Functional principle of induc-
tion-capable cooking utensils
The induction hob applies an alternating
magnetic field with a frequency f of approx.
25,000 Hz to the pot base of the cooking uten-
sil. The heat is then generated by the mag-
netic reversal of the Weiss domains as well
as by eddy currents. With the aid of the for-
mula for the skin depth δ, it is possible to es-
timate the necessary minimum coating
thickness to which an alternating magnetic
field penetrates into a material.
Welding and Cutting 16 (2017) No. 2
In addition to the frequency and the electri-
cal conductivity σ, the permeability μr in-
fluences the depth at which the density of
the induced eddy currents has subsided to
37% (1/e). About three times the skin depth
is needed in order to input the full induction
power. With ferritic chromium steel, this en-
tails a minimum coating thickness of approx.
0.5 to 0.6 mm.
3 Advantages of the manufacture
of induction coatings by means of
cold gas spraying
Since not only aluminium and Al alloys
but also copper are not magnetisable, a mag-
netisable material is needed on the base of
the corresponding cooking utensils in order
to guarantee the operation on an induction
hob. Before the introduction of the cold gas
spraying technology, the manufacture of
such induction-capable aluminium cooking
utensils consisted of casting around a circu-
lar blank made of ferritic chromium steel,
for example, in the aluminium casting or
pressing it into the aluminium base. Because
of the great thermal and/or mechanical
loads which arise during such a process, the
circular blank made of ferritic chromium
steel must have a correspondingly thick de-
sign for this purpose. This means that the
material thickness must be in the range of
several mm. Otherwise, it would be distorted
quickly. This results in considerable me-
chanical stresses between the aluminium
base body and the incorporated circular
blank which demand the installation of
stress compensation structures. These may
be, for example, imperfections such as cir-
cles or similar shapes which are recessed in
the pressed-in or cast-around circular blank.
Optically, this leads to appealing patterns in
part but the aluminium protrudes once
again in these places. Due to the salt in the
dishwasher, aluminium and Al alloys may
exhibit black, rust-like discolourations and
then make the people and the kitchen dirty.
As a solution, the PTFE sealing is sometimes
drawn over the complete cooking utensil,
i.e. over the induction base too.
However, this results in a much more
optically detrimental look since the com-
plete cooking utensil becomes monochro-
matically black due to the PTFE coating. For
optical reasons, this cannot be accepted ei-
ther in the premium sector in particular or,
to an increasing extent, in the medium-
priced segment. Moreover, such cooking
utensils are no longer suitable for gas or con-
ventional electric hobs because of the de-
composition of PTFE from approx. 270°C.
This constitutes another major disadvan-
tage.
The solution is offered by a cold-gas-
sprayed induction coating. The coating must
only be above the minimum coating thick-
ness so that the full power can be input.
Thus, it is sufficiently thin that no stress com-
pensation structures are necessary.
Likewise, the additional weight is low
since only the physically necessary coating
thickness is used. This also guarantees par-
ticularly good heat transfer from the steel
coating in which the heat is generated via
the aluminium base with substantially better
conductivity to the food to be cooked. This
means that the heat conduction is disturbed
by an unnecessarily thick induction coating
made of steel to the smallest possible extent.
Fig. 1 shows a metallographic section
through an aluminium cooking utensil coat-
ed with ferritic chromium steel in the cold
gas spraying process.
The somewhat increased porosity in
comparison with miscellaneous cold-gas-
sprayed coatings has arisen because of eco-
Fig. 1 • Metallographic section through an
aluminium pan which was coated with ferritic
chromium steel in the cold gas spraying
process and was remachined.
109
 REPORTS
Fig. 2 • Pan coated with ferritic chromium steel in the cold gas spraying process
before (left) and after (right) the remachining.
nomic deliberations and does not influence
the induction properties practically at all.
Since the cooking utensils are remachined
after the coating, the optical impression of
the base is flawless, metallically bright, with-
out any stress compensation structures, suit-
able for dishwashers and thus an ideal in-
duction solution. Fig. 2 shows a pan which
has been coated with ferritic chromium steel
in the cold gas spraying process (left) and
remachined (right).
In comparison with other thermal
spraying processes, the cold gas spraying
technology offers the advantage that the
material is practically unaltered during the
coating process. Thus, the corrosion resist-
ance as well as the magnetic properties are
preserved in an optimum form. Moreover,
as customary in the case of cold gas spray-
ing, no sandblasting is necessary for the
coating of a softer material (e.g. aluminium
or copper) with a harder material (e.g.
steel).
4 Refinement of the cold-gas-
sprayed induction coating
Because of the numerous contacts to al-
most all the large cooking utensil manufac-
turers in the German and European markets,
obz innovation has a very good insight into
current questions and needs in this field.
Therefore, promising ideas are considered
in the technology centre and, depending on
the estimation, are also developed inde-
pendently of customers or publicly promot-
ed projects. Two examples of these are in-
troduced below.
4.1 Coloured induction coatings
In the field of household goods, particular
importance is attached to marketing and
110
Fig. 3 • “Coloduct coating“ - a coloured induction coating developed
by obz innovation, particularly for use in the cooking utensils field.
marketing possibilities. Correspondingly, 4.2 Temperature-limited induction
there is great interest in solutions which make coating
it possible to set optical highlights. This wish If conventional induction cooking uten-
is fulfilled by the coloured induction coating sils are heated without any corresponding
which is called “Coloduct coating“ and was content such as water or meat inside them
developed by obz innovation. Fig. 3 shows to transport the heat away, temperatures
various colouring variants of the coating. In over 300°C are reached within a short time
addition to the cooking utensils, colouring is (Fig. 4, measured values in grey). If a pan
also possible, for example, in the field of wear which has been heated so strongly comes
protection coatings for kitchen knives whose into contact with paper, cardboard or plastic
long-time resistance and sharpness can be or if a pan with oil is heated excessively, this
increased by thermal spraying. results in a considerable fire hazard.
Fig. 4 • The “TLim
coating“ developed
by obz limits the
temperature in
comparison with a
ferritic chromium
steel induction
coating (top). The
induction hob is
not switched off in
this case. The input
power only drops
to a certain level
and does not fall
to zero at any time
as in the case of
conventional tem-
perature-limited
cooking utensils
(bottom).
