UNIVERSITY OF ILORIN

FACULTY OF LIFE SCIENCE

DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY
UNDERGRADUATE SEMINAR PRESENTATION
(ZLY402)

ON

AQUAPONICS

BY

OLOBAYO, Olumide David

MATRIC NUMBER: 15/55EK132

UNDER THE SUPERVISION OF;

PROF. MRS. G.C NZEH

April, 2019.
 DEDICATION
I dedicate this seminar report to the God Almighty, the author and finisher of my faith for the gift of life

and for his grace and mercy upon my life. To my nuclear family, particularly my parents for their great impact

for me to be somebody in life and for always been there financially and prayerfully.
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I appreciate the Almighty God for the grace and sound health He bestowed upon me right from my first year till

date all glory belongs to Him.

My sincere gratitude goes to my supervisor; Prof. Mrs. G. C Nzeh for the motherly advice she always give to

me and my colleagues before and after presentation, God almighty we bless you richly ma The staff adviser Dr.

E.C Ameachi and all lecturers who have been more than lecturer but also act as parent would and for the

knowledge they impacted in me.

 ABSTRACT

TITLE: AQUAPONICS

AIM: The main global priorities nowadays is finding sustainable method of increasing food production while
maximizing profit and minimizing risk of natural and chemical infection. Therefore, this review focuses on
Aquaponics

FINDINGS : Aquaponics is a food production system that combines intensive aquaculture with hydroponics .
The nutrient rich effluents from the aquaculture component which contains ammonia are circulated through the
hydroponic component where the ammonia is first converted by nitrifying bacteria to nitrite then nitrate which
is then taken up by the plants before the water is returned to the fish tanks
Aquaponics, by combining fish and vegetable production and maximizing land, water and efficient use of
nutrient, appears to offer a possible way forward in this regard, and has particular attractions in locations where
water is scarce and/or soil is poor, and where there is strong demand for both fish and vegetables
Aquaponics represents a significant advance in agriculture for raising large amounts food while utilizing limited
amount of land and water

CONCLUSION: Aquaponics can be a solution to a fish farmer’s problem of disposing of nutrient rich water
and a hydroponic grower’s need for nutrient rich water

TABLE OF CONTENT

TITLE PAGE i

DEDICATION ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT iii

TABLE OF CONTENT iv
ABSTRACT v

CHAPTER ONE

1.1 INTRODUCTION

1.2 TILAPIA

1.3 BIOLOGY, CLASSIFICATION, HABITAT AND ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE

CHAPTER TWO

2.0 DEFINITION OF FECUNDITY

2.1 FECUNDITY AND EGGS SIZE VARIATION

2.2 ESTIMATION OF FECUNDITY

CHAPTER THREE

FACTORS AFFECTING FECUNDITY

CHAPTER FOUR

RECOMMENDATION AND CONCLUSION

REFERENCES
 CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1.1 TAXONOMIC CLASSIFICATION

Tilapias are predominantly freshwater finfishes often some species characterized with nest building and surface

or mouth brooding habits.

The taxonomic classification of the tilapia is given below:

Kingdom: Animalia

Phylum: Chordata

Class: Vertebrata

Order: Perciformes

Family: Cichlidae

Genus: Tilapia

Species: T. zillii, O. niloticus

GENERIC GROUPS OF TILAPIAS

The fishery scientists and taxonomists change the generic names of tilapias from time to time on the basis of

research on their various characters but mainly by spawning and breeding behaviors. Dr. E. Trewavas, a Senior

Tilapia Taxonomist of British Museum (Natural History) made a thorough review of natural history of African

cichlid species in her book “Tilapiine Species” and showed the basis for distinguishing Tilapia, Sarotherodon

and Oreochromisas genera.

Taxonomic Position of the Tilapias

According to Trewavas (1983) the three main distinct generic groups of tilapias are as below:

• Genus Tilapia: Includes those species which are substrate spawners and do not keep the eggs in the mouth

for incubation, e.g. T. zillii.

• Genus Sarotherodon: Includes those species which are mostly paternal mouth brooders and sometimes eggs

and hatched larvae are brooded by both parents, e.g. S. galilaeus, S. melanotheron.

• Genus Oreochromis: Includes those species which are exclusively maternal mouth brooders. In this group the

males construct and defend a mating territory in an arena with other males in adjacent terrirories, and females

come to find spawning partners, e.g. O. niloticus, O. aureus, O. mossambicu

1.1.2 GENERAL BIOLOGY OF NILE TILAPIA

1.1.2.1 Distinguishing characters

Body elongate and deep, covered with moderately large scales. Scales in lateral line series are 30-34; usually

these scales remain around 31-33. The numbers of gill-rakers are 20 –26, which are available just on the lower

part of the first arch. Number of dorsal spines are 17.

