Intermediate and Advanced

PROBLEM SOLVING:
1. Identify what is asked

2. Identify what is given
3. Identify what operation to be used
4. Solve
5. Check
VARIABLE and CONSTANTS:
Variables are values that will change based on given values. They are commonly denoted by letters.
Constants are values that have fixed numerical values. They are often denoted by symbols or letters in equations
but they symbolize a fixed value.
Asked values are often denoted by variables (letters)
Given values are often either denoted by constants or numbers.
UNITS and CONVERSION OF UNITS:
Units are very important to problem solving. We can only operate on problems with same units.
At times, we use conversion of units. For this, we use conversion factors. Conversion factors are constants.
The general formula for unit conversion is as follows:
A (original unit) * conversion factor = A (new unit)
Where A is a given number;

Conversion factors have a unit of (new unit) / (original unit). By applying this, we get to see how the original unit is
transformed into the new unit.
Here is an example:
1 kilometer = 1000 meters. If the distance from A to B is 9 kilometers, how many meters apart is A to B?
9 (kilometers) * (1000 meters / 1 kilometer) = 9000 meters
TRANSPOSITION TO THE OTHER SIDE OF THE EQUATION:
An equation has three parts: the left side, the equality sign and the right side. Transposing values to the other side
requires that you also transform the operation.
Multiplication & Division are opposites. So are Addition & Subtraction, and Power & Roots
OPERATIONS WITH VARIABLES
PEMDAS still applies. Only same variables can be combined.
This can be easier understood with examples:
1) x * x * x = x1 * x1 * x1 = x1+1+1 = x3
2) a3 / a = a3-1 = a2
3) x + x + x = 3 * x1 = 3x
4) a + 3a – 2a = (1+3-2) * a = 2a
5) x * x * y = x1 * x1 * y1 = x1+1 * y1 = x2y
6) y3 / a is already on its simplest form
7) x + x + y = (2 * x1) + y1 = 2x + y
8) a + 3a – 2b = [(1+3)*a] – 2b = 4a – 2b
9) x3 = y and x = y1/3 are the same (y1/3 is the same as cube root of y)
INTERMEDIATE & ADVANCED MATH:

RATIO AND PROPORTION
Ratio is a representation of the measure of parts of a whole separated by colons

Proportion is the case where ratios are said to be similar
Example:
1:2 is a ratio (with 1 as the antecedent and 2 as the consequent)

3:6 is another ratio (with 3 as the antecedent and 6 as the consequent)
3:4 is another ratio (with 3 as the antecedent and 4 as the consequent)
1:2 is proportional with 3:6

1:2 is not proportional with 3:4
Ratio and proportion is very much related to simplifying fractions. Note that fractions may or may not be
simplified but the value is equal. In ratio and proportion, however, we will use the term proportional
instead of using the term equal
Example: (for fractions) 3/6 is equal to 1/2; (for ratios) 3:6 is proportional to 1:2
Another important part in the analogy of ratios is the computation of the whole body or set comprised by
the parts.
Example, in the ratio 1:2 there are two constituents 1) one part & 2) two parts. The whole set should
therefore be equal to the sum of all the parts: 1+2 = 3 (three parts)
Understandably, in the ratio 3:6, the whole set is equal to 9 (nine parts).
PERCENTAGES, DISCOUNTS, PROFITS AND INTERESTS
We have already discussed about the conversion between the decimal and percentage form of numbers.
That conversion will be an important part in problem solving involving percentages. We therefore divide
this part into 3 different topics: 1) percentage, 2) profit and discount and 3) interest rates
PERCENTAGE:
It is important to convert the percentage into decimal form first before applying it to any solution.
Example 1:
Find 51% of 200
Convert 51% to decimal form = 0.51

The equation should satisfy the argument that the required number is 51% of 200
Equation: x = (0.51 * 200)
Multiply 0.51 by 200 = 102
Answer: 102
Example 2:
200 is 45% of what number?
Convert 45% to decimal form = 0.45

The equation should satisfy the argument that 200 is 45% of the required number
Equation: 200 = (0.45 * x)
For easier computation, transpose the equation so that all variables are on one side of the equation and
all constants and numbers are on the other side
New equation: x = 200/0.45
Divide 200 by 0.45 = 444.45
Answer: 444.45
PROFIT:
Just like the previous topic, the conversion of percentage to decimal form is important. A profit is an
additional value that is denoted as a percentage of the capital.
Example 1:
A vendor bought an antique porcelain figurine costing P1000. How much will he sell the figurine to obtain
10% profit?
Required: Selling Price say S

Given: Buying Price or Capital say C
Solution:
S = C x (100%+10%)
S = C x 110%
S = 1.1 x C
S = 1.1 x P1000
S = P1100
If the problem also asks for the profit, simply deduct the capital from the selling price.
Profit say
P=S-C
P = P1100 – P1000
P = P100
You can also use other letters. Try to find your own style so you may become comfortable while solving
problems
DISCOUNT:
The difference between profit and discount is that discount is a deductive value as compared to profit
which is additive.
Example 1:
A T-Shirt which is originally priced at P500 is being sold at 25% off as part of the Christmas Holiday
collection. How much will the new price be?
Required: New Price say N

Given: Original Price say O
Solution:
N = O x (100%-25%)
N = O x (75%)
N = 0.75 x O
N = 0.75 x P500
N = P375
If the problem also asks for the discount, simply deduct the new price from the original price.
Discount say
D=O-N
D = P500 – P375
D = P125
SIMPLE INTEREST:
Interest problems are similar to profit problems but the important concept is the time and frequency of
interest involved.
Example 1:
A money lending company imposes 3% monthly interest on loans. Anna decided to loan an amount of
P10000 last January. Assuming simple interest and that she will pay the principal and interest altogether
on April, How much will she pay?
*IMPORTANT NOTE: The units for time periods must be consistent. In this case, monthly
Required: Future worth say F

Given: Present worth say P, Monthly interest say i, Number of months from January to April = 3 months
Solution:
F=P+I
F = P + (i * 3 months * P)
F = P10000 + (3% * 3 * P10000)
F = P10000 + (0.03 * 3 * P10000)
F = P10000 + P900
F = P10900
The variable I denotes the total amount of interest, in this case P900. Since the interest per month is
constant, Just divide the total interest by the number of months to solve for the amount of monthly
interest in this case P900/3 months = P300/month interest
COMPOUND INTEREST:
Compound interest increase every time period as compared to simple interest which is constant at every
time period
Example 1:
A money lending company imposes 3% monthly interest on loans. Anna decided to loan an amount of
P10000 last January. Assuming compound interest and that she will pay the principal and interest
altogether on April, How much will she pay?
Required: Future worth say F

Given: Present worth say P, Monthly interest say i, Number of months from January to April = 3 months
Solution:
F = P * (100% + i in percent)number of periods
F = P * (100% + 3%)3
F = P10000 * (103%)3
F = P10000 * (1.03)3
F = P10000 * 1.092727
F = P10927.27
Just deduct the principal from the total amount paid to compute for the total interest; in this case
P10927.27 - P10000 = P927.27
Take note that the interest is compounding. The concept behind this is that after every period, the
interest on said period will be added to the principal for the computation of interest on the next period
and so on and so forth.
Example:
Period in months Present Worth Interest at 3% monthly

1 P 10000 P 300
2 P (10000+300) = 10300 P 309
3 P (10300+309) = 10609 P 318.27
Note that if you add the computed monthly interest, you will still arrive at the same value as computed
above for the total interest = P927.27
EQUAL PERIODIC AMOUNTS (WITH FIXED MATURITY):

The maturity period dictates where a certain series of equal periodic amounts are to be ended.
Example 1:
An android phone costs P30000. A mobile store offers an instalment promo with 50% downpayment and
the remaining to be paid at 1% monthly interest payable within 1 year. How much will she pay every
month?
Required: Amount to be paid monthly say A