Welding and Cutting 16 (2017) No. 2
 Moreover, the nonstick PTFE coating
present on most aluminium cooking utensils
begins to decompose from a temperature of
approx. 270°C. This not only leads to the loss
of the nonstick properties but may also result
in vapours which are caused by decompo-
sition products containing fluorine and are
harmful to health. The safety mechanism
integrated into the hob under the glass plate,
a temperature sensor, can only recognise the
temperature much too late because of the
distance to the base of the cooking utensil.
Then, the actual temperature of the pan is
already, for example, 350 to 400°C.
In order to prevent this, induction cook-
ing utensils which lose their magnetic prop-
erties due to the use of a material with a
Curie point in the range of (for example)
250°C and thus cannot be heated any further
on induction hobs have been known for over
20 years. The Curie point indicates at what
temperature the magnetic properties of a
material are lost. The electronics in the in-
duction hob then switch the hob off for safe-
ty reasons because the power input is insuf-
ficient.
As soon as the temperature of the cook-
ing utensil then begins to drop, it is more or
less coincidence for outsiders (who have not
developed the electronics) whether the in-
duction mechanism is reactivated. Some
hob types do this but a lot of others remain
off (Fig. 4, bottom, sketched in red). Even if
the hob is switched on again and the cook-
ing can thus be continued, this operation is
repeated constantly and the unattractive
„clicking“ (Fig. 4, bottom, sketched in or-
ange) of the induction mechanism being
switched on and off is audible. In addition,
this operation repeated in cycles lasting sec-
onds is not necessarily good for the hob.
Since every hob manufacturer can install its
own electronics, this resembles a type of
“black box“ for outsiders.
On the part of the household good man-
ufacturers, a general solution can therefore
Welding and Cutting 16 (2017) No. 2
only be found by the design of the cooking
utensils. obz innovation has therefore de-
veloped an induction-capable coating which
limits the temperature but prevents the hob
from being switched off or „clicking“.
The solution to this developed by obz
and submitted for the patent is the use of at
least two materials with different Curie
points. If the temperature of the cooking
utensil approaches the lower Curie temper-
ature, this material increasingly loses its
magnetic properties. Thus, the power input
into the pan base begins to drop. The drop
rate and the maintained limiting power can
be set depending on the chosen materials
and the Curie points as well as on the per-
centage distribution of the materials in the
coating.
Parallel to the dropping power, the tem-
perature rise of the cooking utensil slows
down right up to the point when the input
power of the hob corresponds to the power
loss of the pan. Not only the input power
but also, depending on it, the temperature
are thus kept constant (Fig. 4, top and bot-
tom, triangular measured values in dark
blue). In this way, it can be achieved that
the induction hob is not switched off, no dis-
turbing „clicking“ noise occurs, the technol-
ogy of the hob is not strained by any unnec-
essary switching-on and switching-off and,
of course, the previously described advan-
tages of the temperature limitation are pres-
ent permanently.
5 Further utilisation possibilities
of induction coatings
The previously described coating solu-
tion for temperature limitation can be used
in further industrial fields. The concept of
the temperature limitation by means of in-
duction technology is particularly suitable
wherever a certain temperature should be
kept constant or limited, if at all possible,
without any complicated regulation tech-
nology.
The deliberations about avoiding regu-
lation technology may be diverse, e.g. for
cost-related reasons or because of a rough
ambient condition such as heat or mechan-
ical stresses. Plastics-processing plants
which offer processes such as hot stamping,
deep drawing of films or similar operations
may be specified as one possible industrial
field. Moreover, the conventional cold-gas-
sprayed induction coating without any tem-
perature limitation may be applied in further
fields from heating to sensor concepts.
6 Concluding remarks
The cold gas spraying technology offers
a very good solution for the manufacture of
induction coatings. Compared with other
thermal spraying processes, the materials
are practically unaltered during the coating.
For this reason, the magnetic properties and
the corrosion resistance are preserved.
Compared with alternative manufacturing
processes, the positive properties of the thin
coating should be highlighted in particular.
These permit a coating free from stress
cracking, in spite of the exploitation of the
full induction properties. In the field of the
temperature-limited induction solution, the
mixing ratios must be set and must not alloy
the materials either. Therefore, a cold-gas-
sprayed coating constitutes the ideal solu-
tion.
The future of cooking has long since
been located in the field of induction tech-
nology. However, in other fields too, corre-
sponding coating solutions can open up new
applications or improve existing ones.
Dr. Fabian Trenkle, Johanna Schmidt,
Dr. Sven Hartmann, obz innovation gmbh,
Bad Krozingen/Germany
References
[1] http://www.welt.de/wirtschaft/article
128197172/Die-Kueche-ist-dasneue-Sta-
tussymbol-der-Deutschen.html, 19.11.2015.
111
SPECIALIST ARTICLES
Compensation for part tolerances during welding
of Al-Si-coated 22MnB5 sheet metal using modified
GMA welding processes
This paper studies GMA welding of hot-dip-aluminised
press-hardened sheet metal of type 22MnB5+AS150
steel using various process modifications. The aim of
the research was to improve the gap-bridging ability
as well as the permissible lateral torch offset of lap
joints. Geometrical process windows were obtained in
order to quantify the process stability as a function of
the two parameters, gap width and torch offset. There-
fore, it was determined with which geometrical devia-
tions sound welds could still be produced. Tensile shear
tests and hardness tests were carried out in order to
determine the mechanical properties in terms of stress-
bearing capacity and to evaluate the effect of gap width
and torch offset on the strength of the welds.
1 Introduction
With approx. 40%, the dead weight of the body of a
car has a decisive influence on the total weight and thus
on the fuel consumption. Consequently, materials which
economically realise both high safety and weight reduc-
tion are used. In this respect, one approach is to use press-
hardened components which permit the reduction of the
thickness of the components in comparison with those
made from conventional steel grades with identical and
higher joint strengths [1; 2].
The most widespread material for this application is
the boron-alloyed heat-treatable 22MnB5 steel which, af-
ter the press hardening (or hot stamping) process, exhibits
a tensile strength up to 1,500  MPa. In order to achieve
this high strength, it is necessary to austenitise the material
at a temperature between 900°C and 950°C before press
hardening. In order to prevent any scaling or surface car-
Fig. 1 • Similar burisation of the components at this temperature range,
short-arc-welded it is possible, amongst other methods, to coat the steel
joints (vDr = 3.5 m/
sheets with an Al-Si coating by hot-dip aluminising [3...5].
min) with a 1 mm
However, this coating causes a distinct alteration in the
gap between the
sheets; a) 22MnB5
weldability of the material.
without coating, During further processing of the press-hardened com-
b) 22MnB5 with ponents in bodymaking, GMA welding is utilised among
AS150 coating, others as a thermal joining procedure. This welding process
press-hardened. is chosen whenever, during joining of subassemblies, high
112
strengths are required, wider tolerances are expected or
there is accessibility from one side only [6]. The deviations
between the “nominal shape“ of a component and the “ac-
tual shape“ are unavoidable for fabrication-related reasons.