Unlike other cichlid fish, the body colour of the males is more attractive than females. Caudal fin covered with

narrow vertical stripes, the upper margin of dorsal fin black or gray. Both sexes at breeding time show red flush

on the belly and lower flanks, which is brighter in male

1.1.2.2 Tolerance to ecological conditions

The Nile tilapia, is a very hardy fish and can thrive a wide range of aquatic ecological conditions from purely

freshwater to brackish or semi saline waters. The suitable ranges of water quality parameters under which the

fish can survive well are:

• Water temperatures 12 to 35 oC;

• pH 6.5 – 8.0;

• Dissolve oxygen 2.0 – 8.0 mg/l;

• Salinity 3 - 25 ppt.

1.1.2.3 Growth

In tropical pond waters under semi-intensive culture management, the Nile tilapia can grow to 150 – 250 g in 4

to6 months, 500 to 800 g in 10 to 12 months and 2 – 3 kg in 2 years. In the great lakes of Africa, several

scientists (Worthington and Ricardo 1936; Lowe-McConnell 1958)

recorded maximum sizes of 61- 64 cm, weights 4-7 kg.

1.1.2.4 Food

Tilapias are capable of using a wide range of food materials from tiny plankton (phytoplanton and zooplankton)

to macrophytes. It grows well on artificial feeds. The young fry are omnivorous, actively pursuing copepods,

hydracarines and various insects, both aquatic larvae and terrestrial insects that fall on the water (Trewavas

1983).

 They are disease-resistant, reproduce easily, eat a wide variety of foods and tolerate poor water quality

with low dissolved oxygen levels. Most will grow in brackish water and some will adapt to full strength

sea water. These characteristics make tilapia suitable for culture in most developing countries (Salman

and Eddy, 1988)

 Tilapia are biparental caring-substrate spawners; Oreochromis are generally maternal mouth brooders;

and Sarotherodon are generally paternal or biparental mouth brooders. Currently, Nile tilapia
 (Oreochromis niloticus; fig. 1) and various hybrids are the most commonly produced tilapine species

(Green, 2006).

 Parental care is not a wide-spread reproductive behaviour in fishes as it occurs in only 21% of bony fish

families (Clutton-Brock, 1991)

 However, parental care is a well-developed reproductive behaviour in the family Cichlidae, the family to

which the tilapias belong.

 They are primarily herbivores, feeding mainly on phytoplankton and other aquatic vegetation, but

readily accept complete pelleted feeds that contain plant and/or animal proteins and lipids.
Figure 1: Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus)
 CHAPTER TWO

2.0 DEFINITION OF FECUNDITY

 Fecundity can be defined as the number of ova that are likely to be laid by a fish during the spawning

season (Bagenal, 1957)

 Fecundity can also be represented by the total number of eggs produced per fish, which can be expressed

as the number of eggs per spawning or the relationship between the number of eggs and body weight

(Izquierdo et al., 2001).

 The absolute fecundity is the total number of ripe eggs prior to the next spawning period. The relative

fecundity is the total number of ripe eggs per gram of female body weight (Bagenal 1978).

 Description of reproduction strategies and the assessment of fecundity are fundamental topics in the

study of the biology and population dynamics of fish species (Hunter et al., 1992)

 Under favourable condition Tilapia may spawn at frequent intervals throughout their reproductive life,

but where there are marked seasonal changes in climate they may have a well-defined annual breeding

season.

 The number of spawning a year is determined by two variables; the duration of breeding seasons, which

appears to depend on climatic conditions, and the frequency of spawning during the season, which may

be characteristic of the species.

 Thus, fecundity is a measure of the reproductive capacity of a female fish, and is an adaptation to

various conditions of the environment. (Hunter et al., 1992)

 Fecundity may also be defined as the number of young produced during the life time of an individual;

t6his number is determined by many factors, which are;

 i. The length of the breeding seasons

ii. The frequency of spawning during a breeding season

iii. The number of eggs laid at a spawning and

iv. The care taken of the eggs before and after hatching
 a. b. c.

Figure 2: (a) Female with egg in the mouth (b,c) Eggs and larvae collected from female’s mouth.
2.1 Assessment of Fecundity

Knowledge of the fecundity of a species is an important factor in fish stock management. It is used to calculate

the reproductive potential of a stock and the survival from egg to describe a fish which is spawning for the first

time. For all other animals the term ‘maturity’ is used because an animal reaches maturity (the ability to

reproduce) once. ‘First maturity’ implies more than one ‘maturity’. The inconsistency of the expression and the

use of the term ‘maturity stage’ probably arose because the first fish for which ‘maturity stages’ were described

had one, clearly marked, annual breeding cycle with a long interval in which the gonads returned almost to their

virgin stage. However, it would be more logical to talk of ‘maturity’ and ‘spawning’ stages.

