Electrical Machines Manual V2 2019 PDF

ELECTRICAL MACHINES LAB
Experiment one
Single-Phase power Transformer
© Ahmad Bassam Electrical Engineering Department !1

Theory
A single phase transformer normally consists of a pair of windings, primary and secondary,
linked by a magnetic circuit. When an alternating voltage is applied to one of these windings,
an induced magnetic field is generated in the core, which then induces a voltage on the
second winding. The winding at which the source is applied is called the primary winding,
while the other winding is called the secondary. The primary and secondary voltages are
related by a constant determined by the turns-ration (a).
Schematic Diagram of a transformer connected with supply & load
In an ideal transformer, the ratio of primary voltage Vp to the secondary voltage Vs is equal
to the turns ratio (a). Similarly, the ratio of the secondary current Is to the primary current Ip is
equal to the turns ratio (a).
A single phase transformer is generally used to step-up or step-down the secondary voltage.
This depends on the turn-ratio. For example, if the turn-ratio is 10, then the secondary voltage
is less than the primary voltage by 10, and therefore the transformer is called a step-down
transformer.
Voltage Regulation Test
Running a transformer at no-load, yields a very small voltage drops on the set of primary and
secondary components, under this condition the secondary voltage is equal to primary
voltage times the turns-ratio. Output-voltage usually drops below its no-load level when a load
is connected on the secondary, which causes a net current flow through the secondary and
primary components. The measure of how well a transformer maintains constant secondary
voltage over a range of load currents is called the transformer's voltage regulation.
Schematic symbol of a transformer connected to calculate VR
Magnetizing Test
When an ac power source is connected to a transformer, a current flows in the primary
winding, even when the secondary winding is open-circuited.This is the current required to
produce the flux in ferromagnetic core. It consists of these components:
1. The magnetization current Im :The current required to produce the flux in the core of the
transformer.
2. The core-loss current Ie :The current required to make up for the hysteresis and eddy
current losses.
For any coil, E = N*d /dt. Always. If E is the applied voltage phi will be the flux produced. If
phi is the applied flux to the coil, E will be the emf produced. Lets look at this step by step.
1. When there is no load on the secondary side (i.e. No load condition) E is the emf applied to
the primary coil, then the coil will produce phi flux in the core. You can see that, if E is
sinusoidal, phi will be co-sinusoidal. The coil will consume that much current as required to
produce the phi flux. since, ( = N*I ) reluctance_of_core we can calculate what will be the
current required to produce the flux phi. This current is the magnetizing current. But since
there is co-sinusoidal flux in the core, the same rule applies to the secondary coil and there
will be Emf induced in the secondary coil given by (E2 = N2*d /dt).
2. When you connect load to the secondary, then there will be secondary current. The
secondary current flowing in the secondary coil will produce flux 2 which will be in
opposition with the flux previously being produced by the primary coil (by virtue of the primary
magnetizing current). So, in effect the net flux in the core will reduce to - 2. But Since Emf
E is still being applied to primary coil, it demands that the flux linkage of primary coil still be .
So what happens is the current in primary coil increases so that it now produces the flux: +
2 so that the net flux linkage of the coil (that is flux in the core) becomes: + 2 - 2 =
again. The additional current required in primary coil to restore the flux will not be equal to the
current in the secondary unless the no. of turns are same in both of the coil. Hence, the
secondary current that flows when load is connected to the secondary coil will be reflected in
the primary coil on top of the already present magnetizing current (not as a replacement for it).

Schematic symbol of a transformer connected to determined Magnetizing current
OCT & SCT Test for 1-φ Transformer

It is possible to predict the performance of a transformer at various loadings by knowing all
the equivalent circuit parameters. These circuit parameters are determined in terms Open
Circuit (OC) and Short Circuit (SC) test data of the transformer. Without actually loading the
transformer (open circuit), these two assessed tests give the test results which are used to
determine the equivalent circuit parameters.
By these parameters, we can easily predetermine the efficiency and regulation of the
transformer at any power factor condition as well as at any load condition. This method of
finding the parameters of a transformer is called as an indirect loading method. This
experiment enumerates how to perform these tests, how determine the equivalent
parameters from test data and significance HV or LV side in which the calculation to be
performed.
The circuit diagram shows a traditionally accepted model of single phase transformer. This
model is called an equivalent circuit where all the transformer’s parameters including voltage,
currents and impedances are referred to the primary side.
Equivalent circuit of a transformer

Approximate model of transformer equivalent circuit
The excitation branch is shifted towards the front side and the primary and secondary
impedance are left to be added in series with each other.
OCT Transformer
The shunt branch parameters can be determined by performing this test. Since, the core
loss and the magnetizing current depend on applied voltage, this test is performed by
applying the rated voltage to one of the windings keeping the other winding open
(generally HV winding is kept open and rated voltage is applied to LV winding). The
circuit diagram to conduct this test is shown in the next figure Since, the secondary
terminals are open (no load is connected across the secondary), current drawn from the
source is called as no load current. Under no-load condition the power input to the
transformer is equal to the sum of losses in the primary winding resistance R1,and core
loss. Since, no load current is very small, the loss in winding resistance is neglected.
Hence, on no load the power drawn from the source is dissipated as heat in the core. If
I0c and Pi are the current and input power drawn by the transformer at rated voltage V1
respectively, then

MACHINES LAB
Approximate model of transformer equivalent Open circuit test
SCT Transformer
Short Circuit Test of Transformer is performed on HV side and the supply voltage is so
adjusted that rated current flows through the shorted secondary. As rated current is
flowing through the shorted secondary that means that rated current will also flow in the
primary because of Transformer action.
The supply voltage required for the flow of rated current in the shorted secondary is
around 2-12% of rated voltage. Thus the supply voltage i.e. primary voltage is very less
which in turn means that core losses during short circuit test will be negligible (as core
loss is directly proportional to the square of primary voltage.).
Thus short circuit test gives us information of Ohmic Losses of Transformer and the
power measured by the Wattmeter is Ohmic loss. An equivalent circuit of the Short
Circuit Test referred to secondary side is shown in figure below. Mind that shunt branch
in the equivalent circuit is not shown as the core loss is taking place during Transformer
Short Circuit Test is negligible.
Approximate model of transformer equivalent Short circuit test

Approximate model of transformer equivalent short circuit test
Losses in Transformer
Losses In Transformer
In any electrical machine, 'loss' can be defined as the difference between input power and
output power. An electrical transformer is a static device, hence mechanical losses (like
windage or friction losses) are absent in it. A transformer only consists of electrical losses
(iron losses and copper losses). Transformer losses are similar to losses in a DC machine,
except that transformers do not have mechanical losses.
Losses in transformer are explained below:
(I) Core Losses Or Iron Losses
Eddy current loss and hysteresis loss depend upon the magnetic properties of the material
used for the construction of core. Hence these losses are also known as core losses or iron
losses.
• Hysteresis loss in transformer: Hysteresis loss is due to reversal of magnetization in
the transformer core. This loss depends upon the volume and grade of the iron,
frequency of magnetic reversals and value of flux density. It can be given by,
Steinmetz formula:
• Wh= ηBmax1.6fV (watts)
• where, η = Steinmetz hysteresis constant
• V = volume of the core in m3
Eddy current loss in transformer: In transformer, AC current is supplied to the primary
winding which sets up alternating magnetizing flux. When this flux links with
secondary winding, it produces induced emf in it. But some part of this flux also gets
linked with other conducting parts like steel core or iron body or the transformer,
which will result in induced emf in those parts, causing small circulating current in
them. This current is called as eddy current. Due to these eddy currents, some
energy will be dissipated in the form of heat.
(Ii) Copper Loss In Transformer

Copper loss is due to ohmic resistance of the transformer windings. Copper loss for the
primary winding is equal to (I1^2* R1) and for secondary winding is same as previous I22R2.
Where, I1 and I2 are current in primary and secondary winding respectively, R1 and R2 are the
resistances of primary and secondary winding respectively. It is clear that Cu loss is
proportional to the square of the current, and current depends on the load. Hence copper loss
in transformer varies with the load.
Efficiency Of Transformer
Just like any other electrical machine, efficiency of a transformer can be defined as the output
power divided by the input power. That is efficiency = output / input .
Transformers are the most highly efficient electrical devices. Most of the transformers have full
load efficiency between 95% to 98.5% . As a transformer being highly efficient, output and
input power are having nearly same value, and hence it is impractical to measure the efficiency
of transformer by using output power / input power. A better method to find efficiency of a
transformer is using, efficiency = (input power- power losses) / input = 1 - (losses / input).
To calculate transformer efficiency in any condition we must first measure Pcore and Psc (Pcu)
using open and short circuit tests. By referring to Fig.4, the efficiency often takes the shape of
curve that start from zero and reach the maximum and then drop back to zero again.
Condition For Maximum Efficiency

Practice : Single-phase Power Transformer:

parameter determination and general
performance characteristics
Objectives:
This experiment is designed to:
1- Determine the parameters of the transformer equivalent circuit by conducting the

no-load and short circuit test.
2- Investigate the performance characteristic of transformers under resistive loading

conditions.
Equipment:
-Power transformer ( 240VA ,120/130 V,2701/296 T, 50HZ).
-Transformer Trainer unit TT179 : measurement console, dissectible transformer and

other facilities are included.
-Variable resistive load.
-Wattmeter (Electronics or Moving coil).
Practical procedure (1): no load test (OCT).
-Connect the circuit shown in Fig (A).
-set the load resistance to it’s maximum, and keep S2 OFF.
-Ask the lab instructor to check your connections.
-Turn S1 ON
-By means of the VARIAC, start to increase the input (primary) voltage V1 in steps to
match the requirements of table (1). (in each step, record V2,I1 Pi in the table
- Turn the VARIAC knob fully to minimum and turn S1 OFF.