The shape deviations relevant during the fabrication of
car bodies are related to the dimensions, shape and posi-
THE AUTHORS
Dr.-Ing. Olaf Schwedler M.A., SFI was a gradu-
ate research assistant at the Institute of Materi-
als Engineering and Joining Technology at the
Otto-von-Guericke University Magdeburg/Ger-
many. Within research projects and industrial as-
signments, he worked on hot stamping as a fab-
rication process in the automotive industry. An-
other of his research projects was related to the
joining of hot-stamped steels using welding pro-
cedures suitable for automobile construction. He
is now the Process Development Manager at
Mansfelder Kupfer und Messing GmbH, Hettst-
edt/Germany.
Upon completion of his graduate studies at the
Otto-von-Guericke University Magdeburg in Au-
gust 2014, Dipl.-Ing. Benjamin Schlosser, SFI
began his professional career at Vorrichtungsbau
Giggel GmbH, an automobile component suppli-
er focusing on the fabrication of prototypes and
small-scale series. Being responsible for the
mechanisation and automation of joining
processes, he is in charge of introducing robotic
welding. In addition, he is the responsible weld-
ing coordinator in the affiliated company, Metall-
bearbeitung Harz GmbH.
Prof. Dr.-Ing. Sven Jüttner finished his gradu-
ate studies in Mechanical Engineering, Materials
Engineering and Welding Technology,
at the Brunswick University of Technology in
Brunswick/Germany in 1993. From 2009 to 2011,
he was the Joining Technology Manager in the
Group Research Department at Volkswagen AG
in Wolfsburg. Since 2011, he is full professor at
the Institute for Materials Engineering and Join-
ing Technology at the Otto-von-Guericke-Univer-
sity Magdeburg.
KEYWORDS
Surface-coated parts, Al-Si coating, gas metal arc welding,
weldability and manufacturing tolerances
Welding and Cutting 16 (2017) No. 2

tion properties. In the case of lap joints which are encoun-
tered frequently in those kinds of components, they are
expressed in the form of gaps between the parts as well as
an offset of the flange, Fig. 2 left [6; 7].
For GMA welding with a conventional short arc in a
lap joint position, good weldability may be attested to
22MnB5 steel grade with an Al-Si coating if there is a tech-
nical zero gap [8]. Welding with gap-bridging distances up
to 2.0 mm is possible at a sheet thickness of 1.5 mm for
non-coated material. But the authors’ investigations have
shown that as soon as there is a gap distance of 1.0 mm,
22MnB5 sheets with Al-Si coating are no longer weldable
and undercuts, wetting defects and lack of fusion occur. A
comparison of such welding results is shown in Fig. 1.
The GMA power sources used during the investiga-
tions presented here differ from conventional GMA weld-
ing power sources. In contrast to conventional GMA weld-
ing power sources on the basis of transformers operated
at the mains frequency, the used GMA welding devices
are characterised by the fact that they are digitally con-
trolled welding devices. This enabled the development of
GMA welding process variants with which adjusted tech-
nological properties can be implemented in a targeted
way [9]. These welding processes are characterised by a
controlled material transfer and a reduced heat input into
the base material with slight spattering at high deposition
rates as compared with the standard short arc welding
process. Apart from this, they can also be distinguished
according to the type of the used arc, its electrical polarity
and the targeted movement of the wire electrode [10]. In
order to evaluate to what extent the weldability of
22MnB5+AS150 can be extended with the described re-
quirements, this study on the potential of these innovative
GMA welding process variants was conducted.
2 Test setup
The above described material, 22MnB5+AS150 grade
steel in the press-hardened condition, was used for the
tests. After press-hardening, the 1.5 mm thick sheets had
a coating which consisted of different Al(Si)-Fe phases,
and a thickness of approx. 35  μm on both sides of the
sheet surface.
The investigations focused on the quantification of
the gap-bridging ability and the permissible torch offset
Welding and Cutting 16 (2017) No. 2
Fig. 2 • Torch
offset and gap
according to [6],
coordinate system
for the elabora-
tion of geometri-
cal process win-
dows (GPWs).
during welding in a lap joint configuration, since the geo-
metrical deviations from the ideal position exert consid-
erable effects on the weld formation. As indicated in Fig. 2
right, an offset of the contact point of the wire electrode
on the bottom sheet in relation to the edge of the top sheet
is defined as positive. Geometrical process windows (GP-
Ws), as described in [6], were established to characterise
the welding processes with regard to their offset and gap-
bridging abilities, Fig. 4. The GPWs enable a direct com-
parison of the different process variants.
The GMA process variants used in the investigations
are described below.
ColdMetalTransfer (CMT) and ColdMetalTransfer-Ad-
vanced (CMT-A)
In the case of the CMT and CMT-A processes, the ma-
terial transfer in the short circuit is supported by retracting
the wire electrode. In addition, this mechanical interven-
tion in the welding process allows for an extreme decrease
of the current shortly before the droplet is completely de-
tached so that the arc is reignited with hardly any spatter
and the heat input into the component is reduced [11].
The CMT-A process is a modification of the CMT
process. It is characterised by a periodic change in the
polarity of the wire electrode from positive to negative. In
this respect, the polarity always changes at the beginning
of the short circuit phase. A phase with unaltered polarity
always extends over a whole number of cycles consisting
of the arc phase and the droplet transfer. It is possible to
vary the length of the phases of positive and negative po-
larity; and thus to decouple the heat input into the base
material from the efficiency of deposition to a limited ex-
tent [12]. This is caused by the fact that in the phases with
negative polarity of the wire electrode, less heat input goes
into the base material and the end of the electrode is in-
stead heated more strongly. In this respect, more filler
material is deposited due to the stronger thermal load on
the electrode at the same heat input [13]. Within the
framework of this study, welding parameters were opti-
mised in such a way that the greatest possible gap bridging
could be achieved with sufficient penetration. While an
optimum wire feed speed of 4.5 m/min was established
during CMT, it was possible to achieve a stable process at
a wire feed of up to 8.0 m/min for the CMT-A process vari-
113
SPECIALIST ARTICLES
ant. Because of the mechanical reversing of the wire elec-
trode during both processes, it is difficult to determine
the actual wire feed speed. In order to be able to make a
statement about the accuracy of the machine display with
regard to the wire feed, the wire feed was recorded with a
wire feed sensor type “WeldQAS“ (HKS Prozesstechnik
GmbH) in addition to measuring the welding current and
voltage. The comparison between the display values of
the welding power source and the externally measured
mean values of the wire feed speed showed a maximum
deviation of 2%. Accordingly, there is good congruence
between the data.