2.1.1 Total (isochronal) spawners

‘Total spawners’ are those species in which, after maturation of the gonads begins, all the eggs or sperm which

are going to be spawned by the individual fish in a single breeding period develop synchronously.

This scale adequately meets the basic requirements. It (a) distinguishes in low maturity stages between virgin

fish and fish which have spawned previously, thus providing the possibility of fixing the mean age and range of

ages at maturity; (b) clearly defines the stage both when release of eggs and milt is in progress and when it is

completed, allowing accurate fixing of the beginning, peak, and end of the spawning period; (c) divides the

intervening period into a reasonable number of stages, from which an approximate prediction of spawning time

can be made and (d) is capable of rapid determination with the minimum of equipment, thus permitting large

samples to be analyzed under field conditions.

2.1.2 Partial (heterochronal) spawners

‘Partial spawners’ are those in which spawning by individuals takes place over a protracted period and in which

ripening eggs at very different stages of development can be found at any one time in the same ovary both

before and during spawning. This situation is found, for example, in North Sea mackerel, in sprats and in a

number of species, such as Rastrelliger and Chilean hake, in tropical and sub-tropical waters (Baxter, 1963).

2.1.3 Total spawners

As in maturity stage estimations the simplest case is that of total spawners. Fecundity can be estimated by

removing the ovaries from females in Stages III to V of the scale given in Table 5.1. The fish from which they

are taken should be measured and the necessary parts taken for age determination. The ovaries should then be

preserved in modified Gilson's fluid (100 ml 60% alcohol, 800 ml water, 15 ml 80% nitric acid, 18 ml glacial

acetic acid, 20 g mercuric chloride) with a label to identify them with the fish from which they were removed.

The ovaries should be shaken periodically whilst in the Gilson's fluid to help loosen the ovarian tissue and to

ensure rapid penetration of the preservative. After at least 48 hours in preservative the eggs can be completely

liberated from the tissues by vigorous shaking.

The most accurate way of estimating the number of eggs in the ovaries is to count them all. This can be done

with egg-counting machines but because the fecundity of most fish is so high this is impractical to do manually.

Instead, it is necessary to estimate the number of eggs by sub-sampling. There are two basic methods of doing

this, gravimetric and volumetric.

Gravimetric sampling as its name implies is based on weighing the eggs. After the eggs have been liberated

from the ovarian tissues, they are thoroughly washed and spread on blotting paper to dry in air. The total

number of eggs is then weighed and random samples of about 500 eggs are counted out and weighed. The total
number of eggs in the ovaries is then obtained from the equation F = nG/g where F = fecundity, n = number of

eggs in the subsample, G = total weight of the ovaries, g = weight of the subsample in the same units.

If Gilson's fluid is not available it is possible to estimate fecundity using this method by weighing both ovaries

and then taking subsamples which are weighed. The eggs are teased out with a pair of needles and counted. At

least three subsamples should be taken from each ovary, one from the anterior, one from the middle and one

from the posterior. The method is tedious and less accurate than if it had been possible to use Gilson's fluid. Its

great advantage is that it does not require large volumes of an expensive fluid and can be used in the field. It is

particularly useful for fish with low fecundity and large eggs.

The volumetric method is very similar. After separation in Gilson's fluid the cleaned eggs are put in a measuring

cylinder and made up to a known volume with water. Subsamples are then taken by shaking the container until

all the eggs are evenly distributed through the water, a subsample of known volume withdrawn with a Stempel

pipette, and the number of eggs in the subsample counted. The fecundity is then F = nV/v where n = number of

eggs in the subsample, V = volume to which the total number of eggs is made up and v = volume of the

subsample.

In practice, it is normally necessary to count more than one subsample from each fish to get a reliable estimate

of the fecundity. Replicate counts of subsamples from the same ovary show that the distributions of the

individual counts are of the Poisson type. Because the variance in a Poisson distribution is equal to the mean,

the number of subsamples required to give any desired degree of accuracy can be determined from the number

counted in the first subsample from the equation, % accuracy = 100/m where the mean, m, is taken as the count

in the first subsample and n is the required number of subsamples.

This method is subject to considerable bias because it is very difficult to get all the eggs evenly distributed

throughout the measuring cylinder. Unless great care is taken the density of the eggs is higher at the bottom of

the cylinder than the top and in the middle of the cylinder than at the sides. The degree of bias is likely to be

greatest if one person has to shake the cylinder and take the subsamples.