Table (1) No load test
V1 V2 (V) I1 (A) Pi (w) Turns ratio
20
40
60
80
100
  110
120
125
S2
M I A
S1
T
RL
V
Figure (A)
Practical procedure (2): Short-circuit test (SCT).
-Important note: Make sure that the VARIAC knob is fully to minimum and S1 is OFF, Also
remember that careless mistake may cause sever damage to the equipments.
-Connect the circuit as shown in Fig (A), Short circuit the load resistance and switch S2 ON/
-Turn S1 ON and start to increase the input voltage gradually and carefully in steps to match
the requirements of table (2) , record the short-circuit voltage Vsc, short circuit power Psc and
the short circuit secondary current in the table.
-Turn the VARIAC knob to minimum and turns S1 OFF.
-Remove the short across the load and switch S2 OFF.

MACHINES LAB
Table (2) Short circuit Test

I1(A) I2 (A) Pi (w) Vsc (V)
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
Practical procedure (3): Load test.
-Connect the circuit as shown in Fig (A).
-With switch s2, is in the OFF state ( the secondary coil is open-circuited), turn S1 ON and set
V1 to 120 V RMS, record V2, I2 Pi and Po, V1 in table 3.
-Turn S2 On and vary RL in steps to match the requirements of table (3). in each step, record
V2,I2, Pi and Po. V1 should be kept constant and its initial value throughout the test.
-Turn the VARIAC knob fully minimum and turn S1 OFF.
-Add a capacitive load in parallel with the resistance load (R= Maximum). For three different
values of capacity load (up to I= 2A), take the readings of V2 ,I2,Pi,P.F and calculate the
efficiency and voltage regulation.draw the phasor diagram.
-Add a inductive load in parallel with the minimum resistance load (R= Maximum). For one
value of inductance load. take the readings of V2 ,I2,Pi,P.F and calculate the efficiency and
voltage regulation.draw the phasor diagram.
-Disconnect the circuit and measure the D.C resistance of the primary and secondary
windings using an ohmmeter.

Table (3) Load Test

I1(A) V1 (V) V2(V) I2(A) Pi(W) Po(W) P.F V.R% efficiency
120 0.0
120 0.4
120 0.6
120 0.8
120 1.0
120 1.25
120 1.5
120 1.75
120 2.0
120 1.3
120 2
From the previous procedures:
-Calculate the Turns Ratio.
-Calculate the parameters R1,R2,X1 and X2.
-Draw the approximate L-equivalent model off the transformer: A- referred to primary side B-
referred to the second side.
-explain roughly how an ohmmeter measure the resistance.(use a simple circuit diagram).
-What do we mean when saying R max; what is this simulating ? .
From the Results of the No-Load Test (OCT):
-Plot V2 versus v1 and comment on the nature of the curve and what it does describe.
-Plot Pin Versus V1 and explain the nature of the curve.
From the Results of the Load Test :

-calculate for each step the output power Po, efficiency voltage regulation, and the input
power factor record the results in table (3).
-Plot the efficiency, Voltage regulation and input power factor versus Po.At what load the
efficiency is maximum? , why?
-using the results of the OCT & SCT, Calculate the load at which the efficiency is maximum.
compare the answer with the value previously obtained by load test.
-Draw typical phasor diagram of the transformer under the normal conditions:
-N0-Load, Short-Circuit , Resistive Loading ,Inductive loading ,and capacity loading.
-At what loading condition will the voltage regulation be maximum, why ?
 
-Why we try to have best value of voltage regulation?
-What core type is the transformer you worked on in this experiment ?
-Explain in not more than 4 lines why Transformers are Important in our modern lives.
Matlab Journey
% M-file: trans_vr.m
% M-file to calculate and plot the voltage regulation
% of a transformer as a function of load for power
% factors of 0.8 lagging, 1.0, and 0.8 leading.
VS = 230; % Secondary voltage (V)
amps = 0:6.52:65.2; % Current values (A)
Req = 0.0445; % Equivalent R (ohms)
Xeq = 0.0645; % Equivalent X (ohms)
% Calculate the current values for the three
% power factors. The first row of I contains
% the lagging currents, the second row contains
% the unity currents, and the third row contains
% the leading currents.
I(1,:) = amps .* ( 0.8 - j*0.6); % Lagging
I(2,:) = amps .* ( 1.0 ); % Unity
I(3,:) = amps .* ( 0.8 + j*0.6); % Leading

% Calculate VP/a.
 
VPa = VS + Req.*I + j.*Xeq.*I;
% Calculate voltage regulation
VR = (abs(VPa) - VS) ./ VS .* 100;
% Plot the voltage regulation
plot(amps,VR(1,:),'b-','LineWidth',2.0);
hold on;
plot(amps,VR(2,:),'k--','LineWidth',2.0);
plot(amps,VR(3,:),'r-.','LineWidth',2.0);
title ('\bfVoltage Regulation Versus Load');
xlabel ('\bfLoad (A)');
ylabel ('\bfVoltage Regulation (%)');
legend('0.8 PF lagging','1.0 PF','0.8 PF leading');
grid on;
hold off;
Re-WRITE the above code for it to match the results obtained in the
lab.
*also see the attached smiulink matlab file.

MACHINES LAB
Experiment two
Magnetization and Hysteresis curve of
Transformer  

Theory
In the context of magnetic materials, hysteresis refers to the following
phenomenon: When a piece of unmagnetized iron is placed in a solenoid which
is carrying a current, the iron will become magnetized. If the current in the
  solenoid is then reduced to zero, the iron will remain partly magnetized. In order
to demagnetize the iron, it is necessary to reverse the direction of current in the
solenoid, but if the current in the reverse direction is increased further, the iron
will magnetize in the reverse direction.
Figure 1
If we wind a coil of N turns on an iron ring and pass a current i through the coil, then the
value of H in the iron can be found from Ampere’s law , giving
……(1)
where l is the length of the iron ring (i.e., the length of the dotted line, Fig. 1). The value of H is
proportional to i and N but does not depend on the state of magnetization of the iron. 
The iron itself produces a magnetic field which depends on the degree of alignment of
magnetic dipoles in the iron set up by orbital and spinning electrons. In an unmagnetized
piece of iron, the domains are aligned in random directions. The effect of applying an H field
is to align some of the domains. The total magnetic field in the iron is
……(2)
where μ is the permeability of the iron core. Experimentally, we can measure B by winding a
second coil on the iron core and measuring the emf induced in the coil when B changes with
time.
The circuit in Fig. 2 can be used to generate the B-H curve of a transformer. An ammeter A is
used to measure the rms current I of the primary winding, whereas a voltmeter V is used to
measure the rms voltage Vs of the secondary winding. Electrical Engineering Department !16
© Ahmad Bassam
Figure 2
As the current i increases from zero, the magnetic field density B will increase from zero up to
a certain value at which all the domains in the iron are perfectly aligned. Any further increase in
i will have no effect on the value of B, and the iron is said to be saturated. A curve of the total
field B versus the applied field H as H increases from zero is called a magnetization curve. A
typical magnetization curve for iron is shown in Fig. 3.
The magnetic field B in the iron varies with

time and induces a voltage vs in the
secondary coil, where A is the cross-
sectional area of the iron. Since we need to
measure B rather than dB/dt, we will
integrate the voltage vs using an R-C circuit.
….(3)
Figure 3
For sinusoidal magnetic flux density given by
….(4)
Accordingly, the secondary voltage will be given as
….(5)
where Vm = f*N2*A*Bm. The rms value of the voltage vs will be given as 

….(6)
Hence,
 
Hysteresis Curves
Suppose we reach some arbitrary point (Ho, Bo) on the magnetization curve shown (dotted)
in Fig.4. If we then decrease H to zero (by decreasing the current in the external coil), the iron
will remain partly magnetized and there will be a ‘residual field’ BR (see Fig. 3). By reversing
the current, we can decrease B to zero at a value of H known as the ‘coercive force’, Hc. As
H is made more negative, the iron magnetizes in the reverse direction, and it will arrive at the
point (−Ho, −Bo) when the reverse current is equal in magnitude to the initial forward current.
A curve of B versus H for a complete cycle of increasing and decreasing current is known as
a hysteresis curve. Various hysteresis curves are possible for a given specimen of iron,
depending at which point on the magnetization curve the hysteresis curve is started.
Figure 4
The circuit shown in Fig. 5 can be used to display the hysteresis curves of an iron core
transformer directly on an oscilloscope screen. The transformer consists of a primary coil of
N1 turns and a secondary coil of N2 turns, both wound on an iron core. An ac source is used
to produce an alternating current i in the primary coil. The H field in the iron is related to the
current by eqn. (1). The current is indicated on an ammeter ‘A’, which indicates the “rms
value” of the current.
MACHINES LAB
Figure 5
The R-C integrator in Fig. 5 produces an output voltage vc across the capacitor which is
related to the input voltage vs by
….(7)
where R and C are the resistance and capacitance, respectively, of the components used in
the integrating circuit. The integrator provided has R = 100 kΩ and C = 2 μF. Both B and vc
will vary with time, but at all times
The output signal vc from the C-arm of the integrator is connected to the Y input of an
oscilloscope to produce a vertical deflection of the oscilloscope trace. The vertical deflection
formed on the oscilloscope screen depends on the applied voltage vc and on the VOLTS/DIV
setting on the oscilloscope, and is proportional to B.
The resistance used to measure the primary current will have voltage RX.I. This voltage signal
can be applied to the X input of the oscilloscope to produce a horizontal deflection of the
oscilloscope trace proportional to i, and therefore to H.
The oscilloscope trace will therefore deflect vertically by an amount proportional to B and
horizontally by an amount proportional to H. As the current in the primary coil alternates
between positive and negative values, a hysteresis curve (B versus H) on the oscilloscope
screen will automatically be traced out in the (XY mode).