ColdArc (CA)
The CA process is also based on a controlled short arc
welding process. In contrast with CMT and CMT-A, it is
implemented without any mechanical intervention in the
wire feed. All the necessary influencing measures are tak-
en exclusively by controlling the current and the voltage.
During the arc phase, the heat input is reduced consider-
ably. The CA process is characterised by an extreme re-
duction in the welding current when the arc is reignited.
The voltage values are identical with that of a conventional
short arc process. In order to control the energy input into
the base material and to rapidly produce a sufficiently
large liquid end at the wire electrode for droplet detach-
ment, the current is increased for a defined time shortly
after the reignition of the arc. This very short increased
energy input ensures a uniform droplet size and thus a
stable and constant process [14]. In this study, a stable
process was achieved at a wire feed of 3.6 m/min.
ColdWeld (CW)
The CW technology with a modified pulsed arc is
based on cyclic polarity changes of the welding current
and voltage. The change to the negative polarity is made
Fig. 4 • Geometrical process windows (GPWs) as a function of the used GMA process variant (shielding gas: M21, wire electrode:
G3Si1, wire electrode diameter dDr = 1 mm; CA, CW, CMT and CMT-A are all variants of the GMA welding process).
114
Fig. 3 • Quality criteria for
the assessment of the
welds with reference to
SEP 1220-5.
for a short time between two droplet detachment opera-
tions during the background current phase so that the
material is always transferred with positive polarity. Vary-
ing the duration of the background current phase with
negative polarity allows to influence the energy input into
the component. In this way, more filler material can be
deposited with the same energy input per unit length [15].
A wire feed speed of 3.7 m/min was achieved for the CW
process in this study.
Determination of the geometrical process windows
(GPWs)
The welding parameters used for the determination
of the geometrical process windows (GPWs) are indicated
in Table 1 for all used welding processes. These were ob-
tained at a gap of S = 1 mm and without any torch offset
(V = 0 mm). These welding parameters allow for the high-
est possible wire feed speed for each process in order to
make enough welding filler available for the gap bridging.
The values for the wire feed speed displayed on the power
sources were compared with externally measured values.
A good correlation was observed for all used welding
processes.
In order to be able to determine the GPW as precisely
as possible, the variation of the torch offset was reduced
to an increment of ΔV = 0.1 mm at the outer limits of the
GPW. In all other cases, the used increment for the torch
offset was 0.5  mm. As soon as the welds no longer met
the quality criteria, because the torch offset or the gap
were too wide, it was not necessary to increase offset or
gap any further.
Quality criteria for the test welds
The qualitative assessment of the produced welds was
made on lap joints with reference to the draft of SEP 1220-5
[16]. For this purpose, two 45 mm wide sheet strips were
Welding and Cutting 16 (2017) No. 2

welded with an overlapping length of 15 mm. The joint
quality was evaluated at first by visual inspection. Then
metallographic cross sections were taken at 15 mm and
35 mm away from the start of the weld. The start and end
region of the weld were not taken into account during the
quality assessment. The geometrical process window
(GPW) consists of the achievable torch offset V and the
gap at which the welds fully met the quality requirements
as shown in Fig. 3.
Mechanical testing
In addition to the evaluation of the weld quality, the
mechanical properties of the welded joints were evaluated
using tensile shear tests and hardness measurements. The
draft of SEP  1220-5 was used as a reference for the test
parameters for the tensile shear test. The width of the
specimens was 45 mm and the pull-off speed 10 mm/min.
The hardness traverses were measured at HV0.2.
3 Results and discussion
3.1 Geometrical process windows
At the highest possible wire feed speed, GPWs were
obtained for each of the tested GMA process variants. For
comparison, all are shown in Fig. 4. The comparison is
based on the standard short arc process, whose results
are specified with “X“ in the figure.
With all of the tested modified GMA process variants,
it was possible to achieve a considerable extension of
the GPW as compared to the conventional short arc
welding process. This relates, above all, to a gap bridging
of up to 1 mm which, however, must not be exceeded at
the given sheet thickness of 1.5 mm according to the ap-
plicable standard of an automobile manufacturer [17],
even in the case of joints subjected to low stresses (Qual-
ity Level D).
As far as the offset of the torch in relation to the top
sheet (V < 0 mm) is concerned, comparable results could
be achieved using the CA, CMT and CW process. An off-
set of up to –0.5 mm is possible with all these variants.
There is a limitation due to insufficient penetration into
the bottom sheet or due to the occurrence of lack of fu-
sion defects. In the opposite direction, away from the
top sheet, the CW and CMT process variants allow for
an offset of approx. +0.3 mm in relation to the bottom
Welding and Cutting 16 (2017) No. 2
Table 1 • Welding
parameters of the
investigated GMA
process variants.
sheet. Under these conditions, the CMT process also al-
lows gap bridging up to 1 mm. Higher gap values lead to
undercuts or lack of fusion with the top sheet, so that
there is just a bead on plate weld made on the bottom
sheet. A considerable extension of the GPW is possible
when using the CMT-A process.
In addition to the current and voltage parameters, the
CMT-A process also influences the wire feed and polarity
setting variables. For this reason, a direct comparison be-
tween the tested GMA process variants and their GPWs is
probably only valid to a limited extent. The CW process is
also utilising a periodically changing current , but the
droplets are transferred without any short circuits. Not
only the CMT procedure but also the CA process is based
on the short arc process and the current direction does
not change cyclical. Nevertheless, CMT has a dynamic
wire feed which is used in order to make active interven-
tions in the welding process. These individual process
properties have decisive influences on the effective energy
input per unit length. Since this parameter can give in-
formation about the actual heat input into the compo-
nents during the welding process, it also needs to be in-
cluded in any comparison of the process variants. In future
investigations, looking at the different welding processes
at the same energy input per unit length or the same pen-
etration depth would be a useful addition to this compar-
ison.