Total counts of egg numbers in an ovary can also be made using automatic counters either of the type described

by Parrish, Baxter and Mowat (1960) or the Decca Master-count type described by Boyar and Clifford (1967).

The advantage of using these machines is that sampling error, inherent in any subsampling technique is avoided

but their disadvantage is their slowness.

Automatic fish egg counters, based on the coulter counter, are now being designed which enable the numbers of

particles of several pre-set sizes to be counted. This will eliminate one of the drawbacks of present counters,

which count all particles, large and small. In the new counters the number of particles corresponding to the size

of the eggs only is taken as the fecundity.

2.1.4 Partial spawners

To date, fecundity analysis has been largely confined to total spawners because it is so difficult to estimate the

fecundity of partial spawners. In their early maturity stages, all the oocytes due to be spawned in one spawning

cycle may not yet have been differentiated and, in later stages, some of the first eggs to develop may already

have been spawned. To get an adequate estimate of annual fecundity in such species, it is necessary to obtain

information on the number of spawnings per year, the number of eggs shed at each spawning and the relation

between these factors and the size and age of the fish. Fischer and Balboutin (1970) have described useful

techniques for sorting oocytes into size groups and subsampling them in such species while Macer (in press) has

described a method for the horse-mackerel (Trachurus trachurus) based on histological examination of the
ovaries over a complete spawning cycle. His method is very time-consuming and is not applicable to routine

sampling programmes but it does allow a solution of the problem.

2.2 FECUNDITY AND EGG SIZE VARIATION

Parental care is not a wide-spread reproductive behaviour in fishes as it occurs in only 21% of bony fish

families (Clutton-Brock, 1991). However, parental care is a well-developed reproductive behaviour in the

family Cichlidae, the family to which the tilapias belong. While all the members of the three genera modify a

portion of the substratum in which eggs are laid and fertilized, only the eggs of the genus Tilapia hatch in the

nest. The males of Sarotherodon (Uniparental paternal mouth brooders) and the females of Oreochromis

(Uniparental maternal mouth brooders) pick up the fertilized eggs and incubate them in their mouths. Whatever

the role of each sex in brood care, this care had been observed to contribute greatly to the reproductive

efficiency of these species (Jalabert and Zoar, 1982; Balshine-Earn, 1997). This explains why tilapias usually

constitute a dominant group of the fish fauna wherever they occur.

Parental care patterns have significant relationship to fecundity and egg size. Species that show parental care are

characterised by low fecundity and large egg size while those that do not show parental care generally have high

fecundity and small egg size. The reason why some species have evolved a strategy of producing many small

eggs, and others the opposite strategy of fewer, larger ones is not clearly understood.

Apart from parental care, environmental factors such as availability and quality of food, intensity of predation

and other density-dependent factors (Hartmann and Quoss, 1993), size of the inhabited water bodies, length of

the breeding season and number of broods produced per year (Nokes and Balon, 1982), time or season of

spawning (Kazakov, 1981; Jobling, 1995), and distance of migration to the spawning ground (Becham and

Murray, 1993) also affect fecundity and egg size.

Most previous comparative reports on fecundity and egg size variation in tilapias have been carried out on

specimens collected from different water bodies. In such cases, it is difficult to ascertain the extent to which

environmental factors have caused variations in fecundity and egg sizes in those species. Comparative works on

fecundity and egg size should, therefore, take the effects of these environmental factors into consideration.

The red-bellied tilapia, Tilapia zillii and the spotted tilapia, Tilapia mariae are two tilapias in Lekki Lagoon.

Fryer and Iles (1972) reported that both species are open substrate spawners. Since they have similar

reproductive behaviour, and are from the same water body, they provide a good situation for a comparative

study of fecundity and egg size. The fecundity and egg sizes of T. zillii and T. mariae have been separately

reported (Jegede and Fawole, 2005; Jegede, 2008). The present work serves to compare their fecundities and

egg sizes as they relate to the observed difference in their population in Lekki Lagoon. A description of Lekki

Lagoon has been presented in Jegede, (2008).

Table 1: Comparison of Some Growth and Reproductive Parameters of Female Tilapia zillii

and Tilapia mariae Collected from Lekki Lagoon between February and November, 2000.