Given: Present worth say P, Monthly interest say i, Number of months within 1 year = 12 months
Solution:
P = P30000
But since there is a downpayment we will need to find the remaining amount to be paid say P’
P’ = P30000 – (50% of P30000)
P’ = P30000 – (0.5 x P30000)
P’ = P15000
A = [P’ * (100% + i in percent)number of periods * i in percent] / [(100% + I in percent) number of periods – 100%]
A = [P’ * (100% + 1%)12 * 3% ] / [(100% + 1%)12 – 100%]
A = [P15000 * (101%)12 * 3% ] / [(101%)12 – 100%]
A = [P15000 * (1.01)12 * 0.03] / [(1.01)12 – 1]
A = P169.0237545 / 0.126825
A = P1332.73183
PERPETUITY (EQUAL PERIODIC AMOUNTS WITHOUT FIXED MATURITY):
This is most applicable to long term series (usually lifetime) of equal periodic amounts like pension. The
computation is actually derived from that of equal periodic amounts with fixed maturity where a very long
period of time is considered.
To better understand, we consider the equation for equal periodic amounts with fixed maturity:
A = [P * (100% + i in percent)number of periods * i in percent] / [(100% + i in percent) number of periods – 100%]
If we set the number of periods to be a very long term period equal to infinity, the value of the term
[(100% + i in percent)number of periods] / [(100% + I in percent)number of periods – 100%] considerably becomes
approximately equal to 1. Thus, the equation is then simplified into:
A = P * i in percent
P = A / i in percent
Example 1:
A life insurance company offers 2% rate of return. An insured must pay a monthly due for 10 years.
Assuming he pays equal amounts every month for the next 10 years, how much must he pay monthly so
that he can receive a lifetime monthly allowance of P10, 000?
Required: Present worth of the perpetuity say P

Given: Perpetuity say A, Rate of return say i
Solution:
A = (P * i in percent)
P10, 000 = (P * 2%)
P = P10, 000 / 2%
P = P10, 000 / 0.02
P = P500, 000
Finally, the problem asks for the amount to be paid monthly for 10 years. Note that the solved P is the
present worth of the perpetuity. This value however is a future worth for the monthly payment. Usually,
the same percentage interest as the rate of return is used. Otherwise, use the interest specified in the
problem and make sure to use it accordingly. With the assumption that the insured pays equal monthly
amounts within 10 years, we compute using the original formula for equal periodic amounts with fixed
maturity period:
A’ = [P’ * (100% + i in percent)number of periods * i in percent] / [(100% + i in percent) number of periods – 100%]
Or
A’ = [F’ * i in percent] / [(100% + I in percent) number of periods – 100%]
Note that the previously computed P = P1, 000, 000 is now the F’ for the monthly payments
A’ = [P500, 000 * 2%] / [(100% + 2%)120 months – 100%]

A’ = [P500, 000 * 0.02] / [1.02120 – 1]
A’ = P1, 024.048443
RATE PROBLEMS
Rate problems can range from distance / time problems, work problems or speed problems.
Generally, rate is a unit per time value. In formula, R = U/T where R is rate, U is unit, and T is time. The
unit part can be a distance or a volume or any other measure. To better understand, we will discuss
sample problems.
Example 1:
A driver decided to measure the distance from point A to point B by keeping the speed gauge at a
constant speed. Upon reaching point A he made sure that the car runs at a speed of 75 kph. If he needed
30 seconds to reach point B, How far is B from A in units of meters?
Required: Distance in meters

Given: Speed (or Rate), Time
Solution:
S = D/T
75 kilometers/hour = D /30 seconds
First, convert the speed into a unit compatible with the required distance and the given time
75 kilometers * 1000 meters * __1 hour__ * __1 minute__ = 20.834 meters

Hour 1 kilometer 60 minutes 60 seconds second
Notice the contrast in places between same units (eg. kilometer in numerator and kilometer in
denominator, hour in denominator and hour in numerator). This is necessary so as to cancel out same
units and obtain new units.
Continue,
20.834 meters/second = D/30 seconds

D = 20.834 * 30 seconds
D = 625 meters
(*A special topic to distance problems is acceleration and deceleration. Simply put, acceleration is average
speed divided by time. Acceleration is speeding up thus positive while deceleration is slowing down thus
negative.)
The following are acceleration formulas:
1) Acceleration = (Final speed – Initial speed) / Time

2) Distance = (Initial speed * Time) + (0.5 * Acceleration * (Time) 2)
3) 2 * Acceleration * Distance = (Final speed)2 – (Initial speed)2
Example 2:
A car moving towards the north registered at 80 kph by speedometer 2 was registered by speedometer 1
at 50 kph an hour ago. Find the acceleration in m/s 2. Assume that acceleration is constant.
Required: Acceleration say a

Given: Initial speed say Si, Final Speed say Sf, Time elapsed say t
Solution:
a = (Sf – Si)/t
a = (80 kph – 50 kph) / 1 hour
a = 30 km/hr2
Convert km/hr2 to m/s2
30 km * 1000 m * _(1 hr)2_ * (1 min)2 = 0.002314815 m/s2

hr2 1 km (60 min)2 (60 s)2
This means that in every second, the speed of the car increases (since it is positive, thus accelerating) by
0.002314815 m/s OR that after an hour, the speed of the car increased by 30 km/hr.
Breakdown:
Initial speed = 50 kph or 13.88889 m/s
After 1 second = 13.89120 m/s
After 2 seconds = 13.89352 m/s
After 3 seconds = 13.89583 m/s
…
After 1 hour = 22.22222 m/s or 80 kph
Example 3:
Using the values in the previous problem, solve for the distance travelled by the car in kilometers.
Required: Distance say D

Given: Acceleration say a, Initial speed say Si, Final Speed say Sf, Time elapsed say t
Solution:
D = (Si*t) + (0.5*a*t2)
D = [50 kph *1 hour] + [0.5*30 km/hr2*(1 hour)2]
D = 65 km
Example 4:
Using the values in the previous problem, solve for the distance travelled by the car in kilometres
WITHOUT USING TIME
Required: Distance say D

Given: Acceleration say a, Initial speed say Si, Final Speed say Sf, Time elapsed say t
Solution:
2*a*D = Sf2 – Si2
D = (Sf2 – Si2)/(2*a)
D = [(80kph)2 – (50kph)2]/[2*(30km/hr2)]
D = 65 km
Example 5:
Peter can paint a 16 square meter wall in 1 hour. Paul can the same area in 1.5 hours. If they are to help
each other, how fast would they complete the task?
Required: Time to complete painting a 16 sq.m. wall with the two helping each other say t
Given: Time Peter needs to paint the 16 sq.m. wall say t 1, Time Paul needs to paint the 16 sq.m. wall say t2
Solution:
First, solve for each of the individual worker’s rate
Rate = Work/time
RPeter = 16 sq.m. / 1 hour = 16 sq.m./hr.
RPaul = 16 sq.m. / 1.5 hours = 10.67 sq.m./hr
Then using another equation, solve for the time required to finish the task
Work done by Peter in t duration + Work done by Paul in t duration = Total work done
(RPeter * t) + (RPaul * t) = 16 square meter
(RPeter + RPaul) * t = 16 square meter
(16 sq.m./hr. + 10.67 sq.m./hr.) * t = 16 sq.m.
t = 0.60 hr. or 36 minutes
Example 6:
Peter can make 10 figurines alone in 1 day. Paul can make 15 figurines alone in 2 days. Working together,
how many figurines, can they make in 4 days?
Required: Total work done in 4 days say W