3.2 Mechanical properties of the welds
In order to determine the influence of the welding
processes on the tensile shear strength of the welds, all
specimens in the test series were welded with a gap of
S = 1 mm and without any torch offset (V = 0 mm). Under
these conditions, it was possible to prepare welded joints
with all tested welding processes. Only the tensile shear
test specimens welded with the short arc process did not
fully meet the quality criteria (undercuts). The results of
the tensile shear tests are shown in Fig. 5 left.
The comparison shows that it was possible to achieve
a nearly identical shear force of 45 to 50 kN with all applied
welding processes. This illustrates that the quantity of the
input weld deposit exerts only a slight influence on the
tensile shear strength. The joints welded with the short
arc process exhibited a somewhat lower stress-bearing
115
SPECIALIST ARTICLES
capacity. This may be attributed to formation of a notch
or to the decrease in the cross section due to undercuts.
For the CMT process, investigations were also con-
ducted on the influence of the torch offset and the gap
on the tensile shear strength. As illustrated in Fig. 5 right,
the tensile shear force decreases as the gap between the
sheets increases.
During the tensile shear test, a bending moment
which is superposed to the normal force arises as the
gap width increases. This superposition leads to stress
peaks at the geometrical notch, which consists of the
base material and the weld deposit and is located on
the bottom side of the top sheet, Fig. 6 left. In addition,
the normal stress σF and the bending stress σb are shown
qualitatively. Due to the sum of the stress components,
the greatest tensile stress arises in the bottom extreme
fibre of the top sheet. In contrast, compressive stresses
occur on the top side of the sheet as a consequence of
the dominating bending stress. The originating stresses
cannot be reduced because of the high yield strength
and low elongation at fracture of the 22MnB5 base ma-
terial in the hardened condition. Thus, the plastification
is concentrated in the tempered zone of the heat-affect-
ed zone and in the weld metal. Due to the notch effect
and the arising stress peak, the tensile shear test speci-
mens do not fail in the tempered region of the heat-af-
fected zone but instead at the root of the notch. As a
consequence, the measured tensile shear force is lower
as compared to the base material.
In relation to the cross section of the connected
sheets, lower strengths than specified for the pure filler
material were partly achieved. It is assumed that the
Fig. 6 • Characteri-
sation of a CMT
shear test specimen:
a weld cross-section
with a schematic
profile of the
stresses (left) and
the hardness in a
shear test specimen
with fracture at the
fusion line to the
upper sheet (right).
116
Fig. 5 • Results
of the tensile
shear tests as a
function of the
welding process
and the wire feed
speed (left) as
well as as a func-
tion of the gap
and the offset
during CMT
welding (right).
use of a filler material with a higher strength would not
cause any notable rise in the tensile shear force for this
lap joint application. Irrespective of the used welding
process, the failure in the weld starts at the fusion line
to the top sheet for all specimens. An example of such a
specimen as well as the corresponding hardness traverse
are illustrated in Fig. 6 right. The measured values ad-
jacent to the fracture are marked with hashes. The hard-
ness traverse indicates that the fracture is not located
in the region with the lowest hardness, i.e. in the heat-
affected zone or in the weld metal, which exhibits similar
low hardness values. No failures were observed in any
specimen in these regions. The areas of low hardness
can be found in the HAZ and in the weld metal, which
is a low-alloy filler metal. However, a failure in these ar-
eas did not occur although necking was observed in the
soft HAZ on both sides of the weld. At the left side of
the micrograph, the hardness traverse reaches the value
of the thermally unaffected base material of about 500
HV 0.2.
4 Conclusion
The described investigations show the suitability of
modern GMA welding processes for overcoming the re-
strictions of the standard short arc during welding of
steel sheets with complex coating structures. This was
evaluated using geometrical process windows, which
permit a direct quality comparison between the different
welding processes.
While all the processes were able to handle a gap
bridging of 1 mm and an offset of up to 0.5 mm in rela-
tion to the top sheet, the CMT process also allowed for
Welding and Cutting 16 (2017) No. 2
a slight shift in the contact point of the wire electrode
in relation to the bottom sheet. The CMT-A process was
able to enlarge the process window noticeably in both
offset directions due to its comparatively high wire feed
speed. Under the used test setup, none of the utilised
welding processes allowed for an increase in the gap-
bridging ability beyond 1 mm.
The mechanical-technological properties of the
welds were evaluated using tensile shear tests for se-
lected gap and offset combinations. Under the same gap
bridging and offset conditions (S = 1 mm and V = 0 mm),
the comparison of the welding processes served to il-
lustrate that neither the type of welding process nor the
wire feed speed exerted any decisive effect on the results
of the tensile shear tests. For the CMT process, investi-
gations were also conducted on the influence of the gap
size and the offset width on the tensile shear force. A
decrease in the achieved tensile force was observed with
increasing gap width. It was not possible to establish
any effect of the torch offset during CMT welding on
the joint strength.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The IGF Project 17.844 BR / DVS
Number 03.110 of the research
association “Forschungsvereini-
gung Schweißen und verwandte
Verfahren des DVS, Aachener
Straße 172, 40223 Düsseldorf“
was, on the basis of a resolution
of the German Bundestag, promoted by the Federal Ministry
for Economic Affairs and Energy via the Federation of Industrial
Research Associations (AiF) within the framework of the pro-
gramme for the promotion of joint industrial research and de-
velopment (IGF).
Welding and Cutting – editorial preview
Issue 3 (May/June)
• Developments for gas-shieded metal-arc welding
• Use of laser and electron beams for welding and cutting
ogy
• Use of brazing/soldering for the joining of materials
Closing date for editiorial contributions: 10 May 2017
Closing date for advertisements: 24 May 2017
The editorial preview is subject to modifications.
For information about advertising, please contact:
Iris Jansen, DVS Media GmbH, Düsseldorf/Germany, e-mail iris.jansen@dvs-hg.de
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Anja Labussek, DVS Media GmbH, Düsseldorf/Germany, e-mail anja.labussek@dvs-hg.de
James Burton, TWI, Cambridge/UK, e-mail james.burton@twi.co.uk
Welding and Cutting 16 (2017) No. 2
Literature
[1] Jüttner, S.: Werkstoffliche und fügetechnische Entwicklungen im
Karosseriebau: 14. Sommerkurs Werkstoffe und Fügen am Institut für
Werkstoff- und Fügetechnik, Magdeburg, 23./24. September 2011. Pro-
ceedings, pp. 35/43.