MACHINES LAB
Practice : Single-phase Power

Transformer:Nature of the excitation current and
the hysteresis loop
Objectives:
-Conduct the polarity test.
- Examine the nature of the excitation current.
- Construct the hysteresis loop of a typical magnetic structure and to investigate the
effect of having an air gap on this structure
Equipment:
-Power transformer ( 240VA ,120/130 V,2701/296 T, 50HZ).
-Transformer Trainer unit TT179 : measurement console, dissectible transformer and

other facilities are included.
-Variable resistive load.
-Variable AC power source ps (189) VARIAC
-Oscilloscope
-Note (1) : it is important to ensure that the oscilloscope mains earth not connected.
-Note (2) : The core of the transformer is made of laminations bonded together, each
lamination has a total thickness of 0.55mm of which 0.5mm is steel 0.05 is insulation.
-Note (3) : Physical dimensions of the transformer to be tested are shown in figure
(1.A) ,and in figure (1.B) the equivalent structure.

11 CM
 
6.6 CM
13.4 CM
2.2 CM 4.4 CM 2.2 CM
Figure (1-A)
11 CM
6.6 CM
7.2 CM
2.2 CM 2.2 CM
Figure (1-B)

Practical procedure (1): Polarity Test
-Connect the circuit shown in Figure (2.A).
-Switch S1 ON and set V1 120V .
-Record the readings of V2 and V.
-Switch S1 OFF and connect the circuit shown in figure (2.B)
-Oscilloscope settings should be calibrated with the lab instructor help.
-Switch on S1 and set V1 AT 120 V.
-Sketch to scale on a graph paper the waveforms on the screen.
-Turn the VARIAC knob fully clockwise and turn S1 OFF.
  S1
120/130V
0-130 V
Figure (2-A)
V1 V2 V3

120/130V
0-130 V
 
CH1 CH2
Figure (2-B)
Practical procedure (2): The nature of the excitation current
-Connect the circuit shown in Figure (3), where S2 is OFF.
- Oscilloscope settings should be: 5 millisecond/div, 0.5 v/div for CH1 and 50 v/div
for CH2
Note (1) : From practical procedure (1), it should be noticed that primary and
secondary cottages (V1 & V2 respectively) are in phase. the two voltages differ slightly
in amplitude. in this procedure, and for testing convenience, V2 is adopted to represent
V1.
Note (2): The voltages across the shunt resistor Rsh (2 ohm) represents to scale the
waveform of the magnetization current.
-Switch ON S1 and set V1 at 80 V.
-Sketch to to scale on graph paper the wave forms on the screen.(Hint :take a
photo)
-Increase V1 to 120 V and repeat the last step.
-Reset the scale of CH1 to 1.0 V/div
-Turn the VATIAC knob fully clockwise and turn S1 OFF.

S1 Rsh= 2 ohm 120/130V S2
150 k.ohm
0-130 V
CH2
CH1
 
2 Micro Farad
Figure (3)
Practical procedure (3): The Hysteresis loop
-Connect the circuit shown in Figure (4), where S2 is OFF.
- Oscilloscope settings should be on XY mode, the X channel should represent the

voltage across the shunt resistor at 1 v/div.
- the capacitor voltage Vc is to be shown by CH1(y) AT 0.5 V/div.
-Switch ON S1 and set V1 at 80 V.
-Switch S2 ON.
-Record the value of Vc.
-Sketch to scale on a graph paper the hysteresis loop that appears on the screen.
(Hint :take a photo)
-Increase V1 to 120 V and repeat the last 3 steps
-Turn the VARIAC knob fully clockwise and turn S1 OFF.
Note (1): The Hysteresis loop represents the relationship between the flux density (B)
and the flux intensity (H) of a certain electrical component, this procedure is arranged
for indirect measurement of the hysteresis characteristics.
Note (2): H is directly proportional to the magnetization current which is almost equal
to the excitation current and in phase with it. Hence the voltage across the shunt
resistor is promotional, to an acceptable degree of accuracy, to the flux intensity H.

Note (3): The magnetic flux is directly related to the flux density (B) , Also, it is known that at
no-load the flux is usually lagging the voltage V1 &V2 by almost 90 degrees. By the addition
of the load (150-1.59j) K.ohm, the transformer could be considered as un-loaded. However,
most of the secondary voltage V2 appears across R, While Vc is a small portion of V2 and is
lagging it by almost 90 degree. it could be proved that both V2 and Vc are directly
proportional flux by equation number (6) mentioned before.
The above implies that the Flux is promotional to Vc and in phase with it. Hence Vc
represents (B), and the B/H hysteresis loop could be represented by Vc/Vsh.
Practical procedure (4): Effect of introducing an air gap:

Release the fasteners on the dissectible transformer frame.
Remove the E section of the core with its attached coils.
Invert the I section such that the varnished face is now facing the E section and thus the
varnish layer is now forming a part of the magnetic circuit.
Replace the E section with the coils in position and clamp the transformer frame.
-Repeat practical procedure (2) but for V1=120 v , then 80 V , then 120 V.
-Repeat practical procedure (3) but for V1=120 V then 80 V , then 120 V.
Figure (4)

Results and comments:
-What is the type of the test transformer (shell or core)?
-What is the value of the stacking factor?

  -Prove that the two transformers in figure (1) are identical.
-Sketch the schematic diagram of the transformer and use the Dot notation to indicate
the relative polarity of the primary and secondary windings. is the polarity Additive or
subtractive.
-Comment on the nature of the excitation current waveform; how do the excitation
voltage of the air gap effect the nature of the excitation current?
-Show that the Rms value of the core flux is given by: flux (phi) = R*C*Vc/Ns
Use the above relationship to calculate the value of core flux and flux density.
Use the EMF relationship to calculate the Flux (phi) and compare the result with
experimental value calculated above.
-Show that the instantaneous Flux intensity of the core is given by
H=(Np/(L*Rsh))*Vsh
Where L is the intermediate length of the core of the equivalent transformer like figure
(1.B), Np is the number of turns of the primary winding and Vsh is the instantaneous
value of the voltage across Rsh.
-For all B/H Hysteresis loops of the experiment, rescue the x-axis to represent flux
intensity H (A.T/m), and rescale the Y-axis to represent the Flux Density B(T).
What is the value of the maximum flux intensity ?
-Determine the residual flux density and coercive force of the magnetic material. How do
the excitation voltage and the illusion of the air gap effect them.
-Explain how does the inclusion of the air gap effect the Hysteresis loop ( Height ,
Width ,Area).
-Prove that the area of the hysteresis loop is promotional to the hysteresis loss of the
transformer core.
-show graphically how to deduce the wave form of the excitation current from the
hysteresis loop and flux wave form.

Matlab Journey
% M-file: mag_current.m
% M-file to calculate and plot the magnetization

 
% current of a 230/115 transformer operating at
% 230 volts and 50/60 Hz. This program also
% calculates the rms value of the mag. current.
% Load the magnetization curve. It is in two
% columns, with the first column being mmf and
% the second column being flux.
load mag_curve_1.dat;
mmf_data = mag_curve_1(:,1);
flux_data = mag_curve_1(:,2);
% Initialize values
VM = 325; % Maximum voltage (V)
NP = 850; % Primary turns
VM = 230; % Maximum voltage (V)
NP = 600; % Primary turns
% Calculate angular velocity for 60 Hz
freq = 60; % Freq (Hz)
w = 2 * pi * freq;
% Calculate flux versus time
time = 0:1/3000:1/30; % 0 to 1/30 sec
flux = -VM/(w*NP) * cos(w .* time);

Matlab Journey
% Calculate the mmf corresponding to a given flux

 
% using the 's interpolation function.
mmf = interp1(flux_data,mmf_data,flux);
% Calculate the magnetization current
im = mmf / NP;
% Calculate the rms value of the current
irms = sqrt(sum(im.^2)/length(im));
disp(['The rms current at 60 Hz is ', num2str(irms)]);
% Plot the magnetization current.
figure(1)
subplot(2,1,1);
plot(time,im);
title ('\bfMagnetization current at 60 Hz');
xlabel ('\bfTime (s)');
ylabel ('\bf\itI_{m} \rm(A)');
axis([0 0.04 -2 2]);
grid on;

Matlab Journey
% Calculate angular velocity for 50 Hz
freq = 50; % Freq (Hz)

 
w = 2 * pi * freq;
% Calculate flux versus time
time = 0:1/2500:1/25; % 0 to 1/25 sec
flux = -VM/(w*NP) * cos(w .* time);
% Calculate the mmf corresponding to a

given flux
% using the 's interpolation function.
mmf = interp1(flux_data,mmf_data,flux);
% Calculate the magnetization current
im = mmf / NP;
% Calculate the rms value of the current
irms = sqrt(sum(im.^2)/length(im));
disp(['The rms current at 50 Hz is ',

num2str(irms)]);
% Plot the magnetization current.
subplot(2,1,2);
plot(time,im);
title ('\bfMagnetization current at 50 Hz');
xlabel ('\bfTime (s)');
ylabel ('\bf\itI_{m} \rm(A)');
axis([0 0.04 -2 2]);
grid on;

Experiment Three
DC Separately Excited Generator

Theory
DC generators are classified according to the method of producing the main field flux, when
the DC field current in such a generator is fed by an independent source, the generator is
said to be separately excited. This method of excitation has the obvious disadvantage of the
 
need for external DC source. In self-excited generators the residual magnetism in stator
is used to initiate the process of providing field flux. Self-excited generators may be of the
series, shunt, or compound type, depending upon the manner of connecting the field
winding to the armature.
Separately Excited Generator