Tilapia zillii Tilapia mariae

PARAMETER RANGE LSMEAN±EF(n) RANGE LSMEAN±EF(n) Fcal. P

Total length (cm) 15.00-21.60 17.83±27(35) 15.30-22.00 8.850.00**

19.10±0.33(24)
Total weight (g) 47.40-189.80 105.85±5.94(35) 80.50-265.00 28.49 0.00**

155.58±7.17(24)
Condition 1.40-2.27 1.84±0.03(35) 1.61-2.52 2.14±0.04(24) 41.03 0.00**

factor(gcm-3)
Gonadosomatic 0.98-8.78 4.60±0.28(35) 1.68-6.37 3.66±0.34(24) 4.55 0.04*

index
Absolute fecundity 1025 -3314 1093-3545 7.48 0.00**

2071.77±102.99(35) 2101.08±124.37(24)
Relative fecundity 11.00-39.00 22.77±0.98(35) 7.00-26.00 20.68 0.00**

15.79±1.18(24)
Egg size 1.14-2.29 S 1.76±0.05(35) 1.28-2.29 1.86±0.06(24) 2.57 0.11NS

N1= Sample size for T. zillii, N2 = Sample size for T. mariae, NS=Not significant,

*Significant, **highly significant, df = 57.

Absolute and Relative Fecundity: The Absolute and Relative Fecundity of T. zillii was significantly higher

than that of T. mariae (P <0.01; Table 1). The relationship between absolute fecundity and relative fecundity

and standardized total weight in the two species are presented in Figures 3 and 4 respectively. Absolute

fecundity showed positive correlation while Relative fecundity showed negative correlation with weight.
Figure 3: Absolute fecundity of T. zilli and T.mariae standardized tocommon weight.
Figure 4: Relative fecundity of T. zilli and T.mariae standardized to common weight.
EGG SIZE:

Egg diameter ranged from 1.29mm - 2.53mm in T. zillii and from 1.37mm - 2.38mm

in T. mariae. The largest egg of 2.53mm was recorded in T. zillii weighing 85.40g while

2.39mm was the largest egg diameter recorded in T. mariae of 145.20g. The respective average egg diameters

in these two specimens were 2.29±0.13mm and 2.29 ±0.10mm. Another

specimen of T. zillii weighing 101.10g also had mean egg diameter of 2.29 ±0.10mm. There

appeared not to be any relationship between egg size and weight in the two species.

The male: female ratio of 1:1 observed in the two species is consistent with the general trends among Tilapia

species. Trewavas (1983) observed that tilapias notably Tilapia and Sarotherodon species that exhibit

monogamous breeding behaviour show little variation in sex ratio. The presence of mature gonads throughout

the sampling period suggests that these species breed throughout the year in the lagoons.

The higher GSI (P < 0.05), AF (P < 0.01) and RF (P< 0.01; Table 1), recorded in T. zillii shows that it is very

much more fecund than T. mariae. This suggests that T. zillii allocates more of its resources to egg production

than T. mariae. King and Etim (2004) also observed that the fecundity of T. mariae from Iba Oku Stream was

lower than those of related substrate spawners. It thus appears that T. mariae contrary to the general trends

among Tilapia species (substrate spawners) exhibits low fecundity. The general pattern of decrease in GSI and

RF with increase in weight in both species could imply that lesser proportion of the fish resources is allocated to

egg production in larger and probably older fish.

Fryer and Iles (1972) reported 1.80mm and 2.00mm as the maximum diameters of the eggs of T. mariae and T.

zillii respectively, suggesting that T. zillii produces larger eggs than T. mariae. If the two species were collected

from different water bodies, ecological, rather than genetic or behavioural factors could be responsible for the

observed differences in their egg sizes. The maximum egg sizes (1.80mm and 2.00mm) recorded for T. mariae
and T. zillii respectively (Fryer and Iles, 1972; Trewavas, 1983) may imply that the populations of Tilapia

species in the great lakes of East Africa exhibits smaller eggs than those in Lekki Lagoon. Fagade et al. (1984)

recorded 3.60mm as the maximum egg diameter of S. galilaeus from International Institute of Tropical

Agriculture (IITA) Lake, while Fawole and Arawomo (2000) observed that the average egg diameter of S.

galilaeus from Opa Reservoir was 2.49 ±1.80mm. These were also bigger than the maximum diameter of

2.20mm observed by Fryer and Iles (1972). Fawole and Arawomo (2000) were of the opinion that S. galilaeus

in Opa resorvoir produces larger eggs than those of the great lakes of East Africa. The comparatively larger

eggs recorded in these species further confirms that tilapias in Nigerian waters produce large eggs. Populations

of tilapias in Nigerian waters may fall nearer the k- extreme of the r/k MackArthur and Wilson life history style

continua (i.e. kselected) than those of the great lakes of East Africa. A species is said to be k-selected, if it

shows parental care, have low fecundity and large egg size. Those that employ the opposite strategy of

producing many but smaller eggs are examples of r- selection (MackArthur and Wilson, 1967). Egg size has

been found to increase with fish size in some species (De Martini, 1990, 1991; L'abee-Lund and Hindar, 1990).