Given: Rate of Peter say RPeter, Rate of Paul say RPaul
Solution:
Rate = Work/time
RPeter = 10 pcs. / 1 day = 10pcs./day
RPaul = 15 pcs. / 2 days = 7.5 pcs./day
Then using another equation, solve for the total work done
(RPeter * t) + (RPaul * t) = W
(RPeter + RPaul) * t = W
(10 pcs./day. + 7.5 pcs./day) * 4 days = W
W = 70 pcs. of figurines
Example 5:
Pipe A can fill a tank in 2 hours. Pipe B can fill the same tank in 1 hour. The tank is being used to supply
water to the household. When the pipes are closed, it takes 3 hours to empty the tank. If the pipes are
kept open while the tank supplies water, how many hours would it take to fill the tank.
Required: Time to fill the tank with Pipe A and B open and while tank supplies water
Given: Time Pipe A needs to fill the tank, Time Pipe B needs to fill the tank, Time needed to empty the
tank
First, solve for each of the individual pipe rate
Rate = Work/time
Full (positive), Empty (negative)
RPipeA = +1 tank/2 hours = ½ tank/hr.
RPipeB = +1 tank/1 hour = 1 tank/hr.
REmpty = -1 tank/3 hours = -1/3 tank/hr.
Then using another equation, solve for the time required to finish the task
(RPipeA * t) + (RPipeB * t) + (REmpty * t) = 1 tank
(RPipeA + RPipeB + REmpty) * t = 1 tank
(1/2 tank/hr. + 1 tank/hr. – 1/3 tank/hr.) * t = 1 tank
t = 1.167 hr.
Example 6:
Peter can do a job alone in 1 day. Paul can do a job alone in 2 days. Working together, how fast in hours
can they do the same job? Assume a working hour of 8 hours/day
Required: Time required for Peter and Paul to complete the job working together
Given: Rate of Peter say RPeter, Rate of Paul say RPaul
Solution:
Rate = Work/time
RPeter = 1 job / 1 day = 1 job/day
RPaul = 1 job / 2 days = ½ job/day
Then using another equation, solve for the time required
(RPeter * t) + (RPaul * t) = 1 job
(RPeter + RPaul) * t = 1 job
(1 job per day + ½ job per day) * t = 1 job
t = 0.67 days
t = 0.67 * 8 working hours/ day
t = 5.33 hours
AGE PROBLEMS
Age problems are solved using simple algebraic equations. A good analytical understanding must be
developed to solve this kind of problems.
The time period is very important in age problems. It is also important for you to be able to convert
worded problems into mathematical equations to be able to effectively solve age problems.
Let us proceed with the examples.
Example 1:
Anna, Betty and Carla are siblings (arranged from youngest to eldest). They were born on three
consecutive years. The sum of their current ages is twice as that of the sum of their ages two years ago.
What are their ages four years from now?
*It is important to take the problem apart per word. Then find out if it is possible to convert them to
applicable mathematical equations. This is like finding clues in a crime scene and putting them in notes in
a way that you can understand later.
1) Anna, Betty and Carla are siblings arranged from youngest to eldest (no mathematical formula to be
concluded yet)
2) They were born on three consecutive years (Therefore, Each age is 1 more than the other; Thus:
Present age: The best time period to consider

x = Anna’s age
x+1 = Betty’s age
x+2 = Carla’s age
The first sentence was used to determine which is x, x+1 and x+2 respectively
3) The sum of their current ages is twice as that of the sum of their ages two years ago
(x) + (x+1) + (x+2) = 2 * { [(x)-2] + [(x+1)-2] + [(x+2)-2] }

3x + 3 = 2 * [ (x-2) + (x-1) + x ]
3x + 3 = 2 * (3x - 3)
3x + 3 = 6x - 6
3x – 6x = -6 – 3
-3x = -9
x = 3 = Anna’s age at the present
x+1 = 4 =Betty’s age at the present
x+2 = 5 =Carla’s age at the present
4) What are their ages four years from now? (This part is actually what is REQUIRED in the problem)
Future age:
x+4 = 7 = Anna’s age four years from now
x+1+4 = 8 = Betty’s age four years from now
x+2+4 = 9 = Carla’s age four years from now
GEOMETRY
Important concepts in Geometry:
1) Points are locations on space represented by dots

2) A line is a collection of points that extend infinitely on two opposite directions
3) A straight line is a first degree curve
4) Curves with higher degrees are no longer straight lines
5) Parallel lines will never meet
6) Intersecting lines will only meet at one point
7) A line segment is part of a line bounded by two endpoints
8) A ray is a collection of points beginning in an end point and extending infinitely in one direction
9) Two rays with a common endpoint called vertex form angles
10) Acute angles are angles less than 90 degrees
11) Right angles are angles equal to 90 degrees
12) Obtuse angles are angles greater than 90 degrees but less than 180 degrees
13) Straight angles are angles equal to 180 degrees; are actually two rays going infinitely towards to
exactly opposite directions
14) Reflex angles are angles greater than 180 degrees
15) Two angles having a sum of 90 degrees are called complementary angles
16) Two angles having a sum of 180 degrees are called supplementary angles
17) The sum of the interior angles of a shape is equal to (n-2) * 180 where n is the number of sides
18) Two dimensional planar shapes have perimeters
19) Perimeter is the total distance around a shape
20) Two dimensional planar shapes have areas
21) Area is the amount of space inside a shape
22) Three dimensional solids have volumes
23) Volume is the amount of space inside a solid
Perimeter:
Circle = 2 * pi * radius
= pi * diameter
Square or rhombus = 4 * side
Rectangle or Quadrilateral = (2 * long side) + (2 * short side)
Other shapes = sum of all sides
Area:
Circle = pi * radius2
= 0.25 * pi * diameter2
Square = side2
Rectangle = width * height
Triangle = ½ * base * height
Trapezoid = ½ (base or side 1 + base or side 2
Other shapes = Subdivide it into triangles and solve for each area then add
Surface Area:
Sphere = 4 * pi * radius2
Right Prism and Right Cylinder = (2 * area of base) + (perimeter of base * height)
Volume:
Sphere = 4/3 * pi * radius3
Right Prism and Right Cylinder = area base * height
Right Cones and Right Pyramids = 1/3 area base * height
PROPERTIES OF A TRIANGLE:
The triangle is a fundamental shape. Except shapes with curved boundaries, shapes can be subdivided into
several triangles. Thus, it would be helpful to study deeper into the properties of a triangle
1) A triangle with all three sides of equal length is called an equilateral triangle
2) A triangle with only two sides of equal length and a different length for the third side is called an isosceles
triangle
3) A triangle with all sides having different lengths is called a scalene triangle
4) A triangle with all three angles being acute (smaller than 90 degrees) is called aCUTE triangle :D
5) A triangle with one angle being obtuse (bigger than 90 degrees) is called obtuse triangle (kasi malaki kaya
obtuse na obtuse :D)
6) A triangle with one angle being right (equal to 90 degrees) is called right triangle (wala nako hirit dito :D)
7) A right triangle is a special triangle where the Pythagorean theorem can be applied:
a2 + b2 = c2
where a and b are the two legs of the triangle while c is the longest side hypotenuse
8) Special right triangles include:
a. The 3-4-5 triangles: this includes the basic 3:4:5 side ratio and those triangles that are
proportional to it; the 3 and 4 units are the legs while the 5 unit is the hypotenuse
b. The 45-45-90 triangles: this pertains to the angles in the triangle where the ratio of the sides is
1:1:21/2 where the two 1 unit are the legs while the 2 1/2 unit is the hypotenuse
c. The 30-60-90 triangles: this pertains to the angles in the triangle where the ratio of the sides is
1:31/2:2 where the two 1 unit are the legs while the 2 1/2 unit is the hypotenuse
9) The sum of the three angles of a triangle is always 180 degrees

10) The sum of the lengths of any two sides is greater than the length of the third side
11) The difference of the lengths of any two sides is less than the length of the third side
12) If all three sides of a triangle are PROPORTIONAL to another triangle then they are similar
13) If two sides of a triangle are PROPORTIONAL and the included angle is EQUAL to another triangle then
they are similar
14) If all three angles are EQUAL to another triangle then they are similar
15) If all three sides of a triangle are EQUAL to another triangle then they are congruent
16) If two sides of a triangle and the included angle are EQUAL to another triangle then they are congruent
17) In right triangles, if the hypotenuse and one of the legs are EQUAL, then the triangles are congruent
18) The perimeter of a triangle is equal to the sum of its three sides
19) A semi-perimeter is also important and is equal to half the perimeter
20) This semi-perimeter can be used to compute the area of a triangle
A = [(s)*(s-a)*(s-b)*(s-c)]1/2
Where A is the area, s is the semi-perimeter; a and b are the legs and c is the hypotenuse
21) Another way to solve for the area of a triangle is:
A = ½ * base * height
Where the base and the height should be perpendicular to each other (forms 90 degrees)
22) For right triangles, the SOH CAH TOA can be applied:
SOH: Sine of an angle (in degrees) = Opposite / Hypotenuse

CAH: Cosine of an angle (in degrees) = Adjacent / Hypotenuse
TOA: Tangent of an angle (in degrees) = Opposite / Adjacent
Sine = 1/Cosecant
Cosine = 1/Secant
Tangent = 1/Cotangent
23) For non-right triangles the following can be applied
a) Sine law:
sin A/a = sin B/b = sin C/c
where a, b, and c are the sides and A,B, and C are the corresponding angles opposite to the side
b) Cosine law:
a2 = b2 + c2 – 2bc cos A
b2 = a2 + c2 – 2bc cos B
c2 = a2 + b2 – 2bc cos C
c) Tangent law:
(a-b)/(a+b) = [tan ½(A-B)]/[tan ½(A+B)]