In a separately excited generator, the field current If for the field coils is supplied from a
separate DC source like a battery. Thus, achieving an independent flux control is possible for
this type of DC generators. The required field (magnetization) current If is very small fraction
of the rated armature current Ia on the order of 1 to 3 percent in average. Because of this, a
small amount of power in the field may control a relatively large amount of power in the
armature.
Saturation
Linear
The equivalent circuit of DC separately excited generator is shown above. It may be noted
that the armature current Ia is equal to the load current IL, if the machine is driven by a prime-
mover at constant speed and the armature side is left open (load resistance disconnected). In
this case a change in the excitation current If causes a corresponding change in the induced
voltage E . This is indicated in the following relation
It is clear that the induced voltage is directly proportional to the field current. However, as the
field current If increased, the machine core saturates and the voltage tends to increase at a
lower rate.
Running the separately generator under the load-condition, with constant speed and field
current, always produces an armature current that is related to terminal voltage according to
this equation where E is Constant.
VT
The two parameters are inversely related, which means, a rise in the load current (armature
 
current) often leads to a slight drop in the terminal voltage.This is due to armature resistance
and armature reaction.
DC Shunt Generator
In this generator, the field winding Rf is connected across the armature. Hence, the terminal
voltage VT is also the field voltage Vf and the armature current is the sum of load and field
currents.
Ia =If +IL
When the rotor of this machine is rotated, the residual flux in the field circuit will setup a small
induced-voltage E across the armature. This generates a small current through the field
winding. And a field flux will also be generated
Voltage buildup
occurred in discrete
steps
EA may be a volt or
two appear at the
terminal during
start-up
The polarity of the field winding (leads direction) determines the field flux polarity, if the polarity
of the field flux is in the same direction as the residual flux. The total air gap flux increases
leading to a voltage buildup. On the other hand, if the field polarity has been reversed the two
fluxes will oppose one another, leading to a failure in building up the voltage. The excitation
current If in a shunt-wound generator is dependent upon the field resistance. Normally, field
excitation is maintained between 0.5 to 5 percent of the armature current. Increasing the load
on the shunt generator, results in a significant voltage drop across the output terminals. This
is because of the reduction in the field current that weakens the flux which in turn it affects
the induced voltage.
Practice : Characteristics of DC separately-

excited and shunt generators
Objectives:
 
This experiment is designed to study :
-No-load characteristics of DC generator (magnetization).
-External characteristics of the separately-excited and shunt generators
-Regulation characteristics of the separately-excited and shunt generators
Equipment:
-DC machine -Cut off switch -Variable Voltage DC power

supply (240 V, 10A)
-Field Regulator -Prime mover set:
-Panel mounting frame.
-Load resistor -Dc shunt motor
-connection cables and plugs
-Field Regulator
-Two ammeters
-Rubber coupling sleeves and
-One Voltmeter -Control Unit
coupling guards
-DC power supply (200V ,10A) -Two ammeters
Machines Parameters:
-Armature resistance (A1-A2): 2.5 ohm
- Compoles Resistance (B1-B2):1 ohm
- Compensating winding resistance (C1-C2) : 1.2 ohm
- Series field resistance (D1-D2) :0.5 ohm
- Shunt field resistance (E1-E2): 675 ohm

Note(1): in any practical procedure, thermal and earth protection of each of the machines
involved should be assured
Settings of the control unit :

 
-Set the control unit as follows:
Speed N=3000 RPM , Torque M=10 N.M
Operating Model n= constant
Prime Mover connection and control :
Figure(1) shows the general features of the drive system required for the testing procedures to
be fulfilled , the prime mover to be used in this experiment is DC shunt motor. the wiring
diagram is shown in Figure (2). The sequence of steps that should be followed to run and
control the speed of this motor is as follows :
-While the voltage knob is fully counterclockwise (i.e,zero output voltage) switch S1 ON
( Position I) .
-Press the START switch (green indicator ON).
-Set the resistance of the field regulator Rfm to almost 200-ohm
-To start the drive motor, Increase Vs gradually up to 200 V.(at almost half the rated
voltage, increase the resistance of the motor field regulator to almost 400-ohm.
The required speed of the motor is set by the field regulator.
Control DC
Unit Supply
Prime Mover DC generator to be

Brake Unit
Tested
DC shunt
Coupling Coupling
Figure (1)

R fm I fm Im
Field
Regulator A1
 
S1
M
Vs
E1 E2
A2 0-220 V
B1
B2
C1
C2
Figure (2)
Practical Procedure (1) : Open circuit test (Magnetization Curve)
-Connect the circuit shown in figure(3)
-Set the load resistance to its maximum, and keep S2 OFF.
-Set the field regulator Rfg to ‘q’ which implies that the field circuit is open circuited.
-Ask the lab instructor to check your connections., then Turn S1 ON
-Run the prime mover as in the previous section and set its speed to 2500 rpm this speed
should be kept constant throughout the test.
-Record the Terminal Voltages Vt in table(1.a).
-Use the generator field regulator Rfg to set the excitation current in steps to match the
requirements of table(1).for each value of If, Record Vt in the table.
-Reset the generator field regulator to the ‘q’ position.
-Reset the prime mover speed to 2000 rpm
Then !
-Record the Terminal Voltages Vt in table(1.b).
-Use the generator field regulator Rfg to set the excitation current in steps to match the
requirements of table(1.b).for each value of If, Record Vt in the table.
S2
Cut off
switch
Im
A1
R fg
 
Vt
E1 E2 G
S1 RL
Variable
A2
load
B1
5A
B2
200 V C1
C2
Figure (3)
Table (1.a)
If 0.0 50 75 125 150 175 200 225 250

(mA)
Vt (V)
Speed = 2500 RPM =Constant
Table (1.b)
If 0.0 50 75 125 150 175 200 225 250

(mA)
Vt (V)

Practical Procedure (2) : External characteristics of separately excited

generator
-Reset the motor speed to 2000 RPM and keep this speed fixed throughout the test.
-Set the generator field current to 250 mA.

 
-Record the terminal voltage Vt in table (2).
-Be sure that RL is maximum.
-Switch S2 on
-Use load resistance RL to set the values of IL to match the requirements of table 2 below, for
each value of IL recored the Vt in the table.
-Increase Rl gradually to maximum and switch S2 OFF.

Table (2)
I (load) 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5

Vt (V)
If= 25o mA = Constant
Practical Procedure (3) : O.C & External characteristics (shunt generator)

-Connect the circuit shown in figure (4). Note that the circuit of figure (3) is applicable, but with
X1 connected to A1 and X2 connected to C2.
Set the field regulator Rfg to ‘q’ which implies that the field circuit is open circuited.
-then Turn S1 ON
-Run the prime mover as in the previous section and set its speed to 2500 rpm this speed
should be kept constant throughout the test.
-Set the generator field current from Zero to 250 mA.
-Record the terminal voltage Vt in table (3).
-Switch S2 ON
-Use the load resistance RL to set the values of IL that match the requirements of table (4).
for each value of Vt, the speed should be kept fixed at 2000 RPM.
S2
Rf I fg IL
 
A1
G Vt
RL
E1 E2
A2
B1
B2
C1
C2
Figure (2)
Table (3)
If 0.0 50 75 125 150 175 200 225 250

(mA)
Vt (V)
Table (4)
If (mA) 250 0.0
i (load) 0
Vt (V) 130 125 115 110 100 90 80 60 40 20 10 0.0

Results and comments:
-Plot, on the same graph, the No-load characteristics ( i.e,Vt (Vs.) f(If) ) of the D.C machine
corresponding to running the speeds of 2000 RPM, in part (1a, 1b,3).
  -Show how to determine the critical field resistance.
-What is the value of residual voltage. does this voltage vary with the speed.
-plot the External characteristics (i.e, Vt (Vs) If(IL)) of the DC generator when it is separately
excited. on the same graph, plot (IL*RT) and the voltage drop due to the armature reaction, Rt
is total resistance of the armature circuit.
-Plot the external characteristics of the generator when it is self excited (shunt). comment on
the nature of the curve.
-How does the short-circuit condition of shunt generators differ from other types of machines.
what is the value of the short circuit current and what are the parameters it depends on.
Matlab Journey
See the website for the blocks; this motor circuit (prime mover).
Try to connect it to a generator.

Special notes about shunt generators :
-As the load on the generator is increased, IL increases and so IA = IF + IL also increase. An
increase in IA increases the armature resistance voltage drop IARA , causing VT = EA -IARA
  to However,
decrease.  
when VT decreases, the field current IF in the machine decreases with it. This
causes the flux in the machine to decrease; decreasing EA. Decreasing EA causes a further
decrease in the terminal voltage, VT =EA -IARA  
There are two ways to control the voltage of a shunt generator:
1-Change the shaft speed, ωm of the generator.
2-Change the field resistor of the generator, thus changing the field current.
Changing the field resistor is the principal method used to control terminal voltage in real
shunt generators. If the field resistor RF is decreased, then the field current IF = VT/RF
increases. When IF , the machine’s flux increase , causing the internal generated voltage EA .
EA causes the terminal voltage of the generator to increase as well.  