No relationship between egg size and fish weight was observed in this work. The three species that had the

largest egg weight were less than the mean weight of all the fish sampled. Unlike in Iba Oku stream, and other

small streams in Niger Delta in which T. mariae appears to be highly successful (Kings and Etim, 2004),

population of T. mariae in Lagos Lagoon complex appears to be less successful. Fagade (1969) observed that T.

mariae was less successful than T. guineensis and Sarotherodon

melanotheron in the Lagos Lagoon. In Lekki Lagoon, apart from Sarotherodon melanotheron that appears

occasionally in the catch during the dry season, T. mariae is the least abundant tilapiine fish in Lekki Lagoon

(Pers. Obs). Fagade (1978) suggested that the relatively lack of success of T. mariae in Lagos Lagoon complex

was due to its lesser adaptability to life in the open waters of lagoon. Though many factors could be responsible

for the apparent lack of success of T. mariae in Lagos Lagoon complex, the higher GSI recorded in T. zillii in
this work indicates that T. zillii allocates more of its resource to egg production. Fecundity and egg size results

have further shown that the higher energy allocated to egg production in T. zillii was not geared towards the

production of larger eggs but towards the production of more eggs. Since both T. zillii and T. mariae in Lekki

Lagoon have the same egg size, the higher fecundity exhibited by T. zillii puts it at a vantage position in terms

of potential abundance. This may partly account for the observed greater population of T. zillii in the lagoon.
 Table 2: COMPARISON OF REPRODUCTIVE CHARACTERISTICS OF SUBSTRATE AND

MOUTH BROODERS

Mouth brooders (sarotherodon spp.) Substrate spawners (Tilapia spp.)

Small number of eggs, about 700 Larger number of eggs, about 7000
Yolky eggs (2.2×3mm) Yolk 1.5mm
Greater survival of young because of parental Less parental care.

care.

Table 3: Egg diameter and fecundity of: Tilapia zillii, Hemichromis fasciatus, Sarotherodon galilaeus and
Oreochromis niloticus.

Fish Egg diameter(mm) range mean Total number of eggs mean

S.D S.D

Hemichromis fasciatus 1050-1200 1000-1200

1140±54.72 1100±100

Sarotherodon galilaeus 1400-1800 600-800

1725±95.74 700±70.71

Tilapia zillii 1100-1400 1406-1608

1250±129.1 1509±34.74

Oreochromis niloticus 1600-1900 300-400

1775±125.83 366±39.74
Fecundity - Length Relationships

In all species fecundity appears to be related to the length of the fish by an equation of the type F = aLb (Fig.

5.5). Such an equation can be converted to a linear form by converting to logarithms, i.e. log F = a + b log L

where F = fecundity, L = length of the fish and a and b are constants. The value of b is normally close to 3

although for some elasmobranchs it is nearer 2. Pitcher and MacDonald (1973) have shown that if mean length

is used in such an equation for the estimation of a stock the number of eggs is underestimated because small fish

have proportionately fewer eggs than large fish.

The constants are not the same for all species and for one species both a and b may alter with time. Also stocks

of the same species can be separated from statistically significant differences between values either of a or b in

the fecundity-weight and fecundity-length relationships. As the weight of a fish is normally closely proportional

to the cube of the length the fecundity-weight relationship is linear for those species for which b approximates

to 3 and is of the form F = aW + b, where W is the weight of the fish. Another way of expressing such

differences is by using a ‘fecundity index’ expressed as either fecundity/weight or fecundity/length³. The latter

is the better expression because it avoids the variance in weight within a stock during a season caused by

growth of the gonads.

2.1.3 ESTIMATION OF FECUNDITY

Methods for estimating fecundity (total potential fecundity, batch fecundity), spawning fraction and atresia from

field samples. The, different methods to estimate fecundity are listed

Gravimetric method: This method is currently the most common method used to estimate fecundity. It is

based on the relationship between ovary weight and the oocyte density in the ovary. This method can be used to
estimate batch fecundity, total fecundity and potential annual fecundity (Hunter and Goldberg, 1980; Hunter et

al. 1989). The eggs must be subsampled gravimetrically, either wet or dry.