(b-c)/(b+c) = [tan ½(B-C)]/[tan ½(B+C)]
(a-c)/(a+c) = [tan ½(A-C)]/[tan ½(A+C)]
CONVERSION OF DEGREES TO RADIANS
180 degrees = (pi) radians

VENN DIAGRAM
The venn diagram is simply a graphic method of solving worded problems involving simple analytical
calculations
It is easier to provide an example so we immediately proceed to a sample problem…
1) A catering company recorded data for a certain event. The event had 100 participants. The catering
company prepared 4 different types of food packages. However, package D arrived late to the venue
due to some reasons. Consequently, the first three packages were first served. The participants were
also divided into 2 batches 20 participants ordered package A only, 13 participant ordered package B
only and 25 participants ordered package C only. 4 participants ordered both package A and B, 5
participants ordered both package B & C and 7 participants ordered both package A & C. 1 participant
ordered package A, B, and C. The remaining participants decided to wait for package D. When
package D arrived, packages A, B, and C are already consumed. 10 participants did not eat and
decided to go home before package D arrived.
Answer the following questions.
a) How many participants tasted package A?

b) How many participants tasted package B?
c) How many participants tasted package C?
d) How many participants tasted package D?
B U = 100
A 10
4 13
20 D
1 5
7
?
25
C
Find the universal set. In this case, 100 participants and will be represented by a rectangle
Now the choices or the packages will each become sets represented by circles.
Be careful in setting which circles will intersect and which circles will not intersect with any circle.
Review the problem.
Notice that set D did not intersect any circle. This is because when package D arrived, packages A,
B, and C are already consumed.
Fill in spaces with given data. Preferably, start with intersections if given. Put question mark on
blank spaces or leave it blank and set as unknown.
Notice also the value 10 which is inside the universe but not included in any circle/set. These are
the 10 participants who decided to go home without eating
Now combine values inside each set
A = 20+4+7+1 = 32
B = 13+4+5+1 = 23
C = 25+5+7+1 = 38
D = U – (values on each space) = 100 - (20+13+25+4+5+7+1+10) = 100 – 85 = 15
INTERPRETATION OF GRAPHS
The three most common types of graphs are bar graphs, line graphs and pie charts
Bar graphs are used to compare individual results. Usually, the x-axis is in units of time and y-axis is any
unit.
Line graph are used to determine the relationship between individual data. Individual data are set as
points and are denoted as (x,y). Lines are used to connect the points to see the path (whether increasing
or decreasing. As a rule, x-axis increases to the right and y-axis increases upwards. The connecting lines
may also be levelled or smoothened to a line or a smooth curve there by setting an equation that would
include all points but with a standard deviation.
Usually, for samples (a part of the population)
S = [(summation of (xi – xave)2/(no. of samples – 1)]1/2
Where:
S = standard deviation
Xi = individual element
Xave = average of all elements
And for population
S = [(summation of (xi – xave)2/(no. of samples )]1/2
Where:
S = standard deviation
Xi = individual element
Xave = average of all elements
Pie charts are used to represent the ratio of parts with respect to the whole. This is circular and summing
the parts will always yield 1 or 100%. Each part are considered exclusive events and are deemed to be
independent of each other
Tips:
1) Read the title, labels, units of the axis, and scale of the graph and extra notes. In line graphs, usually,
the graph is linear (same distances between intervals in the axis) but other graphs such as
polynomial, exponential and logarithmic graphs provide more complex problems.
2) Relationship between x and axis in line graphs is divided into direct proportionality (y=(k)x) (y
increases as x increases and vice versa) or inverse proportionality (y=(k/x)) (y decreases as x increases
and vice versa).
3) Since, it is graphical, it is a lot easier to compare and analyze between presented data
4) As much as possible, use back substitution to save time.
PROBABILITY
Probability is the measure of the possibility of an event to happen out of all possible outcomes.
Generally, probability is expressed as:
Probability of an event = Number of favourable outcomes for the event

Total number of outcomes
However, before we go to probability, we must be able to understand how to compute for the total
number of possible outcomes.
Generally, there are 4 ways to solve possible outcomes and it all depends on the situation set by the
problem. These 4 ways are as follows arranged from easiest to most difficult:
1) Permutations of n elements with repetitions of elements

2) Permutations of n elements with no repetitions taken r elements per event
3) Combinations of n elements with no repetitions taken r elements per event
4) Combinations of n elements with repetitions r elements per event
We will discuss them separately by providing the general formula and some examples.
PERMUTATION OF n ELEMENTS WITH REPETITIONS OF ELEMENTS
This is actually the easiest way to solve for the number of possible outcomes
The general formula is expressed as
nr
This computation is applicable to problems where the result required is a set of elements whereas the
choices for each element is constantly the same and each element can be allowed to be the same as the
other elements. Another thing, a different order or arrangement will mean a unique result
Hirap intindihin noh :D
So we provide a situation…
Let us consider a dice.
Using the expression nr we set n to be 6 since there are 6 sides of a dice therefore {1,2,3,4,5,6}.
Where do we get the exponent r?
Well, we can get that by either getting a similar dice OR by increasing the number of rolls.
And what are we trying to find?

Let us say, we want to find how many possible outcomes we can get from rolling the dice r times with n
choices for each roll
OR
from rolling r number of dices with n choices for each dice.
And the most important condition is that different order or arrangement of the results will mean a unique
outcome and that each element for r number of results can be allowed to be the same as the other
elements
Hirap padin intindihin? Hahaha :D Try to read it slower
OR
Proceed to the example :D
Now for an example :D
Try to find out how many possible permutations we can get by rolling a dice twice
nr = 62 = 36 outcomes
Breakdown of results:
{1,1}, {1,2}, {1,3}, {1,4}, {1,5}, {1,6},

{2,1}, {2,2}, {2,3}, {2,4}, {2,5}, {2,6},
{3,1}, {3,2}, {3,3}, {3,4}, {3,5}, {3,6},
{4,1}, {4,2}, {4,3}, {4,4}, {4,5}, {4,6},
{5,1}, {5,2}, {5,3}, {5,4}, {5,5}, {5,6},
{6,1}, {6,2}, {6,3}, {6,4}, {6,5}, {6,6}
Note:
1) Each roll will have the same number of choices:

{1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
2) A different arrangement/order would mean a unique result:
{1,2} & {2,1}, {1,3} & {3,1}, {1,4} & {4,1}, {1,5} & {5,1}, {1,6} & {6,1}
{2,3} & {3,2}, {2,4} & {4,2}, {2,5} & {5,2}, {2,6} & {6,2},
{3,4} & {4,3}, {3,5} & {5,3}, {3,6} & {6,3},
{4,5} & {5,4}, {4,6} & {6,4}
{5,6} & {6,5}
3) Repetition of elements for the result are allowed:
{1,1}, {2,2}, {3,3}, {4,4}, {5,5}, {6,6}
Hmmm… gets mo ba? Haha…
Now applying this to probabilities… We input the terms EVENT and RESULTS…
An event is a specific instance normally set as a requirement for the result.
A result is the specific instance by which events are made to happen simultaneously.
Say for the example below…
1) What is the probability of getting an odd number for the first roll and an even number for the second
roll? There are two rolls of dice.
Events:
O = Getting an odd number for the first roll
E = Getting an even number for the second roll
Possible results:
OE
Note that the possible result OE is actually the two events O & E happening simultaneously. OE is actually
the intersection of O & E. In mathematical equation: OE = O * E
Also, we need to check if the number of choices for the first event affects the number of choices for the
next events. In this case, the number of choices does not change; therefore n is constant
P(OE) = (nodd choices)1 element for event A *(nodd choices)1 element for event B = 3 * 3 = _9_ or 1
n1 element for event A n1 element for event B 6 6 36 4
A slight change in the wording of the problem will change the solution… try to change and to or
2) What is the probability of getting an odd number for the first roll or an even number for the second
Events:
Possible results:
OE
OO
EE
Note that OE = O * E, OO = O * O, and EE = E * E
next events. In this case, the number of choices does not change; therefore n is constant:
P(O) = (nodd choices)1 element for event A = 3 = 1