Experiment Four
DC Shunt Motor

Theory
DC motors are the obvious choice in applications where DC sources are all that is available;
one capability that DC motors possess over the induction and synchronous machines do
not, is a precise speed and torque control. One significant advantage of a DC motor is the
  variety of performance characteristics that can be achieved by interconnecting the field and
armature windings in various ways. A shunt wound DC motor results when the field winding
is connected in parallel with the armature. If a combination of series and parallel field
connections are made. The machine is classified as a compound DC motor .
DC shunt wound motor

The field winding in shunt motor is made of a large number of turns of fine wire and
connected in parallel with the armature winding . The armature winding and field are fed from
the same source, and the input current is equal to the sum of armature and field currents.
Is=Ia+If
A shunt wound motor will run at a relatively constant speed regardless of the load; Consider
a DC shunt motor running at no-load. If a mechanical load is applied to the shaft, the small
no-load current will not produce enough torque to carry the load and the motor begins to
slow down. This causes the induced voltage E to decrease, resulting in a higher armature
current Ia and corresponding higher torque T. Therefore, shunt wound motors have a good
speed regulation where the difference in speeds from no-load to full-load is ranges between
10-15%.
DC motors including the shunt wound type have an advantage over AC motors in, terms of
variable speed characteristics; This means, they can be driven over a wide range of speed.
Speed control techniques including 1) Armature voltage control 2) Field flux control

Circuit model for DC shunt motor Speed
These techniques can be implemented to obtain speeds over or under the rated speed. If
for example, we desire a speed greater than the rated speed; the field flux control shall be
used. On the other hand, the other technique is used to provide a speed control below the
rated speed w . It is possible to drive a motor at rated speed by applying a full rated
voltage on the field and armature circuits. The speed of a DC shunt motor can be
expressed according to this relationship
 
Armature Voltage Control

in certain applications involving the shunt wound motor its desirable to control the speed
below the rated value.
1) Increasing the armature voltage Va increases the armature current (Ia = (Va - E)/Ra);  
2) Increasing armature current IA increases the induced torque Td (Td = K Ia);  
3) Increased induced torque Td is now larger than the load torque TL and, therefore, the
speed W is increasing. 
4) Increasing speed increases the internal generated voltage (E = K W);  
6) Decreasing Ia decreases the induced torque until Td = TL at a higher speed W the
technique is considered wasteful because the series resistance must have a sufficient power
rating to dissipate the heat produced by armature current.  

Armature voltage control for DC shunt motor
Field Flux Control

The technique of field flux control is based on the principle of weakening the field current.
This can be achieved by inserted a variable resistor (rheostat) in series with the field winding.
By applying a rated supply voltage to the armature and then increasing the resistance of
rheostat. The field flux will be reduced and since the speed is inversely proportional with the
field flux, the motor will speed-up. However, the torque is directly proportional with the field
flux so that the rise of speed will be accompanied by a reduction in torque.
Field Flux control for DC shunt motor
Speed Regulation
is a term often used in conjunction with electrical motors to describe their capability to
maintain a certain speed under varying load conditions; from no-load to full-load.

Practice : Characteristics and speed control of
DC motor
Objectives:
 
This experiment is designed to Investigate :
-the load characteristics ( torque-speed & torque-current)of DC motors.
-Investigate methods of speed control of DC motors.
-Evaluation of the motor performance parameters ( efficiency, speed regulation,…..etc)
Equipment:
-DC Motor: 220V, 19 A, 3.6 KW ,1500-3000 RPM. field current 1.1A.
-Eddy-current break 0-50 N.m.
-Variable resistor Rb ( for eddy-current break control): 200V, 20 A, (11-220) ohm.
-Variable resistor Rf(EXT) (for field control): 1.4 A, 694 ohm .
-Starting Resistance: 220 V, 21A, 10.5 ohm
-3 DC ammeters 3 A, 6 A and 30 A.
-2 DC voltmeters :300 V
-Speedo meter
-3 Electro-mechanical switches.
Wiring diagram(1):
-Load circuit: connect the eddy-current break circuit as shown in figure (1). Make
sure that the resistance Rb is initially maximum (F-CCW)، Eddy current switch Sb
should be initially at the OFF position.

1B 2B
DC shunt
(general features)
F1 F2
p+
220 V DC
N-
SB Figure (1)
Variable
Eddy current break Resistor (RE)
(circuit and connection ) A

- +
Eddy break
Wiring diagram (2):
-Armature circuit: figure (2) shows the general view of wiring diagram of the armature circuit.
starting resistance should initially be maximum Ask the lab instructor to help you in this
part mostly its Fully counter clock wise . the armature circuit switch SA should be initially
OFF position.
p+
N- 0 - 460 V DC
SA
Motor Rst
Figure (2)
starter used
in part (A)
var
- + +
A Ia
A2 A1 -
M
2B 1B
Eddy
break
Wiring diagram (3):
-Field circuit: figure (3) shows a general view of the wiring diagram of the field
  circuit. Field circuit switch SF should be initially at the OFF position.
-Given : Measured Value of the total armature resistance is 1.1 ohm.
p+
N- 220 V DC
SF
Slide Resistance
Rf
Vf +
- +
A
-
Motor field circuit
F2 F1
Figure (3)
Practical Procedure (A) : Characteristics of DC motors (rated voltage, rated

field).
-Connect the Armature circuit terminals X1-X2 to the variable (0-400) V DC source (terminals
1 and 2 respectively). Initially, the applied voltage should be zero, and the armature switch SA
should be at the OFF position.
-Connect the terminals of the field circuit Y1-Y2 to the fixed (220) V DC source (terminals L1-
L2) respectively.The switch Sf should be OFF at the moment.
-Switch ON Sf and adjust the field current to (0.8 A) by means of the means of the external
field resistance Rf (EXT), record the value of the field voltage.
-Make sure that the armature starting resistance is maximum (F-CCW).
-Switch ON SA and increase the armature terminal voltage gradually up to rated value of 220
V. this voltage should be fixed throughout the test.
-Reset the starting resistance to its Minimum value (F-CW).

Practical Procedure (A) : Characteristics of DC motors (rated voltage, rated

field). cont.
-Record the line ‘armature’ current and the motor speed in Table (A). in this case
  TL=0.
-Switch ON the Eddy-Current break source and vary RE to get (3 Nm) load torque, (record in
table (A), the corresponding line current and motor speed.
-Keep varying the load torque, in steps, to match the readings of table (A). in each step,
record the corresponding line current and motor speed.
Table(A)
TL (N.m) 0.0 3.0 6.0 9.0 12.0 15.0

Nm (RPM)
IL= IA (A)
VT= 220V , If= 0.8 A
Practical Procedure (B) : Load characteristics of DC motors (reduced voltage,

rated field)
-Keep the field current at 0.8 A by means of the external field resistance RF(EXT) record the
value of the field voltage.
-Reduce the armature voltage of 160 V.
-Keep the eddy-current break circuit OFF.
-Record the line current and the motor speed in Table (B). in this case TL=0.
-Switch ON the Eddy-Current break source and vary RE to get a (3 Nm) load torque,(record
the corresponding line current and motor speed.
-Keep varying the load torque to match the readings of table (B) in each, record the
corresponding line current and motor speed.
-Reset RE to its maximum position (F-CCW) then switch it OFF.

Table(B)
TL (N.m) 0.0 3.0 6.0 9.0 12.0 15.0
Nm (RPM)
  IL= IA (A)
VT= 160V , If= 0.8 A
Practical Procedure (C) : Load characteristics of DC motors (Rated voltage,

Reduced Field)
-Increase the armature voltage to 220 V.
-Keep the eddy-current break circuit OFF.
-Reduce the field current to 0.6 A by means of the external field resistance RF(ext), Record
the value of the field voltage.
-Record the line current and the motor speed in table (C). in this case TL=0.
-Switch ON the Eddy-current Brake break source and vary RE to get a (3 Nm) load torque,
Record the corresponding line current and motor speed.
-Keep varying the load torque to match readings of table (C). in each step, record the
corresponding line current and motor speed, in each case.
-Reset RE to its maximum position and switch it OFF.
Table(C)
TL (N.m) 0.0 3.0 6.0 9.0 12.0 15.0 18.0 21.0
Nm
(RPM)
IL= IA (A)
VT= 220 V , If= 0.6 A

Practical Procedure (D) : Speed control of DC motors: armature voltage

control method.
 
-Reset the field current to 0.8 A by means of the external field resistance RF(ext), Record the
value of the field voltage.
-Make sure that the resistance RB is maximum (F-CCW), switch ON the Eddy-current switch.
-Vary RE to get this rated load torque 21Nm.Record the corresponding line current and motor
speed in Table (D).
-Reduce the armature voltage in steps to match the readings of table (D). in each step keep
the field current constant at 0.8 A by means of the external field resistance, and record the
corresponding line current and motor speed.
-Reset RE to its maximum position (F-CCW) and switch it OFF.
-Increase the armature voltage back to its rated value of 220 V.
Table(C)
TL (N.m) 220 190 160 130 100

Nm (RPM)
IL= IA (A)
TL = 12 N.m ,IF=0.8A
Practical Procedure (E) : Speed control of DC motors: Field-weakening

control method.
-Make sure that this resistance RB is maximum (F-CCW), switch ON the Eddy-current switch.
-Vary RE to get the rated load torque of 21 N.m, record the load torque and the
corresponding motor speed in table (E).
-Reduce the field current, in steps, to match the readings of table (E), in each step keep the
armature voltage constant 220V, Vary RE to keep armature current as its rated value
approximately equal to 16.5 A.

Practical Procedure (E) : Speed control of DC motors: Field-weakening

control method.cont.
-In each step, record the corresponding loading torque and motor speed in table (E).
 
-Reset RE to its maximum position (F-CCW) and switch it OFF.
-Increase the field current back to its rated value of 0.8 A.
-Switch OFF the armature voltage.
-switch OFF the field voltage.
Table(E)
TL (N.m) 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5

Nm (RPM)
IL= IA (A)
IL=IA=10
Results & Discussion :

Procedures (A,B &C)
-For each graph ,comment on the results.
-In one graph, sketch the load characteristics (Nm/TL) of the procedures.
-In one graph, sketch the line ‘load’ current-load torque characteristics (IL/TL) of the three
procedures.
-In each case, calculate the developed torque Ta, and sketch it, in one graph, versus the
armature current.
-For each procedure, calculate the speed regulation and sketch it versus the load torque.
-For each procedure, calculate the rotational losses and sketch it versus the load speed.
-For each procedure, calculate the motor efficiency and sketch it versus the load torque.