Using this method, fecundity (F) is determined as the product of gonad weight and oocyte density. Oocyte

density is the number of oocytes per gram of ovarian tissue, and it is determined by counting the number of

oocytes (Oi ) in a weighed sample of ovarian tissue. After weighing the ovaries (Wovary ), 3-5 subsamples of

known weight are extracted from different parts of the ovary lobe. The accuracy and precision of fecundity

estimation should be evaluated, especially regarding the number of sub-samples (for further details see Hunter

et al., 1985). As a rule-of- thumb, a sufficient number of subsamples is reached when the CV of the n o of

oocytes per unit weight is less than 5% (Kjesbu, 1989). Each subsample is weighed (w i) to the nearest 0.001 g

and then dispersed with a fine paint brush, or light air pressure created by repeatedly sucking in and out of a

Pasteur pipette, to identify and count all the vitellogenic oocytes. Oocytes can be counted (and at the same time

measured) using a stereoscopic microscope with a grid or using any image analysis system software.

Variations of this method are related to whether total fecundity, batch fecundity or potential annual fecundity is

estimated and the type of oocytes enumerated. To estimate batch fecundity the hydrated oocytes within the

subsamples are counted, while for calculations of total fecundity or potential annual fecundity the advanced

yolked oocytes (including the hydrated oocytes) are counted. As we stated above, in the case of species where

no clear gap between previtellogenic and vitellogenic oocytes is present, e.g., hake (Merlucius merlucius) or

mackerel, only oocytes larger than a critical minimum diameter are included for potential or total fecundity

estimations. This diameter marks the transition from previtellogenic to vitellogenic oocyte (Khoo, 1979) from

where the oocytes comprising the fecundity become steadily larger and more opaque as yolk and cortical alveoli

accumulate.
To estimate potential or batch fecundity, ovaries should be screened histologically to check for the occurrence

of post-ovulatory follicles (POF). Ovaries containing POFs should be eliminated from potential fecundity

calculations, since the presence of POFs indicate that spawning has already started and the number of oocytes in

the ovary has consequently decreased. For batch fecundity estimations, only hydrated ovaries which do not

contain early stage POFs (Hunter and Macewicz, 1985) should be used because the presence of these follicles

indicate that some eggs have been already released.

Volumetric method. The volumetric method is based on the same principles as the gravimetric

method, but uses ovarian volume and the subsample volume instead of ovary weight and subsample weight

(Simpson, 1951).

Combined gravimetric and automated particle counting method. This method is a variation of the

gravimetric method; the major difference being that an automated particle counter is used to enumerate the

number of oocytes in a subsample (Witthames and Greer Walker, 1987; Kraus et al., 2000)
 CHAPTER THREE

3.0 FACTORS INFLUENCING FECUNDITY IN TILAPIA

1. Endocrine control

2. Temperature in related to HPG axis

3. Stress

4. Ocean acidification

5. Physiological factors

6. Ecological factors

7. Nutrition status of the female.

ENDOCRINE CONTROL: Changes in environmental variables are transduced into effects on

reproductive processes through the Hypothalamo–pituitary–gonadal (HPG) axis.

TEMPERATURE AND HPG AXIS: Temperature change has the capacity to affect the HPG axis at

multiple sites through its reaction-rate determining effects on hormone synthesis and action, and its

effects on hormone structure. This is reflected in a minimum temperature threshold for most endocrine

events, increasing hormone synthesis, activity and metabolism across the physiological tolerance range and

decreasing activity at the top end of that range.

STRESS AND REPRODUCTION: Stress is known to have marked inhibitory effects on reproduction in fish.

Stress stimulates activation of an acute catecholamine-mediated response that has the primary effect of rapidly

increasing energy availability and the delivery of O2 to the tissues, followed by a longer and more

sustained activation of the hypothalamic–pituitary–interrenal (HPI) axis, resulting in plasma elevations

of the steroid cortisol in teleosts and chondrosteans, and 1α-hydroxycorticosterone in elasmobranchs.

 OCEAN ACIDIFICATION: Uptake of additional CO2 at the ocean surface, owing to increasing

concentrations of CO2 in the atmosphere, is causing ocean pH to decline and reducing the carbonate ion

concentration of the shallow ocean. This process, known as ocean acidification, is considered to be a serious

threat to marine species, especially for calcifying species that require carbonate ions to form their shells

and skeletons.

PHYSIOLOGICAL FACTORS

Physiological factors includes nothing but the hormones. Hormones govern,

1. Migration

2. Timing of reproduction

3. Morphological changes

4. Mobilization of energy reserves

5. Elicit intricate courtship behavior

ECOLOGICAL FACTORS

1. Temperature

2. Photoperiod

3. Periodicity

4. Tides

5. Latitude

6. Water depth

7. Substrate type

8. Salinity

9. Exposure
Temperature: An important factor in determining geographical distributions of fishes. Temperature controls

maturation and spawning in fishes, for many marine and freshwater fishes the temperature range in which

spawning occurs is rather narrow, so that in higher latitudes the minimum and maximum temperature

requirement for spawning is often the limiting factor for geographical distribution and for the successful

introduction of a species into a new habitat. For example, Pacific halibut (Hippoglossus stenolepis) are found

spawning primarily in areas with a 3–8°C temperature. In fact, even in highly migratory tuna, spawning is

restricted to water of specific temperature ranges.