[2] Eickenbusch, H., and O. Krauss: Werkstoffinnovationen für nachhaltige
Mobilität und Energieversorgung. Düsseldorf, 2014.
[3] Karbasian, H.; and A. E. Tekkaya: A review on hot stamping: Journal of
Materials Processing Technology 210 (2010) No. 15, pp. 2103/18.
[4] Windmann, M., A. Röttger, and W. Theisen: Phase formation at the in-
terface between a boron alloyed steel substrate and an Al-rich coating.
Surface and Coatings Technology 226 (2013), pp. 130/39.
[5] Fan, D. W., and Bruno C. De Cooman: State-of-the-Knowledge on Coat-
ing Systems for Hot Stamped Parts. steel research international 83 (2012)
No. 5, pp. 412/33.
[6] Meyer, R.: Erhöhung der Prozesssicherheit durch Beherrschung der
Bauteilabweichung beim Fügen im Karosseriebau. Dissertation TU
Dresden, Dresden, 2012.
[7] Jorden, W., and W. Schütte: Form- und Lagetoleranzen. Hanser,
München, 7th Edition 2012.
[8] ThyssenKrupp Steel Europe, Mangan-Bor-Stähle MBW. URL:
www.thyssenkrupp-steel-europe.com
[9] DVS Guideline 0973: Übersicht der Prozessregelvarianten des MSG-
Schweißens. DVS Media, 2015.
[10] DVS Guideline 0973 – Supplement 1: Tabellarische Übersicht der
Prozessregelvarianten des MSG-Schweißens. DVS Media, 2015.
[11] Fronius International GmbH: Schweißpraxis aktuell: CMT-Technologie.
Kissingen, WEKA-Media, 2013.
[12] Fronius International, CMT Welding. URL: http://www.fronius.com.
[13] Cramer, H., L. Baum, and S. Pommer: Überblick zu modernen Lichtbo-
genprozessen und deren Werkstoffübergängen beim MSG-Schweißen.
In: DVS Kongress 2011 Hamburg. Düsseldorf, DVS Media, 2011.
[14] Goecke, S.-F.: coldArc – Energiereduziertes Lichtbogen-Fügeverfahren
für wärmeempfindliche Werkstoffe. Schweiß- und Prüftechnik 11 (2005),
pp. 165/67.
[15] Wege, M., J. Platz, and K.-P. Schmidt.: Moderne MIG-/MAG-Wechsel-
stromtechnik und ihre Anwendungen. In: DVS Kongress 2011 Hamburg.
Düsseldorf, DVS Media, 2011, pp. 238/45.
[16] SEP 1220-5, Prüf- und Dokumentationsrichtlinie für die Fügeeignung
von Feinblechen aus Stahl – Teil 5: MAG-Schweißen. Stahlinstitut VDEh,
Verlag Stahleisen GmbH, 2014.
[17] Group Regulation VW 01106-1: Schutzgasschweißen,
Stahlblechverbindungen - Konstruktion, Ausführung, Qual-
itätssicherung, Volkswagen AG, 2009.
Issue 4 (July/August)
• Fair Issue “Schweissen & Schneiden 2017“
• Examples of applications in welding and cutting technol
Closing date for editiorial contributions: 14 July 2017
Closing date for advertisements: 26 July 2017
117
SPECIALIST ARTICLES
Low temperature high velocity oxygen fuel (HVOF)
spraying process and its potential applications
High-performance metallic coatings find wide appli-
cations in industries due to the high density and the
low oxide content. Conventional processes like vacuum
plasma spraying (VPS) and cold spraying (CS) entail
some problems with either high production costs or
process limitations. This paper presents a novel
process, low-temperature HVOF (LT-HVOF), that has
been developed by decreasing the plume temperature
and increasing the plume velocity on the basis of the
conventional HVOF and the microstructure. The coat-
ing properties and some potential applications for LT-
HVOF-sprayed metallic coatings are presented. The
generated coatings are thermally conductive, corro-
sion-resistant and oxidation-resistant.
THE AUTHORS
Prof. Min Liu is Vice president of the Guangdong
Academy of Science in Guangzhou/China. He ob-
tained his master’s degree at the Institute of Met-
al Research in 1990, before joining the
Guangzhou Research Institute of Nonferrous Met-
als (now Guangdong Institute of New Materials)
as a researcher. His research is mainly focused on
thermal spray and laser technology.
Prof. Dr. Chun-ming Deng is Professor of engi-
neering at the Guangdong Institute of New Mate-
rials. He obtained his materials science PhD at
Guangdong University of Technology in 2006, af-
terwards he worked at Guangzhou Research Insti-
tute of Nonferrous Metals (now Guangdong Insti-
tute of New Materials) as a researcher. His re-
search focus is thermal spray technology, like PS-
PVD, APS and the novel HVOF process.
Dr. Ji-fu Zhang, senior engineer of Guangdong
Institute of New Materials, obtained his doctor’s
degree at the Institute of Metal Research, Chinese
Academic of Science in 2010. Thereafter he joined
Guangzhou Research Institute of Nonferrous Met-
als (now Guangdong Institute of New Materials)
and has been engaged in material surface engi-
neering technology research.
118
1 Introduction
Metallic coatings with low oxygen contents and high
densities are applied in a wide variety of industries as heat
sinks and electrically conductive materials. However, most
metallic coatings are generally manufactured in a vacuum
or an inert gas shrouding environment due to their reac-
tion with oxygen at high temperatures. One of the general
processes is vacuum plasma spraying (VPS). The high fa-
cility costs and the complicated process, though, lead to
a relatively low production efficiency and very high pro-
duction costs.
Cold spraying offers an excellent metallic coating qual-
ity, such as a low oxygen content, a high density and a
high bond strength, for the supersonic deposition of coat-
ing material far from the melting point of the metal mate-
KEYWORDS
Thermal spray, high-performance metallic coatings, HVOF
Dr. Kun Yang is a senior engineer at the Guang-
dong Institute of New Materials. He obtained his
doctor’s degree at Toyohashi University of Technol-
ogy in 2012, afterwards he joined the Guangzhou
Research Institute of Nonferrous Metals (now
Guangdong Institute of New Materials) as a re-
searcher. His research is mainly focused on the
splat formation process in thermal spraying as
well as research and development advanced coat-
ings.
Prof. Ke-song Zhou is Academician of the Chi-
nese Academy of Engineering, former President of
the Guangzhou Research Institute of Nonferrous
Metals. In 1983, he founded the surface engineer-
ing research center at Guangzhou Research Insti-
tute of Nonferrous Metals (now Guangdong Insti-
tute of New Materials). His research focuses ex-
panded from thermal spray technology into ad-
vanced modern surface engineering, including
thermal spray, PVD and laser technology.