Results & Discussion :

Procedures (D&E)
-From procedure D, sketch the motor speed versus the terminal voltage.
  -From procedure E, sketch the motor speed versus the field current.
-Compare the features of the two speed control methods.
-Plot in one graph the load torque versus the motor sped for both procedures.
-Plot in one graph the output power versus the motor speed for both procedures.
-For last two plots ,comment on the results.
Matlab Journey
% This program will simulate the Armature controlled DC Motor Transfer
% funcations along with the step out waveform
disp('In order to use the program all motor parameters must be converted to SI units')
disp('If the maxium operating speed is not given please enter zero')
wmax=input('What is the maximum operating speed, Wmax(rad/s)>');
Imax=input('What is the maximum armature current, Imax(A)>');
Ke=input('What is the Voltage constant, Ke(V*s/rad)>');
Kt=input('What is the Torque constant, Kt(N*m/A)>');
Tf=input('What is the Friction torque, Tf(N*m)>');
R=input('What is the Armature resistance, R(ohms)>');
L=input('What is the Armature inductnace, L(H)>');
Jm=input('What is the Armature moment of inertia, Jm(N*m*s^2/rad)>');
Bm=input('What is the Armature viscous friction, Bm(N*M*s/rad)>');
disp('Does the motor have speed reducers and load specifications?');
ans=input('Enter 1 for YES; Enter 0 for No>')
if ans==1;
N1=input('How many teeth are on the first(N1) speed reducer>');
N2=input('How many teeth are on the second(N2) speed reucer>');
© Ahmad Bassam JL=input('What is the Load inertiaElectrical

(JL)>'); Engineering Department !52
Matlab Journey
BL=input('What is the Load friction (BL)>');
disp('The Mechanical time constant is (sec)')
  Tm=Jm/Bm
pause
disp('The Electrical time constant is (sec)')
Te=L/R
pause
disp('The Voltage-driven Transfer Funcation of the Motor (OhmM(s)/Ea(s)')
X0=(R*Bm)+(Ke*Kt);
X1=(R*Bm*(Tm+Te));
X2=(R*Bm*Tm*Te);
X10=(X0/X2);
X11=(X1/X2);
X12=(X2/X2);
X13=(Kt/X2);
num=[Kt];
den=[X2 X1 X0];
t1=tf(num, den)
step(t1)
pause
disp('The simplified of Above Transfer funcation')
num=[X13];
den=[X12 X11 X10];
t0=tf(num, den)
step(t0)
pause
disp('Therefore the natural damped frequency of the motor is>')

w=sqrt(X10)
pause
disp('Therefore the damping factor is>')
df=(X11/(2*(w)))
pause
 
disp('The Simplified gain is (rad/v*s)')
Ks=((Kt)/((R*Bm)+(Ke*Kt)))
pause
disp('The simplified time constantis (s)')
Ts=((R*Jm)/((R*Bm)+(Ke*Kt)))
pause
disp('The simplified velocity Motor transfer function is(ohmM(s)/Ea(s)')
num=[Ks];
den=[Ts 1];
t2=tf(num, den)
step(t2)
pause
disp('The simplified Motor position transfer funcation is (thetaM(s)/Ea(s)>')
num=[Ks];
den=[Ts 1 0];
t3=tf(num, den)
step(t3)
pause
disp('The current-driven Motor velocity transfer funcation is (ohmsM(s)/Ia(s)>')
Kc=Kt/Bm;
num=[Kc];
den=[Tm 1];
t4=tf(num,den)
step(t4)
pause
disp('The current-driven Motor poistion tranfer function

© Ahmad Bassam is thetaM(s)/Ia(s)>')
Electrical Engineering Department !54
num=[Kc];
den=[Tm 1 0];
t5=tf(num,den)
step(t5)
 
pause
disp('The inertia of motor and load is, (N*m*s^2/rad)')
Jt=(Jm+(((N1/N2)^2)*JL))
pause
disp('The friction of motor and load is, N*m*s/rad')
Bt=(Bm+(((N1/N2)^2)*BL))
pause
disp('The torque time constant is, (s)')
Tt=Jt/Bt
pause
disp('The velocity transfer function (of Voltage-Driven

Motor,speed Reducer and Load) is ohmsL(s)/Ea(s)>')
X3=((R*Bt)+(Ke*Kt));
X4=((R*Bt)*(Tt+Te));
X5=((R*Bt*Tt*Te));
N=(Kt*(N1/N2));
X15=N/X5;
X16=X3/X5;
X17=X4/X5;
X18=X5/X5;
num=[N];
den=[X5 X4 X3];
t6=tf(num,den)
step(t6)
pause

num=[X15];
t00=tf(num,den)
den=[X18 X17 X16];
t00=tf(num,den)
step(t00)
pause
 
disp('The poistion transfer funcation is thetaL(s)/Ea(s)>')
num=[N];
den=[X5 X4 X3 0];
t7=tf(num,den)
step(t6)
pause
num=[X15];
den=[X18 X17 X16 0];
t000=tf(num,den)
step(t000)
pause
disp('Thank for using my program')
else
ans==0;
disp('The Mechanical time constant is (sec)')
Tm=Jm/Bm
pause
disp('The Electrical time constant is (sec)')
Te=L/R
pause
disp('The Voltage-driven Transfer Funcation of the Motor (OhmM(s)/Ea(s)')
X0=(R*Bm)+(Ke*Kt);
X1=(R*Bm*(Tm+Te));
X2=(R*Bm*Tm*Te);
X10=(X0/X2);
X11=(X1/X2);
X13=(Kt/X2);
num=[Kt];
den=[X2 X1 X0];
  t1=tf(num, den)
step(t1)
pause
disp('The simplifed of Above Transfer Funcation>')
num=[X13];
den=[X12 X11 X10];
t0=tf(num, den)
step(t0)
pause
disp('Therefore the natural damped frequency of the motor is>')
w=sqrt(X10)
pause
disp('Therefore the damping factor is>')
df=(X11/(2*(w)))
pause
disp('The Simplified gain is (rad/v*s)')
Ks=((Kt)/((R*Bm)+(Ke*Kt)))
pause
disp('The simplified time constantis (s)')
Ts=((R*Jm)/((R*Bm)+(Ke*Kt)))
pause
disp('The simplified Motor velocity transfer function is (ohmM(s)/Ea(s)')
num=[Ks];
den=[Ts 1];
t2=tf(num, den)
step(t2)
pause
disp('The simplified Motor position transfer funcation is (thetaM(s)/Ea(s)>')
num=[Ks];
den=[Ts 1 0];
  t3=tf(num, den)
step(t3)
pause
disp('The current-driven Motor velocity transfer funcation is (ohmsM(s)/Ia(s)>')
Kc=Kt/Bm;
num=[Kc];
den=[Tm 1];
t4=tf(num,den)
step(t4)
pause
disp('The current-driven Motor poistion tranfer function is thetaM(s)/Ia(s)>')
num=[Kc];
den=[Tm 1 0];
t5=tf(num,den)
step(t5)
pause
end

Experiment Five
Characteristics of DC compound
generators  

Theory
DC generators are classified according to the method of producing the main field flux, when
the DC field current in such a generator is fed by an independent source, the generator is
  said to be separately excited. This method of excitation has the obvious disadvantage of the
need for external DC source. In self-excited generators the residual magnetism in stator is
used to initiate the process of providing field flux. Self-excited generators may be of the
series, shunt, or compound type, depending upon the manner of connecting the field
winding to the armature.
Compound DC Generator
In series generators, the output voltage is directly proportional with load current. In shunt
wound generators, output voltage is inversely proportional with load current. A combination
of these two types of generators can overcome the disadvantages of both. This combination
of windings is called compound wound DC generator.
Compound wound generators have both series field winding and shunt field winding. One
winding is placed in series with the armature and the other is placed in parallel with the
armature. This type of DC generators may be of two types- short shunt compound wound
generator and long shunt compound wound generator.
Short Shunt Compound Wound DC Generator

The generators in which only shunt field winding is in parallel with the armature winding as
shown in figure.
Series field current Shunt field current Armature current Power generated Power delivered to Voltage across the load
the load

Long Shunt Compound Wound DC Generator

The generators in which shunt field winding is in parallel with both series field and armature
winding as shown in figure.
 
Shunt field current Armature current, Power generated Power delivered to voltage across the load
the load
In a compound wound generator, the shunt field is stronger than the series field. When the
series field assists the shunt field, generator is said to be commutatively compound wound.
On the other hand if series field opposes the shunt field, the generator is said to be
differentially compound wound.