Photo period: The daylength (photoperiod), in some cases at least, is thought to influence the thyroid gland and

through this the fishes migratory activity, which is related to gondal development (maturation).In the northern

anchovy, by combining the effects of temperature and daylength, continued production of eggs under laboratory

conditions was brought about by keeping the fish under constant temperature conditions of 15°C and a light

periodicity of less than 5 hours of light per day. In high latitudes, spawning is usually associated with a definite

photoperiod (and temperature), which dictates seasonal pulses of primary production in temperate regions to

assure survival of larvae. In low latitudes, where there is little variation in daylength, temperature, and food

production, other factors may be important such as timing with the monsoons, competition for spawning sites,

living space, or food selection.

Periodicity: Reproductive periodicity among fishes varies from having a short annual reproductive period to

being almost continuous. There is a tendency for the length of the reproductive period to shorten with increasing

latitude. Thus tropical fishes spawn nearly continuously, whereas subarctic fishes spawn predictably during the

same few weeks each year. Presumably times of Spawning have evolved so larval development will coincide

with an abundant Food supply. Within spawning seasons, fish may spawn on a daily or Monthly tidal cycle or

on a diel cycle, or in association with some other environmental cue, such as a change in day length,

temperature, or runoff. A notable instance of spawning periodicity associated with the tidal cycle is The
California grunion (Leuresthes tenuis), which spawns intertidal at the Peak of the spring high tides. Within

species, spawning times May vary with latitude: Generally, in species that spawn as day length increases,

spawning occurs earlier in the year in lower latitudes than at higher latitudes. In species that spawn as day

length decreases, spawning takes place earlier in the year at higher latitudes than at lower latitudes.

Tides: The dependence of spawning on tides in California grunion spawning on California beaches is an

extreme example of external factors controlling reproduction in fishes. Grunion are adapted to spawning on the

beach every two weeks in the spring during a new or full moon. Spawning is just after the highest high tide,

therefore eggs deposited in the sand are not disturbed by the surf for 10 days to a month later. Eggs will hatch

when placed in agitated water (which simulates surf conditions). In surf smelt (Hypomesus pretiosus) spawn

year-round, except in

March. Surf smelt deposit eggs at high tide in sand and gravel (but not necessarily at the highest tide).Tides are

also referred as Moon cycles.

Latitude: Timing, duration and frequency of spawning variation with both Temperate and Tropical latitudes.

FACTORS TEMPERATE LATITUDES TROPICAL LATITUDES

Timing Early winter, spring Late (spring, summer, or

continuous)
Duration Short (3-4month) Long (5-6month or more)
Frequency(per year) Once (refers to entire group of Several times

egg to be spawned, not how

spawned)
In general, older fish usually spawn first and younger fish later, which means that a prolonged spawning period

for a population may not be true for individual fish. Once a set of eggs is mature and hydrated, the female may

release them all at once or in several batches.

Water depth: Reproduction not occurs in the same depth for all the fish species. It occurs in different ranges of

depth. Some of the species spawning in inshore areas, some of them in deeper water.

Substrate Type: Spawning substrates vary according to species and its spawning behaviour. Salinity: Salinity

is one of the factor affecting spawning. There are varying salinities in many areas of estuaries. Some species

will shift spawning sites because of salinity changes. Various degrees of mixing, precipitation, and freshwater

runoff may alter spawning habits.

Exposure: A clear example of shifting spawning sites in response to temperature and exposure is the black

prickleback (Xiphister atropurpureus), where spawning is shifted from winter in protected areas to spring in

exposed areas. The complex effects of lower or higher wave action and lower or higher temperatures on

courtship, gonadal development, and spawning behavior that result in the spawning site shift.
 CHAPTER FOUR

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

CONCLUSION:

Appraisal of reproductive strategy and fecundity is necessary to evaluate the reproductive potential of individual

fish species. To estimate reproductive potential, one needs to consider a variety of attributes including onset of

maturity, fecundity, atresia, duration of reproductive season, daily spawning behaviour and spawning fraction.

In this contribution, we review several methods currently used to estimate fecundity of marine fishes collected

in the field in relation to their reproductive strategy.

RECOMMENDATION:
Researches that compares the various methods of estimating the fecundity of tilapia should be carried out so

that the best methods will be employed in the assessment under various conditions.
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