Prof. Chang-guang Deng, Vice director of the
Guangdong Institute of New Materials, obtained
his master’s degree at the South China University of
Technology in 2001. He has more than 20 years ex-
perience in R&D and applications for advanced
coating technology. He made great achievements in
coating applications, like hard chromium replace-
ment by thermal spray technology in the packaging
and printing industries. Recently his research focus
has been covering PS-PVD technology.
Welding and Cutting 16 (2017) No. 2
rials. With the increasing development of the cold spraying
process, it is feasible for the deposition not only of metals
with good ductilities like Al, Zn and Cu but also of metals
with high melting points like Ni, Ti and their alloys with
only high-pressure N2 or a mixture of N2/He as the pro-
pellant gas [1]. However, the cold-sprayed coatings are
very sensitive to the spraying distance due to the rapid
decline of the particle velocity with the extension of the
spraying distance in the low-temperature plume which
greatly limits the application of the process in some
shaped workpieces, i.e. blades.
In recent years, novel HVOF processes, like hot spray-
ing [2] and high-pressure HVOF [3], have been developed
on the basis of the conventional HVOF process. These
processes are characterised by lower plume temperatures
and higher plume velocities. In cooperation with the com-
pany GTV, low-temperature HVOF (LT-HVOF) has been
developed by modifying the HVOF torch, and the com-
bustion chamber pressure can be doubled with half of
the fuel consumption of the conventional HVOF touch.
In order to decrease the plume temperature and improve
the chamber pressure, a high flow rate of N2 is injected
into the chamber and the pressure can reach 1.8 MPa.
The newly developed LT-HVOF process allows to fabricate
low-oxide metallic coatings, i.e. Cu, Al, Ti and their alloys,
because of the decreased plume temperature and the
higher plume velocity (higher pressure). A higher com-
bustion chamber pressure is beneficial for the increase in
the plume velocity as well as the improvement in the par-
ticle velocity and the coating density. In order to extrapo-
late the characteristics of LT-HVOF, some typical coatings
including Ti, Al, Cu etc. are presented and the applications
or potential applications of these coatings are shown.
2 Typical coatings and their potential
applications
2.1 Copper coating as a heat sink for EAST
The LT-HVOF-sprayed Cu coating exhibits a high coat-
ing density of over 99% (as shown on Fig. 1), a low oxygen
content (mass fraction of 0.15%) and a high thermal con-
ductivity (65% of solid Cu material). Attention should be
paid to the thermal spraying powder. Relatively large Cu
powder should be applied as to prevent the nozzle from
Fig. 1 • Cross-sectional image of the LT-HVOF-sprayed Cu
coating.
Welding and Cutting 16 (2017) No. 2
clogging. The LT-HVOF Cu coating does not outperform Fig. 2 • Schematic
diagram of the
the cold-sprayed Cu coating, but the deposition efficiency
condensate ring
and the coating quality for the LT-HVOF coating are not
pump (left) and
as sensitive to the spraying distance as the cold-sprayed photo of the
Cu coating. A low-temperature condensate ring pump is coated conden-
widely used to remove the contaminants from the high- sate ring pump
temperature plasma in the diverters of reactor facilities used in EAST
such as EAST (Experimental Advanced Superconducting (right).
Tokamak), and heat sink materials should be applied in
order to form a uniform heat shield [4]. Cu coating is con-
sidered as an ideal process to achieve a uniform shield
for the excellent thermal conductivity.
A pipe (“Inconel“) with a 60 mm diameter is cut into
several pieces. After machining and bending to form an
arc pipe, this is then coated with a copper coating and
the pieces are finally welded to form a ring pump. It is
necessary to spray the Cu coating on the arc pipe with a
thickness of about 0.2 to 0.4 mm. In order to achieve a
uniform heat shield, the Cu coating should be formed like
zebraic stripes 25 mm apart. During the spraying, the max-
imum fluctuation in the spraying distance is over 60 mm.
Cold spraying is not a good choice. The LT-HVOF sprayed
Cu coating was successfully applied to the condensation
ring pump. The ring pump pipes with the LT-HVOF Cu
coating are shown on Fig. 2b. The pure Cu coating thick-
ness is 0.2 to 0.4 mm and no cracking or spalling is found
on the LT-HVOF Cu coating.
2.2 Aluminium as a corrosion-resistant coating
Corrosion performance is the key issue for the suc-
cessful applications of magnesium alloys and coating tech-
nology is generally applied. Aluminium is one of the can-
didate coating materials due to the similar corrosion po-
tential to the magnesium substrate. The LT-HVOF sprayed
Fig. 3 • Microstructure of the LT-HVOF-sprayed aluminium
coating.
119
SPECIALIST ARTICLES

aluminium coating offered a grey oxidation interface between splats. The oxygen con-
high coating density (over 99%) tent of the coating is 0.6% (mass fraction) which indicates
and bond strength (over 30 that the oxidation occurred during deposition. The Ti-
MPa). The microstructure of the coated Q235 steel offers a higher electrochemical potential
coating is shown on Fig. 3. The (Fig. 5b) which confirms the corrosion resistance improve-
MAO (micro arc oxidation) ment after the Ti coating has been applied. However, the
process is applied in order to real challenge lies in the manufacture of the completely
improve the corrosion resist- dense Ti coating for the application of Ti as a corrosion-
ance of the aluminium coating. resistant coating. Otherwise, the corrosion reagent finally
The aluminium-coated Mg al- penetrates into the coating, interfaces through the micro
loy showed a uniform oxidation pores and leads to the electrochemical corrosion which,
Fig. 4 • LT-HVOF- discharge and the dense oxide layer was therefore easy to on the contrary, hastens the corrosion of the substrate
sprayed Al coating form. The composite process (thermal spraying plus MAO) due to its lower corrosion potential.
on parts after the could improve both the corrosion and wear resistance
passivation treat- performances. The neutral salt spraying corrosion of the 2.4 TiNi alloy as a cavitation-erosion-resistant coating
ment. coated AZ31 Mg alloy passed 500 h in the corrosion test The TiNi alloy is considered as an ideal cavitation-
without any corrosion in the sample. erosion-resistant material due to its superelasticity which
also results in poor machinability. Coating technology
provides a good means of improving the performance.