Practice : Characteristics of DC compound

generators
Objectives:
 
- Investigate the no-load characteristics of DC compound generators.
- Differentiate between the nature & the rules of the shunt and series field windings.
- Investigate and compare the load characteristics of the DC cumulatively and

differentially compound generator.
- Evaluate the performance parameters (voltage regulation, efficiency…etc) of the DC

compound generator.
Equipment:
-DC shunt motor (prime mover): 220V, 19A,3.6 K.W,1500-3000 RPM, Field current 1.1 A.
-Motor starting resistance: 220 V, 21 A,10.5 ohm
-Variable field resistor RFM(EXT) (for motor field-current control): 1.4 A, 694 ohm.
-Variable field resistor RFG(EXT) (for generator main field-current control): 1.4 A, 694 ohm.
-Variable resistor RL (for series-field or load current control): 220/380 V, 3 X

(22-440)ohm ,3 X ( 0.5-10) A.
-DC compound generator: 220V, 4.5 K.W ,19.5 A, 1500RPM, Field current 0.65 A.
-2 DC Ammeters:0-3 A
-2 DC Ammeters: 0-30 A
-1 DC voltmeter : 300 V
-4 Electromechanical switches
-Speedo meters: 30-4000 RPM
Wiring diagram(1):
-Prime mover: figure(1) Shows the general view of the wiring diagram of the prime mover
(DC shunt motor). the motor starting resistance RST should be initially maximum (fully-
counter-clockwise). the armature circuit switch SA should be initially at the OFF position.
the field circuit switch SF should be initially at the OFF position.
Rf (EXT) Motor field circuit
A
I AM
SA
1B1
A
RST
SM
  I FM
F1 F2
1B2
A1
To generator shaft
2B1
A2
220 V
2B2
DC
SF
Motor armature
circuit
Figure (1)
Wiring diagram(2): separately excited
-Compound generator (no-load test): figure(2) shows the general view of the wiring
diagram of the compound generator under no-load conditions. make sure that external
resistance of the shunt-field windings RFG(EXT) is initially maximum. the external
resistance resistance of the series-field winding RL should also be maximum (F-CCW).
SFG and SL should be at the OFF position.
IFG
A
SM
Rf (EXT)
Generator field
circuit (shunt)
220 V DC
F1 F2
SFG
D2 D1
IS
A
RL
Generator series
circuits series
(D1-D2)
220 V DC
SL
G VO
 
PM
Figure (2)
Wiring diagram(3):
-Compound generator (Load test): figure(3) shows the wiring diagram of the load
test of the DC compound generator. make sure the external resistance of the shunt field
winding RFG(EXT) IS initially maximum the load resistance RL should also be maximum (F-
CCW). SFG(EXT) and SL should be initially at the OFF position.
A
1B1
1B2 A
A1
RFG D1 D2
G RL
A2
F1 F2 V
2B1
2B2
SFG Figure (3) SL
Given motor parameters:
-Total armature resistance =1.2 ohm , series field =0.2 ohm , shunt field resistance
=263 ohm
Precaution:
-You should ask the lab instructor to chick the validity of your wiring diagram before
going ahead.

Starting and adjustment of the prime-mover:
-Switch ON the mains switch SM.
-Switch ON the motor field switch SF and adjust the field current carefully until he field
 
current is 0.9 A.
-Switch ON the armature circuit switch SA the motor will start to run.
-Reset the motor starting resistance RST to it’s minimum value (F-CW).
-Vary the external resistance in motor field circuit RF(EXT) up to the point which the motor
speed is 1500RPM, this speed should be kept constant.
Test procedure (A) :No-load characteristics
(1) only the main shunt-field winding is externally excited
-while the generator shunt (Main) field current is zero (SFG) is OFF, record the generator
terminal voltage in table (A-1).
-Switch on (SFG) and adjust, in steps, the generator shunt-field current by means of
RFG(EXT) ,to match readings of table (A-1). in each step, record the generator terminal
voltage in the table.
-Reset back the generator field circuit to its minimum by means of RFG(EXT).
-Switch OFF the generator field circuit by means of (SFG).
Table(A-1)
0.0 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.65 0.7

IF (A)
VOC (V)
IS=IL=0 ,Nm=1500 RPM (shunt field only)

(2) Only the series-field winding is extremely excited.
-While the series field winding switch SL is OFF, (zero series field current), record the
generator terminal voltage in table (A-2).
 
-Switch the generator series field switch SL, ON and adjust, in steps, the series field
current Is, which is equivalent to the load current IL, by means of RL, to match the
readings of table (A-2). in each step, record the generator terminal voltage in the table.
-Reset the series field current to maximum by means of RL.
-Switch OFF the generator series field circuit by means of SL.
Table(A-2)
IL=IS (A) 0 3 6 9 12 15 18
VOC (V)
IF=0 ,Nm=1500 RPM (series field only)
Test procedure (B) :No-load characteristics, both shunt-field and series-

field windings are externally excited.
(1) Cumulatively compound
-Switch SFG ON the adjust, in steps, the generators shunt-field current by means of
RFG(EXT) ,to 0.65 A .
-While the series field windings switch is OFF, (zero series field or load current), record
the generator terminal voltage in table (B-1).
-Switch the generator series field switch SL ON and adjust, in steps, the series field
current by means of RL ,to match the readings of table (B-1). In each step, record the
generator terminal voltage in table (B-1) .
-Reset back the series-field current to its minimum by means of RL.
-Switch the generator series-field circuit SL OFF.
-Reset back the shunt field current to its minimum by means of RFG(EXT) .
-switch OFF the generator shunt-field circuit by means of SFG.

Table(B-1)
IL=IS (A) 0 3 6 9 12 15 18
  VOC (V)
IF=0 .65,Nm=1500 RPM (Cumulative)
Test procedure (B) :No-load characteristics, both shunt-field and series-

field windings are externally excited.
(2) Differentially compound
-Reverse the connections of the series field windings D1-D2.
-Repeat the procedure (B-1) completely as before, record the results in table (B-2).
-Reverse back the connections of the series field windings D1-D2.
Switch OFF the main switch SM.
Table(B-2)
IL=IS (A) 0 3 6 9 12 15 18
VOC (V)
IF=0 .65,Nm=1500 RPM (Differential )

Test procedure (C) : load characteristics of DC compound generators
(1) Cumulatively compound
-Construct the wiring diagram of figure (3).
-Restart the prime mover as before, adjust its speed to 1500 RPM.
-Switch SFG on, and adjust the shunt field current by means of RFG(EXT) to its rated value
of 0.65 A.
-While the load switch SL is OFF, make sure that the terminal voltage is 220 V.
-Switch the load ON by means of switch SL and adjust in steps, the load current IL by
means of the load resistance RL, to match the readings of table (C-1). in each step,
keep the prime mover speed constant at 1500 RPM, and record the generator terminal
voltage and the field current in the table.
-Reset back RL to maximum (F-CCW).

(1) Cumulatively compound .CONT.
-Switch OFF the load circuit by means of SL.

 
-Reset the generator shunt (MAIN) field current to minimum by means of RFG(EXT).
-Switch OFF the main field circuit switch SFG.
Table(C-1)
IL=IS (A) 0 3 5 7 9 11 13
VT(V) 232
IF(A) 0.65
Nm=1500 RPM (Cumulative )
(2) Differentially compound
- Reverse the connections of the series field windings D1-D2.
- Switch SFG ON, and adjust the shunt field current by means of RFG(EXT) to its rated
value of 0.65 A .
- While the load switch SL is off, make sure that the terminal voltage 220V.
- While the switch SL is OFF, record the generator terminal voltage in table (C-2).
- Switch the load ON by means of switch SL and adjust in steps, the load resistance
RL to match the readings of (C-2). in each step, keep the prime mover speed
constant 1500RPM, and record the load & main field currents in table (C-2).
- Reset back RL to maximum (F-CCW) and switch OFF the load currents in table (C-2).
- Rest the generator shunt (Main) field current to minimum by means of RFG(EXT).
- -Switch OFF the main field circuit switch SFG.
Switch the motor armature circuit OFF
Switch the motor field circuit OFF
Switch the mains OFF

Table(C-2)
IL=IS (A)
from ammeter
VT(V) 232 200 150 100 50 25 10
IF(A) 0.65
 
Nm=1500 RPM ( Differential )
Discussions & comments
- Procedures (A)
- Sketch the No-load (or magnetization) characteristics of the generator (i.e,Voc versus
If). Only the shunt field winding is excited.
- Sketch the magnetization characteristics (i.e, Voc versus Is) of the resistance-
field.Only the series field winding is excited.
- Compare the nature of the two curves above.
- Calculate the turns ratio of the shunt and series field windings.
- Procedures (B)
- Sketch, on the same graph, the magnetization characteristics (Voc versus IL) of sub-
procedures (B-I) &(B-2) Notice the degree of saturation in each curve.
- Procedures (C)
- For both sub-procedures (C-1)&(C-2) it is required to:
- Sketch, in one graph the load characteristics (VT versus IL) of the DC compound
generator.
- For each value of the load current, calculate the voltage regulation(V.R%).SKETCH IN
ONE GRAPH THE VOLATGE REGULATION VERSUS IL. (Notice that at this part you
will figure out how V.R% varies in this machine and we have to introduce the concept
of load regulation) ‘’Search for it’’ .
- For each value of the load current IL, Calculate the developed armature EMF, the
developed armature power PD, and the shaft (output) power Psh. sketch, in one
graph PD and Psh . sketch in one graph ,PD & PSH versus the load current IL.
- For each value of the load current, calculate the generator efficiency. sketch in one
graph the efficiency versus the load output power.
- Mention the today use of such a generator. comment on all the results above.
Matlab Journey (after lab results)
In MATLAB, from File/New/M-File, open the MATLAB Editor. Enter the data for the
separately excited dc generator in the n × 5 matrix Each column represents a variable that
must be entered in the order shown below. Enter the data for the remaining cases. Use the
function named JUmachineslab as indicated below to obtain the calculated data and the
required plots.
JUmachineslab (Sep, Shunt, CumComp, DiffComp, Series)
Once you have finished entering all the data save with a file name having extension m
and run at the MATLAB prompt.  

Experiment Six
Three phase transformers 

Theory
Thus far we have looked at the construction and operation of the single-phase, two winding
voltage transformer which can be used increase or decrease its secondary voltage with
respect to the primary supply voltage. But voltage transformers can also be constructed for
connection to not only one single phase, but for two-phases, three-phases, six-phases and
 
even elaborate combinations up to 24-phases for some DC rectification transformers.
If we take three single-phase transformers and connect their primary windings to each other
and their secondary windings to each other in a fixed configuration, we can use the
transformers on a three-phase supply.
Three-phase, also written as 3-phase or 3φ supplies are used for electrical power generation,
transmission, and distribution, as well as for all industrial uses. Three-phase supplies have
many electrical advantages over single-phase power and when considering three-phase
transformers we have to deal with three alternating voltages and currents differing in phase-
time by 120 degrees as shown below.
Three phase transformers are more economical for supplying large loads and large power
distribution. Even though most of the utilization equipments are connected by the single
phase transformers, these are not preferred for large power distribution in the aspect of
economy.
The three phase power is used in almost all fields of electrical power system such as power
generation, transmission and distribution sectors, also all the industrial sectors are supplied
or connected with three phase system. Therefore, to step-up (or increase) or step-down (or
decrease) the voltages in the three phase systems, three phase transformers are used. As
compared with the single phase transformer, there are numerous advantages with 3 phase
transformer such as smaller and lighter to construct for the same power handling capacity,
better operating characteristics, etc.