n1 element for event A 6 2
P(E) = (neven choices)1 element for event B = 3 = 1

n1 element for event B 6 2
P(OE) = (nodd choices)1 element for event A *(neven choices)1 element for event B = 3 * 3 = _9_ or 1
P(OO) = (nodd choices)1 element for event A *(nodd choices)1 element for event B = 3 * 3 = _9_ or 1
P(EE) = (neven choices)1 element for event A *(neven choices)1 element for event B = 3 * 3 = _9_ or 1
Answer: P(OE) + P(OO) + P(EE) = ¼ + ¼ + ¼ = ¾
This solution however proves to be difficult for problems with larger n or r values. Such problems may be
solved simpler by employing the concept of reducing redundancies.
Note that P(O) = probability of getting an odd number for the first roll includes the both results P(OE) and
P(OO). In mathematical equation: P(O) = P(OE) + P(OO)
Similarly P(E) = probability of getting an even number for the second roll includes the both results P(OE)
and P(OE). In mathematical equation: P(E) = P(OE) + P(OO)
Notice that P(OE) is present in both equation and thus we can say that P(OE) is a redundant result for the
events considered. We note that P(OE) is actually the intersection of P(O) and P(E). Also, we note that
P(OE) is redundant by 2 events minus 1.
If we are to compute for the probability of P(O) or P(E), then we add them and remove all redundancies
(which are actually the intersection of the events that are repeated). In mathematical equation:
P(O) + P(E) – [(no. of events – 1) * P(OE)]
P(O) = (nodd choices)1 element for event A = 3 = 1

n1 element for event A 6 2
P(E) = (neven choices)1 element for event B = 3 = 1

n1 element for event B 6 2
Answer: P(O) + P(E) – [(no. of events – 1) * P(OE)] = ½ + ½ - [(2 events – 1) * ¼] = ¾
We arrive at the same answer
Another variation of the problem would be to remove the sequence by which the events happen.
3) What is the probability of getting an odd number and an even number in two rolls of dice?
Events:
O = Getting an odd number
E = Getting an even number
Possible results:
OE
EO
Note that OE = O * E, EO = E * O.
P(EO) = (neven choices)1 element for event A *(nodd choices)1 element for event B = 3 * 3 = _9_ or 1
Answer: P(OE) + P(EO)= ¼ + ¼ = ½
Note that for this problem, P(OE) is not equal to P(O) * P(E); and P(EO) is not equal to P(E) * P(O).
Remember that P(result) = P(event1) * P(event2) * ……… * P(eventn). However, this formula can only be
effective to determine a result with a specified sequence of events.
This problem however removes the required sequence by which the events happen thus making the
formula P(result) = P(event1) * P(event2) * ……… * P(eventn) void. You can however compute for P(O) and
P(E) by adding all possible results: P(O) = P(OE) + P(EO) + P(OO); and P(E) = P(OE) + P(EO) +P(EE)
Another possible variation is changing and to or from the previous problem
4) What is the probability of getting an odd number or an even number in two rolls of dice?
Events:
Possible results:
OE
OO
EO
EE
Note that OE = O * E, OO = O * O, EO = E * O and EE = E * E
P(OO) = (nodd choices)1 element for event A *(nodd choices)1 element for event B = 3 * 3 = _9_ or 1
P(EO) = (neven choices)1 element for event A *(nodd choices)1 element for event B = 3 * 3 = _9_ or 1
P(EE) = (neven choices)1 element for event A *(neven choices)1 element for event B = 3 * 3 = _9_ or 1
Answer: P(OE) + P(OO) + P(EO) + P(EE) = ¼ + ¼ + ¼ + ¼ = 1 or 100%

Again, note that for this problem, P(OE) is not equal to P(O) * P(E); P(OO) is not equal to P(O) * P(O); P(EO)
is not equal to P(E) * P(O); and P(EO) is not equal to P(E) * P(O).
PERMUTATION OF n ELEMENTS TAKEN r ELEMENTS PER EVENT (WITH NO REPETITION OF ELEMENTS)
__n!__
(n-r)!
choices for each element changes as the events progress and elements cannot be allowed to be repeated
within the result. Another thing, a different order or arrangement will mean a unique result.
Hirap intindihin noh :D Siyempre copy paste edit ko lang yung kanina eh…
Using the expression n!/(n-r)! we set n to be 6 since there are 6 sides of a dice therefore {1,2,3,4,5,6}.
Nakakagulat ba yung (!)? Well ang ibig sabihin niyan ay factorial at ang application niyan ay ganito:
say for example:
6! Means 6*5*4*3*2*1 or lahat ng counting numbers from the number down to 1
And the most important condition is that different order or arrangement of the results will mean a unique
outcome and that elements for r number of results cannot be allowed to be repeated within the result set
Hirap padin intindihin? Hahaha alam na…

Try to find out how many possible permutations we can get by rolling a dice twice
n!/(n-r)! = 6!/(6-2)! = (6*5*4*3*2*1)/(4*3*2*1) = 30 results
{1,2}, {1,3}, {1,4}, {1,5}, {1,6},

{2,1}, {2,3}, {2,4}, {2,5}, {2,6},
{3,1}, {3,2}, {3,4}, {3,5}, {3,6},
{4,1}, {4,2}, {4,3}, {4,5}, {4,6},
{5,1}, {5,2}, {5,3}, {5,4}, {5,6},
{6,1}, {6,2}, {6,3}, {6,4}, {6,5}
Note:

{1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
2) A different arrangement/order would mean a unique result:

{1,2} & {2,1}, {1,3} & {3,1}, {1,4} & {4,1}, {1,5} & {5,1}, {1,6} & {6,1}
{2,3} & {3,2}, {2,4} & {4,2}, {2,5} & {5,2}, {2,6} & {6,2},
{3,4} & {4,3}, {3,5} & {5,3}, {3,6} & {6,3},
{4,5} & {5,4}, {4,6} & {6,4}
{5,6} & {6,5}
3) Repetition of elements for the result are NOT allowed:
{1,1}, {2,2}, {3,3}, {4,4}, {5,5}, {6,6}
1) What is the probability of getting an odd number for the first roll and an even number for the second
Events:
Possible results:
OE
Note that the possible result OE is actually the two events O & E happening simultaneously. OE is actually
the intersection of O & E. In mathematical equation: OE = O * E
next events. In this case, the number of choices does change; therefore n changes to n’ = n-r and so on as
the events progress.
P(OE) = (nodd)!/(nodd-1 elementevent A)! * (neven)!/(neven-1 elementevent B)

(n)!/(n-1 elementevent A)! (n’)!/(n’-1 elementevent B)!
P(OE) = 3!/(3-1)! * 3!/(3-1)! = 3!/(2)! * 3!/(2)! = ______(3*2*1)/(2*1)______ * ____(3*2*1)/(2*1)____

6!/(6-1)! 5!/(5-1)! 6!/(5)! 5!/(4)! (6*5*4*3*2*1)/(5*4*3*2*1) (5*4*3*2*1)/(4*3*2*1)
P(OE) = 3 * 3 = _9_ = _3_

6 5 30 10
A slight change in the wording of the problem will change the solution… try to change and to or
2) What is the probability of getting an odd number for the first roll or an even number for the second
Events:
Possible results:
OE
OO
EE
Note that OE = O * E, OO = O * O, and EE = E * E
P(O) = (nodd)!/(nodd-1 elementevent A)! = 3!/(3-1)! = 3!/(2)! = _______(3*2*1)/(2*1)_______ = 3 or 1

(n)!/(n-1 elementevent A)! 6!/(6-1)! 6!/(5)! (6*5*4*3*2*1)/(5*4*3*2*1) 6 2
P(E) = (neven)!/(nodd-1 elementevent A)! = 3!/(3-1)! = 3!/(2)! = _______(3*2*1)/(2*1)_______ = 3 or 1

(n)!/(n-1 elementevent A)! 6!/(6-1)! 6!/(5)! (6*5*4*3*2*1)/(5*4*3*2*1) 6 2

P(OE) = 3!/(3-1)! * 3!/(3-1)! = 3!/(2)! * 3!/(2)! = ______(3*2*1)/(2*1)______ * ____(3*2*1)/(2*1)____

6!/(6-1)! 5!/(5-1)! 6!/(5)! 5!/(4)! (6*5*4*3*2*1)/(5*4*3*2*1) (5*4*3*2*1)/(4*3*2*1)
P(OE) = 3 * 3 = _9_ * _3_

6 5 30 10
Answer: P(O) + P(E) – [(no. of events – 1) * P(OE)] = ½ + ½ - [(2 events – 1) * 9/30] = 7/10
Another variation of the problem would be to remove the sequence by which the events happen.
Events:
Possible results:
OE
EO
Note that OE = O * E, EO = E * O.