Several coating processes were tried by the authors. The
first process applied was HVOF using a TiNi alloy. The
HVOF coating was very dense but the deposition efficiency
was poor. With the LPPS process a high coating quality
could be achieved, but the vacuum system restricted the
size of the parts. The TiNi coating was prepared using the
LT-HVOF process with Ni-clad Ti powder and the laser
treatment was then applied to obtain the TiNi alloy coating
which exhibited not only an excellent cavitation erosion
Fig. 5 • Mi- Another potential application of aluminium coating is resistance performance but also an excellent metallurgical
crostructure of found in the marine environment. There, many bolts are adhesive property. The cross-sectional images show a very
the LT-HVOF-
faced with serious corrosion that not only leads to the per- dense microstructure and no cracks or big pores are ob-
sprayed Ti coating
formance degradation of the parts but also makes repairs served in the coating. According to ASTM G32, the laser-
on Q235 steel
(left) and the
more difficult as the parts cannot be disassembled. Vacu- treated LT-HVOF TiNi coating offers the best cavitation
electrochemical um aluminising provided a good means of corrosion re- erosion resistance performance.
polarisation test sistance of the marine bolts for electrochemical protection.
(right) [5]. However, the aluminium film was too thin and the pro- 2.5 TiAl3-Al as an oxidation-resistant coating for
duction efficiency was too low for some important big a Ti alloy
bolts. The LT-HVOF-sprayed aluminium coating was ap- Titanium alloys are widely used as important structural
plied to marine bolts and the corrosion resistance was en- materials in the aerospace, space, ship and chemical indus-
hanced greatly after the passivation treatment of the alu- tries due to the high specific strengths and the good corro-
minium coating. Finally, the sample passed the 400 h salt sion resistance performances. However, the applications of
spraying test. The treated bolts are presented on Fig. 4. titanium alloys are greatly restricted at elevated tempera-
tures. It was generally reported that oxygen would enter the
2.3 Ti as a corrosion-resistant coating interior of titanium alloys when the service temperature is
The Ti material exhibits excellent corrosion resistance over 350°C, resulting in a serious performance degradation.
Fig. 6 • Mi- to marine environment Cl due to the dense protective ox- An oxidation-resistant coating is generally applied to im-
crostructure of ide layer formed on it. The LT-HVOF-sprayed Ti coating prove the service temperature. The conventional process
the laser-treated is shown on Fig. 5a. The coating seemed to be very dense includes the aluminising of the thermally sprayed MCrAlY
LT-HVOF TiNi (over 98%) and had a clear lamellar structure due to the coating. These coatings lead to a great strength decrease of
coating [6]. the titanium alloy substrate due to the diffusion effect.
The TiAl3-Al composite coating was prepared by the
authors using the LT-HVOF process with mixed powder as
the feedstock. The morphology of the as-sprayed coating
on the Ti-6Al-4V substrate is shown on Fig. 8. The composite
coating exhibited a dense microstructure and was well-
bonded with the Ti-6Al-4V substrate. The oxidation test at
700°C revealed that a magnificent mass gain was obtained
in the first 200 h, a slight mass gain was then observed after
another 200 h oxidation and the mass gain finally remained

120 Welding and Cutting 16 (2017) No. 2

very low after continuing the oxidation test. The cross-sec- Fig. 7 • Volume
tional image on Fig. 9 shows that the oxide layer formed on loss of different
the subsurface of the coating protects the Ti-6Al-4V substrate coatings after the
from oxidation. cavitation erosion
test [6].

2.6 MCrAlY as an oxidation-resistant coating

The VPS process is recognised as a standard process for
the deposition of MCrAlY coatings in aero-based gas tur-
bines while the HVOF process seems to be a popular process
in land-based gas turbines. The MCrAlY coating was pre- Fig. 8 • Morphol-
pared using the LT-HVOF process. It had a high density (Fig. ogy of the as-
10) and a low oxygen content (mass fraction of 0.4%). sprayed TiAl3-Al
composite coating
3 Concluding remarks (left) and oxida-
One current research focus is to manufacture high- tion test at 700°C
(right).
performance metallic coatings with low production costs
using novel coating technologies. On the basis of the con-
ventional HVOF process, a novel LT-HVOF process has
been developed by modifying the HVOF torch in order to
achieve a low plume temperature and a high plume ve-
locity. The characteristics of the process allow to deposit
dense metallic coatings with low oxygen contents, includ-
ing Cu, Al, TiNi, Al-TiAl3 and MCrAlY coatings. These
coatings are applied for heat sinks, corrosion or oxidation
protection in a wide range of industries.

Literature
[1] A. Papyrin, V. Kosarev, S. Klinkov et al.: Cold Spray Technol-
ogy. Elsevier, 2008.
[2 Jin Kawakita, Hiroshi Katanoda, Makoto Watanabe et al.: Fig. 9 • Cross-
Warm Spraying: An improved spray process to deposit sectional image of
novel coatings. Surf. Coat. Technol., 2008, 202(18), pp. the TiAl3-Al com-
4369/73. posite coating
[3] B. Sun, H. Fukanuma et al.: Deposition of WC-Co Coatings after the oxida-
Using a Novel High Pressure HVOF. Proceedings of the In-
tion test at 700°C
ternational Thermal Spray Conference of 2012, USA: Ther-
for 1,000 h.
mal Spray 2012, p. 858.
[4] G. N. Luo et al., Coating materials for fusion application in
China. J. Nucl. Mat. 2011, 417, p. 1257.
[5] C. M. Deng, C. G. Deng, M. Liu et al.: Corrosion of Ti coating
prepared by modified HVOF process. Proceedings of the In-
ternational Thermal Spray Conference of 2010, Singapore:
Thermal spray: Global solutions for future application.
[6] Qiusheng Lin, Kesong Zhou, Chunming Deng,et al.: Cavi-
tation Erosion Resistance of Ti-Ni Intermetallic Coatings
Prepared by Low Pressure Plasma Spray process. Advanced
Materials Research, 1058 (2014), p. 265.

Fig. 10 • Cross-
sectional image of
the LT-HVOF-
sprayed NiC-
oCrAlY coating.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work was financially supported by Guangdong
Science and Technology programming (No.
2014B050502008, No. 2013B050800031 and
No. 2015B070701024) and Guangzhou Science and
Technology programming (No. 201508030001).

Welding and Cutting 16 (2017) No. 2 121

 PUBLICATIONS
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Understanding Multi-Arc Plasma
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