P(OE) = 3!/(3-1)! * 3!/(3-1)! = 3!/(2)! * 3!/(2)! = ______(3*2*1)/(2*1)______ * ____(3*2*1)/(2*1)____

6!/(6-1)! 5!/(5-1)! 6!/(5)! 5!/(4)! (6*5*4*3*2*1)/(5*4*3*2*1) (5*4*3*2*1)/(4*3*2*1)
P(OE) = 3 * 3 = _9_ = _3_

6 5 30 10
P(EO) = (neven)!/(neven-1 elementevent A)! * (nodd)!/(nodd-1 elementevent B)

P(EO) = 3!/(3-1)! * 3!/(3-1)! = 3!/(2)! * 3!/(2)! = ______(3*2*1)/(2*1)______ * ____(3*2*1)/(2*1)____

6!/(6-1)! 5!/(5-1)! 6!/(5)! 5!/(4)! (6*5*4*3*2*1)/(5*4*3*2*1) (5*4*3*2*1)/(4*3*2*1)
P(EO) = 3 * 3 = _9_ = _3_

6 5 30 10
Answer: P(OE) + P(EO)= 3/10 + 3/10 = 3/5
Again, note that for this problem P(OE) is not equal to P(O) * P(E); and P(EO) is not equal to P(E) * P(O).

Events:
Possible results:
OE
OO
EO
EE

P(OE) = 3!/(3-1)! * 3!/(3-1)! = 3!/(2)! * 3!/(2)! = ______(3*2*1)/(2*1)______ * ____(3*2*1)/(2*1)____

6!/(6-1)! 5!/(5-1)! 6!/(5)! 5!/(4)! (6*5*4*3*2*1)/(5*4*3*2*1) (5*4*3*2*1)/(4*3*2*1)
P(OE) = 3 * 3 = _9_ * _3_

6 5 30 10
P(EO) = (neven)!/(neven-1 elementevent A)! * (nodd)!/(nodd-1 elementevent B)

P(OE) = 3!/(3-1)! * 3!/(3-1)! = 3!/(2)! * 3!/(2)! = ______(3*2*1)/(2*1)______ * ____(3*2*1)/(2*1)____

6!/(6-1)! 5!/(5-1)! 6!/(5)! 5!/(4)! (6*5*4*3*2*1)/(5*4*3*2*1) (5*4*3*2*1)/(4*3*2*1)
P(OE) = 3 * 3 = _9_ * _3_

6 5 30 10
P(OO) = (nodd)!/(nodd-1 elementevent A)! * (n’odd)!/(n’odd-1 elementevent B)

P(OO) = 3!/(3-1)! * 2!/(2-1)! = 3!/(2)! * 2!/(1)! = ______(3*2*1)/(2*1)______ * ______(2*1)/(1)______

6!/(6-1)! 5!/(5-1)! 6!/(5)! 5!/(4)! (6*5*4*3*2*1)/(5*4*3*2*1) (5*4*3*2*1)/(4*3*2*1)
P(OO) = 3 * 2 = _6_ = 1
6 5 30 5
P(EE) = (neven)!/(neven-1 elementevent A)! * (n’even)!/(n’even-1 elementevent B)

P(EE) = 3!/(3-1)! * 2!/(2-1)! = 3!/(2)! * 2!/(1)! = ______(3*2*1)/(2*1)______ * ______(2*1)/(1)______

6!/(6-1)! 5!/(5-1)! 6!/(5)! 5!/(4)! (6*5*4*3*2*1)/(5*4*3*2*1) (5*4*3*2*1)/(4*3*2*1)
P(EE) = 3 * 2 = _6_ = 1
6 5 30 5
Answer: P(OE) + P(OO) + P(EO) + P(EE) = 3/10 + 3/10 + 1/5 + 1/5 = 1 or 100%
Notice that like n, nodd and neven also reduced by r elements per event
Again, note that for this problem P(OE) is not equal to P(O) * P(E); P(OO) is not equal to P(O) * P(O); P(EO)
is not equal to P(E) * P(O); and P(EO) is not equal to P(E) * P(O).
COMBINATION OF n ELEMENTS TAKEN r ELEMENTS PER EVENT (WITH NO REPETITION OF ELEMENTS)
The difference between permutation and combination is the concept of arrangement, order or sequence.
In permutations, different sequence will yield unique results. In combinations however, sequences are
neglected and what is important is what elements comprise the results.
Say for example:
Permutation:
{1,2,3}, {1,3,2}, {2,1,3}, {2,3,1}, {3,1,2} and {3,2,1}
Combination
{1, 2, 3}
__n!__
a! (n-r)!
choices for each element changes as the events progress and elements cannot be allowed to be repeated
within the result. Another thing, a different order or arrangement will mean a unique result.
Hirap intindihin noh :D Siyempre copy paste edit ko lang yung kanina eh… (ULIT :D)
Using the expression n!/a!(n-r)! we set n to be 6 since there are 6 sides of a dice therefore {1,2,3,4,5,6}.
So meron na naming a! hayst… (:D) Well, yung (a!) just means the number of ways that n elements can be
rearranged. And (a) is actually equal to the total number of elements taken for the whole combination.
And the most important condition is that arrangements, orders or sequence does not matter but only
what elements will be included in the result and that elements for r number of results cannot be allowed
to be repeated within the result set
So mahirap padin intindihin? wahahaha…
Try to find out how many possible combinations we can get by rolling a dice twice
n!/a!(n-r)! = 6!/[(2!)*(6-2)!] = (6*5*4*3*2*1)/[(2*1)*(4*3*2*1)] = 15 results
{1,2}, {1,3}, {1,4}, {1,5}, {1,6},

{2,3}, {2,4}, {2,5}, {2,6},
{3,4}, {3,5}, {3,6},
{4,5}, {4,6},
{5,6}
Note:

{1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
2) Arrangements are not important but only the elements in the result. The following are deemed to be
identical :
{1,2} & {2,1}, {1,3} & {3,1}, {1,4} & {4,1}, {1,5} & {5,1}, {1,6} & {6,1}
{2,3} & {3,2}, {2,4} & {4,2}, {2,5} & {5,2}, {2,6} & {6,2},
{3,4} & {4,3}, {3,5} & {5,3}, {3,6} & {6,3},
{4,5} & {5,4}, {4,6} & {6,4}
{5,6} & {6,5}
3) Repetition of elements for the result are NOT allowed:
{1,1}, {2,2}, {3,3}, {4,4}, {5,5}, {6,6}
Events:
Possible results:
OE (*same as EO)
next events. In this case, the number of choices does change; therefore n changes to n’ = n - r previous and so
on as the events progress. Also, for combinations without repetitions we note that a changes to
a’ = a - rprevious as the events progress.
P(OE) = (nodd)!/[(aodd)!(nodd-1 elementevent A)!] * (neven)!/[(aeven)!(neven-1 elementevent B)]

(n)!/[(a)!(n-1 elementevent A)!] (n’)!/[(a’)!(n’-1 elementevent B)!]
P(OE) = 3!/[(1)!*(3-1)!] * 3!/[(1)!*(3-1)!] = 3!/[(1)!*(2)!] * 3!/[(1)!*(2)!]

6!/[(2)!*(6-1)!] 5!/[(1)!*(5-1)!] 6!/[(2)!*(5)!] 5!/[(1)!*(4)!]
P(OE) = ________(3*2*1)/[(1)*(2*1)]________ * ____(3*2*1)/[(1)*(2*1)]____ = 3 * 3 = 3

(6*5*4*3*2*1)/[(2*1)*(5*4*3*2*1)] (5*4*3*2*1)/[(1)*(4*3*2*1)] 3 5 5
Again, note that for this problem P(OE) is not equal to P(O) * P(E)
Combinations however neglects the required sequence by which the events happen thus making the
P(E) by adding all possible results: P(O) = P(OE) + P(OO); and P(E) = P(OE) + P(EE)
Events:
Possible results:
OE (*same as EO)
OO
EE
next events. In this case, the number of choices does change; therefore n changes to n’ = n - r previous and so
on as the events progress. Also, for combinations without repetitions we note that a changes to
a’ = a - rprevious as the events progress.
P(OE) = (nodd)!/[(aodd)!(nodd-1 elementevent A)!] * (neven)!/[(aeven)!(neven-1 elementevent B)]

P(OE) = 3!/[(1)!*(3-1)!] * 3!/[(1)!*(3-1)!] = 3!/[(1)!*(2)!] * 3!/[(1)!*(2)!]

6!/[(2)!*(6-1)!] 5!/[(1)!*(5-1)!] 6!/[(2)!*(5)!] 5!/[(1)!*(4)!]
P(OE) = ________(3*2*1)/[(1)*(2*1)]________ * ____(3*2*1)/[(1)*(2*1)]____ = 3 * 3 = 3

(6*5*4*3*2*1)/[(2*1)*(5*4*3*2*1)] (5*4*3*2*1)/[(1)*(4*3*2*1)] 3 5 5
P(OO) = (nodd)!/[(aodd)!(nodd-1 elementevent A)!] * (n’odd)!/[(a’odd)!(n’odd-1 elementevent B)]
P(OO) = 3!/[(2)!*(3-1)!] * 2!/[(1)!*(2-1)!] = 3!/[(2)!*(2)!] * 2!/[(1)!*(1)!]

6!/[(2)!*(6-1)!] 5!/[(1)!*(5-1)!] 6!/[(2)!*(5)!] 5!/[(1)!*(4)!]
P(OO) = ________(3*2*1)/[(2*1)*(2*1)]________ * _______(2*1)/[(1)*(1)]_______ = 3 * 2 = 1

(6*5*4*3*2*1)/[(2*1)*(5*4*3*2*1)] (5*4*3*2*1)/[(1)*(4*3*2*1)] 6 5 5
P(EE) = (neven)!/[(aeven)!(neven-1 elementevent A)!] * (n’even)!/[(a’even)!(n’even-1 elementevent B)]

P(EE) = 3!/[(2)!*(3-1)!] * 2!/[(1)!*(2-1)!] = 3!/[(2)!*(2)!] * 2!/[(1)!*(1)!]

6!/[(2)!*(6-1)!] 5!/[(1)!*(5-1)!] 6!/[(2)!*(5)!] 5!/[(1)!*(4)!]
P(EE) = ________(3*2*1)/[(2*1)*(2*1)]________ * _______(2*1)/[(1)*(1)]_______ = 3 * 2 = 1

(6*5*4*3*2*1)/[(2*1)*(5*4*3*2*1)] (5*4*3*2*1)/[(1)*(4*3*2*1)] 6 5 5
Answer: P(OE) + P(OO) + P(EE) = 3/5 + 1/5 + 1/5 = 1 or 100%
Again, note that for this problem P(OE) is not equal to P(O) * P(E); P(OO) is not equal to P(O) * P(O); and
P(EE) is not equal to P(E) * P(E).
COMBINATION OF n ELEMENTS TAKEN r ELEMENTS PER EVENT (WITH REPETITION OF ELEMENTS)
This is actually the hardest to explain out of the 4 ways. I suggest you stick with the formula :D…
Anyway, I will try to explain the development from permutations up to this point. Let us start with
permutations with repetitions. The main concept is that for permutation with repetitions, the number of
choices does not decrease no matter how many events will be added as a requirement for the result. This
is because even if you already selected a choice for the current event, that choice is still possible to be
selected for the next event and thus allowing for repetition. Another important concept is that different
sequence/ arrangement/ order would yield unique results. The governing formula is nr.
Now, for permutations without repetitions, repetition is not allowed. The choice taken for the current
event is no longer allowed to be chosen for the next event. Therefore, the numbers of choices decrease
by a value of r numbers for every event. This category is also commonly called the simple permutation.
The governing formula is n!/(n-r)!.
Next, for combinations without repetitions, repetitions are not allowed and sequences do not matter.
This means that no matter how elements are arranged/ ordered/ sequenced within the result, it will only
mean 1 result because what matters for the combination are the elements that comprise the result. In
theory, combinations without repetitions simply utilize the concept that sequences within the
permutation without repetitions with same element composition are divided by the number of ways they
can be rearranged. The number of ways a certain combination may be rearranged into different
permutations is denoted by a!. Thus, the governing formula is n!/[a!*(n-r)!].
Now, finally, we proceed with combinations with repetitions. Imagine a combination without repetition
but with the repetition added.
?????????? …. Haaaah???????? Ano daw????
Hahaha… so gaya ng sabi ko tingin ka sa formula… Dito ko na din irereveal yung formula para sa
combinations with repetitions.
Combination without repetition: n!/[a!*(n-r)!]

Combination without repetition: (a+n-1)!/[a!*(n-1)!]
Notice the similarity of the formulas. However it is important to explain their difference by looking at the
formulas.
First, they are both combinations. It is therefore required for us to remove any sequencing requirements
and thus we say that the expression 1/a! is a must for both formulas.
Next, notice the similarity for the remaining expressions n!/(n-r)! and (n-1+a)!/(n-1)!. This expressions
deal with the repetitions part. It is safe to say that n is similar to n-1+a; and n-r is similar with n-1
For combinations without repetition, the number of choices decreases by r numbers per event. Thus, the
term r is included in the formula and thus dictates what happens to n at each event.
For combinations with repetitions, it does not necessarily mean that the number of choices stay the same
at every event. Rather, we say that the choices are constantly reduced and are always replenished by the
same amount. It is like having a market wherein once a commodity is consumed, the stocks are
immediately replenished by the same amount. So instead of saying that the number of choices is
constant, we say that the number of choices is constantly replenished. This concept entails that at every
the number of choices are indeed reduced BUT are constantly replenished or restocked.
You should notice that for combinations with repetitions, the term r is not included. The reason behind
this is because r (number of element taken at each event) is rather considered at each event only. If you
consider the concept of reduced BUT are constantly replenished or restocked, we can conclude that the
number of replenishment done for the whole combination must be equal to the total number of elements
taken for the whole combination. And guess what, that value is equal to a which we have already
discussed previously. So we choose a instead of r. Now if we consider the similarity of n in combinations
without repetitions and n-1+a in combinations with repetitions and that we use a instead of r, then we
prove that n-r is also similar to (n-1(+a-a)).
As compared to combinations without repetitions where n’ = n-r previous and a’ = a-rprevious, for combinations
with repetitions we use n’ = n-aprevious and a’ = a-aprevious
So you know mahirap padin wahahaha…
So dahil dun example na :D

Try to find out how many possible combinations we can get by rolling a dice twice
(n-1+a)!/a!(n-1)! = (6-1+2)!/[(2!)*(6-1)!] = (7*6*5*4*3*2*1)/[(2*1)*(5*4*3*2*1)] = 21 results
{1,1}, {1,2}, {1,3}, {1,4}, {1,5}, {1,6},

{2,2}, {2,3}, {2,4}, {2,5}, {2,6},
{3,3}, {3,4}, {3,5}, {3,6},
{4,4}, {4,5}, {4,6},
{5,5}, {5,6},
{6,6}
Note:

{1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
2) Arrangements are not important but only the elements in the result. The following are deemed to be
identical :
{1,2} & {2,1}, {1,3} & {3,1}, {1,4} & {4,1}, {1,5} & {5,1}, {1,6} & {6,1}
{2,3} & {3,2}, {2,4} & {4,2}, {2,5} & {5,2}, {2,6} & {6,2},
{3,4} & {4,3}, {3,5} & {5,3}, {3,6} & {6,3},
{4,5} & {5,4}, {4,6} & {6,4}
{5,6} & {6,5}
3) Repetition of elements for the result are allowed:
{1,1}, {2,2}, {3,3}, {4,4}, {5,5}, {6,6}
Events:
Possible results:
OE (*same as EO)
next events. In this case, the number of choices does change; therefore n changes to n’ = n - a previous and so
on as the events progress. Also, for combinations with repetitions we note that a changes to
a’ = a - aprevious as the events progress.
P(OE) = (nodd – 1 + aodd)!/[(aodd)!(nodd-1)!] * (neven – 1 + aeven)!/[(aeven)!(neven-1)]

(n – 1 + a)!/[(a)!(n-1)!] (n’ – 1 + a’)!/[(a’)!(n’-1)!]
P(OE) = (3-1+1)!/[(1)!*(3-1)!] * (3-1+1)!/[(1)!*(3-1)!] = 3!/[(1)!*(2)!] * 3!/[(1)!*(2)!]

(6-1+2)!/[(2)!*(6-1)!] (4-1+2)!/[(0)!*(4-1)!] 7!/[(2)!*(5)!] 5!/[(0)!*(3)!]
P(OE) = ________(3*2*1)/[(1)*(2*1)]________ * ____(3*2*1)/[(1)*(2*1)]____ =_3_ * 3 = _9_

(7*6*5*4*3*2*1)/[(2*1)*(5*4*3*2*1)] 1 due to presence of 0! 21 1 21
Again, note that for this problem P(OE) is not equal to P(O) * P(E)
Events:
Possible results:
OE (*same as EO)
OO
EE
next events. In this case, the number of choices does change; therefore n changes to n’ = n - a previous and so
on as the events progress. Also, for combinations with repetitions we note that a changes to
a’ = a - aprevious as the events progress.
P(OE) = (nodd – 1 + aodd)!/[(aodd)!(nodd-1)!] * (neven – 1 + aeven)!/[(aeven)!(neven-1)]

(n – 1 + a)!/[(a)!(n-1)!] (n’ – 1 + a’)!/[(a’)!(n’-1)!]
P(OE) = (3-1+1)!/[(1)!*(3-1)!] * (3-1+1)!/[(1)!*(3-1)!] = 3!/[(1)!*(2)!] * 3!/[(1)!*(2)!]

(6-1+2)!/[(2)!*(6-1)!] (4-1+0)!/[(0)!*(4-1)!] 7!/[(2)!*(5)!] 3!/[(0)!*(3)!]
P(OE) = ________(3*2*1)/[(1)*(2*1)]________ * ____(3*2*1)/[(1)*(2*1)]____ =_3_ * 3 = _9_ = 3

(7*6*5*4*3*2*1)/[(2*1)*(5*4*3*2*1)] (3*2*1)/[(1)*(3* 2*1)] 21 1 21 7
*0! = 1
P(OO) = (nodd – 1 + aodd)!/[(aodd)!(nodd-1)!] * (n’odd – 1 + a’odd)!/[(aodd)!(n’odd-1)]
(n – 1 + a)!/[(a)!(n-1)!] (n’ – 1 + a’)!/[(a’)!(n’-1)!]
P(OO) = (3-1+2)!/[(2)!*(3-1)!] * (1-1+0)!/[(0)!*(1-1)!] = 4!/[(2)!*(2)!] * 0!/[(0)!*(0)!]

(6-1+2)!/[(2)!*(6-1)!] (4-1+0)!/[(0)!*(4-1)!] 7!/[(2)!*(5)!] 3!/[(0)!*(3)!]
P(OO) = ______(4*3*2*1)/[(2*1)*(2*1)]______ * _______(1)/[(1)*(1)]_______ =_6_ * 1 = _6_ = 2

(7*6*5*4*3*2*1)/[(2*1)*(5*4*3*2*1)] (3*2*1)/[(1)*(3* 2*1)] 21 1 21 7
P(EE) = (neven – 1 + aeven)!/[(aeven)!(neven-1)!] * (n’even – 1 + a’even)!/[(aeven)!(n’even-1)]

(n – 1 + a)!/[(a)!(n-1)!] (n’ – 1 + a’)!/[(a’)!(n’-1)!]
P(EE) = (3-1+2)!/[(2)!*(3-1)!] * (1-1+0)!/[(0)!*(1-1)!] = 4!/[(2)!*(2)!] * 0!/[(0)!*(0)!]

(6-1+2)!/[(2)!*(6-1)!] (4-1+0)!/[(0)!*(4-1)!] 7!/[(2)!*(5)!] 3!/[(0)!*(3)!]
P(EE) = ______(4*3*2*1)/[(2*1)*(2*1)]______ * _______(1)/[(1)*(1)]_______ =_6_ * 1 = _6_ = 2

(7*6*5*4*3*2*1)/[(2*1)*(5*4*3*2*1)] (3*2*1)/[(1)*(3* 2*1)] 21 1 21 7
Answer: P(OE) + P(OO) + P(EE) = 3/7 + 2/7 + 2/7 = 1 or 100%
Again, note that for this problem P(OE) is not equal to P(O) * P(E); P(OO) is not equal to P(O) * P(O); and
P(EE) is not equal to P(E) * P(E).
Ayun… hahaha killer topic :D
So practice na lang…

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PROBLEM SOLVING:

1. Identify what is asked

VARIABLE and CONSTANTS:

Asked values are often denoted by variables (letters)

Given values are often either denoted by constants or numbers.

UNITS and CONVERSION OF UNITS:

The general formula for unit conversion is as follows:

A (original unit) * conversion factor = A (new unit)

Where A is a given number;

9 (kilometers) * (1000 meters / 1 kilometer) = 9000 meters

TRANSPOSITION TO THE OTHER SIDE OF THE EQUATION:

PEMDAS still applies. Only same variables can be combined.

This can be easier understood with examples:

INTERMEDIATE & ADVANCED MATH:

Ratio is a representation of the measure of parts of a whole separated by colons

1:2 is a ratio (with 1 as the antecedent and 2 as the consequent)

1:2 is proportional with 3:6

Find 51% of 200

Convert 51% to decimal form = 0.51

200 is 45% of what number?

Convert 45% to decimal form = 0.45

Required: Selling Price say S

Required: New Price say N

Required: Future worth say F

Required: Future worth say F

Period in months Present Worth Interest at 3% monthly

EQUAL PERIODIC AMOUNTS (WITH FIXED MATURITY):

Required: Amount to be paid monthly say A

A = [P * (100% + i in percent)number of periods * i in percent] / [(100% + i in percent) number of periods – 100%]

Required: Present worth of the perpetuity say P

A’ = [P500, 000 * 2%] / [(100% + 2%)120 months – 100%]

Required: Distance in meters

75 kilometers * 1000 meters * __1 hour__ * __1 minute__ = 20.834 meters

20.834 meters/second = D/30 seconds

The following are acceleration formulas:

1) Acceleration = (Final speed – Initial speed) / Time

Required: Acceleration say a

Convert km/hr2 to m/s2

30 km * 1000 m * _(1 hr)2_ * (1 min)2 = 0.002314815 m/s2

Required: Distance say D

Required: Distance say D

First, solve for each of the individual worker’s rate

Required: Total work done in 4 days say W

First, solve for each of the individual worker’s rate

First, solve for each of the individual pipe rate

First, solve for each of the individual worker’s rate

Then using another equation, solve for the time required

Let us proceed with the examples.

Present age: The best time period to consider

(x) + (x+1) + (x+2) = 2 * { [(x)-2] + [(x+1)-2] + [(x+2)-2] }

Important concepts in Geometry:

1) Points are locations on space represented by dots

8) Special right triangles include:

9) The sum of the three angles of a triangle is always 180 degrees

21) Another way to solve for the area of a triangle is:

SOH: Sine of an angle (in degrees) = Opposite / Hypotenuse

23) For non-right triangles the following can be applied

sin A/a = sin B/b = sin C/c

(a-b)/(a+b) = [tan ½(A-B)]/[tan ½(A+B)]

CONVERSION OF DEGREES TO RADIANS

180 degrees = (pi) radians

It is easier to provide an example so we immediately proceed to a sample problem…

75 kilometers * 1000 meters * 1 hour * 1 minute = 20.834 meters

6! Means 654*321 or lahat ng counting numbers from the number down to 1

n!/(n-r)! = 6!/(6-2)! = (654321)/(4321) = 30 results

P(OE) = 3!/(3-1)! * 3!/(3-1)! = 3!/(2)! * 3!/(2)! = (321)/(21) (321)/(2*1)

P(O) = (nodd)!/(nodd-1 elementevent A)! = 3!/(3-1)! = 3!/(2)! = _(321)/(2*1)_ = 3 or 1

P(E) = (neven)!/(nodd-1 elementevent A)! = 3!/(3-1)! = 3!/(2)! = _(321)/(2*1)_ = 3 or 1

P(OE) = 3!/(3-1)! * 3!/(3-1)! = 3!/(2)! * 3!/(2)! = (321)/(21) (321)/(2*1)

P(OE) = 3!/(3-1)! * 3!/(3-1)! = 3!/(2)! * 3!/(2)! = (321)/(21) (321)/(2*1)

P(EO) = 3!/(3-1)! * 3!/(3-1)! = 3!/(2)! * 3!/(2)! = (321)/(21) (321)/(2*1)

P(OE) = 3!/(3-1)! * 3!/(3-1)! = 3!/(2)! * 3!/(2)! = (321)/(21) (321)/(2*1)