Three phase transformers are used to step-up or step-down the high voltages in various
stages of power transmission system. The power generated at various generating stations is
in three phase nature and the voltages are in the range of 13.2KV or 22KV. In order to reduce
the power loss to the distribution end, the power is transmitted at somewhat higher voltages
like 132 or 400KV. Hence, for transmission of the power at higher voltages, three phase step-
  up transformer is used to increase the voltage. Also at the end of the transmission or
distribution, these high voltages are step-down to levels of 6600, 400, 230 volts, etc. For
this, a three phase step down transformer is used.
A three phase transformer can be built in two ways; a bank of three single phase
transformers or single unit of three phase transformer.
The former one is built by suitably connecting three single phase transformers having same
ratings and operating characteristics. In this case if the fault occurs in any one of the
transformers, the system still retained at reduced capacity by other two transformers with
open delta connection. Hence, continuity of the supply is maintained by this type of
connection. These are used in mines because easier to transport individual single phase
transformers.
Instead of using three single phase transformers, a three phase bank can be constructed
with a single three phase transformer consisting of six windings on a common multi-legged
core. Due to this single unit, weight as well as the cost is reduced as compared to three units
of the same rating and also windings, the amount of iron in the core and insulation materials
are saved. Space required to install a single unit is less compared with three unit bank. But
the only disadvantage with single unit three phase transformer is if the fault occurs in any one
of the phase, then entire unit must be removed from the service.
Notice that the R,Y,B is similar to the A,B,C notation for

the three phase

Three Phase Transformer Connections
A three phase transformer can be constructed by using common magnetic core for both
primary and secondary windings. As we discussed in the case of single phase transformers,
  construction can be core type or shell type. So for a bank of three phase core type
transformer, three core type single phase transformers are combined. Similarly, a bank of
three phase shell type transformer is get by properly combining three shell type single phase
transformers. In a shell type transformer, EI laminated core surrounds the coils whereas in
core type coil surrounds the core.
As discussed above, either by a single three phase transformer or by three single phase
transformers combination, three phase transformations can be carried out. The way of
connecting the windings for three phase transformation is same whether the three windings
of a three phase transformer or three windings of three single phase transformers are used.
The primary and secondary windings are connected in different ways, such as in delta or star
or combination of these two. The voltage and current ratings of the three phase transformer
is depends on suitable connection. The most commonly used connections are:
• Star-delta
• Delta-star
• Delta-delta
• Star-star
Wye(Star) – Delta Connection

This type of connection is commonly used to step-down the voltages to a lower value in
transmission end substations. Utility companies use this connection to reduce the voltage
levels for distribution systems.
In this, the primary winding of the transformer is connected in star and secondary in delta
connection.
 
The neutral point on the primary or high voltage side can be grounded which is desirable in
most of the cases.
The line voltage ratio between secondary and primary is 1/√3 times the transformation ratio
of each transformer.
There exists 30 degrees phase difference between primary and secondary line voltages.
Since the actual primary coil voltage is 58% of the primary line voltage, the insulation
requirements for HV windings is reduced by using this winding.
In this connection balanced three phase voltage are obtained at the secondary or LV side,
even when the unbalanced currents are flowing the in the primary or HV side due to neutral
wire. The neutral wire grounding also provides lightning surge protection.
Delta – (Wye) Star Connection
This connection is used to step-up the voltage level and is commonly employed in sending
end or starting of high tension transmission system.
In this, the primary is connected in delta fashion and secondary in star fashion so that three
phase 4 wire system at secondary is possible.
The secondary voltage to the load is √3 times the delta connected primary voltage. Also the
load and secondary currents will be the same due to the same series circuit.
This connection provides three single phase circuits at both lower and higher voltages and
one three phase
© Ahmad circuit at higher voltage so that single andElectrical
Bassam three phase loads Department
Engineering can be !75
supplied.
Dual voltages are obtained delta-star connection. Low single phase voltages are obtained by
wiring between any phase and ground. Higher single phase voltages are obtained by wiring
between any two phases. And by connecting all three phases to the load, three phase
voltage is obtained.
The insulation requirement on high voltage side is lowered due to the star (less number of
 
turns per phase) connected secondary.
Similar to star-delta, this connection causes to create a 30 degrees phase difference
between primary and secondary line voltages.
By using this connection, it is not possible to connect it parallel with delta-delta and star-star
transformers due to the primary and secondary voltage phase difference.
Delta-delta Connection
This type of connection is used when the supply source is delta connected and the
secondary load needs single voltage with high current. This is generally employed for three
phase power loads (like three phase motor).
In this, both primary and secondary windings are connected in delta fashion.
The voltage across the load is equal to the secondary voltage and voltage across the primary
winding is equal to source voltage. In this, the current flow through the load will be 1.732
times the secondary current and the feeder current will equal to the 1.732 times current
through the primary winding. Due to these high supply and load currents, it is recommended
to place transformer much closer to both source and load circuits.
In this, there exists no phase difference between the primary and secondary voltages.
The three phase voltages remains constant even with unbalanced load, thus allows
unbalanced loading.
The main advantage of this connection is if the one transformer is defective or removed for
service (open delta connection), then remaining two transformers continue to deliver thee
phase power at reduced load capacity.

Star – Star Connection
 
In this, both primary and secondary windings are connected in star fashion and also there
exist no phase difference between the primary and secondary voltages.
In this, current flowing through both primary and secondary windings are equal to the
currents of the lines to which they are connected (supply source and load). And voltages
between line phases on either end equal to 1.732 times respective winding voltages.
Due to neutral availability, it is well suited for three phase four wire system.
This type connection satisfactorily works if the load is balanced. But if the load is unbalanced,
the neutral point shift causes unequal phase voltages.
Large third harmonic voltages would appear in both primary and secondary windings without
the neutral tie. This may lead to the insulation failures.
This connection considerably generates interference with communication lines and hence
with this connection configuration, telephone lines cannot be run in parallel.
Due to these disadvantages, the star-star connection is rarely used and not employed in
practice.

Advantages of Three Phase Transformers

Being prewired and ready to install, these can be easier to install.
To provide the same KVA, the core material required is very less compared to a bank of three
single phase transformers.
  It is lighter and smaller.
It requires less space to install.
Higher efficiency
Low cost compared with three units of single phase transformers.
Transportation is easy and also transportation cost is less.
Bus bar structure and switchgear installation for single three phase unit is simpler.
Only three terminals are required to be brought out in case of a three phase transformer
compared to six terminals from three single phase transformers.
Disadvantages of Three Phase Transformers

In case of fault or loss of one phase results to the complete unit shut down. This is because
in three phase transformer, a common core is shared for all three units. If one unit is
defective, the core of this defective unit would immediately saturate because the absence of
an opposing magnetic field. This causes the greater escape of magnetic flux to the metal
enclosures from the core. This further raises the heating of the metallic parts and in some
cases this heat would enough to cause to fires. Therefore, a three phase transformer (or
entire unit) must be shut down if any one phase is defective.
Cost of repair is more for three phase transformer.
To restore the service, spare unit cost is more compared with one single transformer spare
unit,When these are self cooled, the capacity of the transformer is reduced.
Vector Group of 3-phase transformer

The secondary voltages of a 3-phase transformer may undergo a phase shift of either +30°
leading or -30° lagging or 0° i.e, no phase shift or 180° reversal with respective line or phase
to neutral voltages. On the name plate of a three phase transformer, the vector group is
mentioned. Typical representation of the vector group could be Yd1 or Dy11 etc. The first
capital latter Y indicates that the primary is connected in star and the second lower case
latter d indicates delta connection of the secondary side. The third numerical figure conveys
the angle of phase shift based on clock convention. The minute hand is used to represent
the primary phase to neutral voltage and always shown to occupy the position 12. The hour
hand represents the secondary phase to neutral voltage and may, depending upon phase
shift, occupy position other than 12 as shown in the figure

Standard Vector group connections

Practice : Three Phase Transformers
 
Objectives:
- Determine the parameters of the transformer equivalent circuit by conducting the no-
load and the short-circuit tests.
- Carry out the no-load and load tests for the various connection of the three phase
transformers namely (wye-wye),(wye-delta) and (delta-delta).
Equipment:
-Power transformers 5KVA 380/110V 4.38A/7.61A/7.61A. 50HZ.
Variable three phase AC power supply 0-220V line to line.
Two electronic wattmeters.
-Measuring instruments (two voltmeters & two ammeters).
Practical procedure (1): Star-Star connection
-Connect the circuit as shown in figure (1)A & (1)B
-Ask the lab instructor to check your connection.
-Increase the variable voltage from 0 to 190V (line voltage). Record the readings as
shown in table (1) . Be sure to use the correct multiplying factor and sign of wattmeters
readings.
-Reduce the supply voltage to zero and switch off the supply.
-Reconnect the secondary circuit as showing figure (1C) keeping the primary circuit as
shown in figure (1A) and ask the lab instructor to check your connections.
-Be sure that supply variable voltage is still set to zero. Switch ON the power supply and
increase the voltage very carefully. take readings as shown in table (2). Make sure that the
primary current doesn’t exceeds the rated current of 7.61A .

-Switch OFF the supply and reconnect the secondary circuit as shown in figure (1D),
keep the primary as it is in the figure (1A) and ask the lab instructor to check your
connections.
  -Switch ON the supply and increase the supply voltage to 110 V (line to line). take the
readings as shown in table (3). switch off the supply the primary current shoud NOT
exceed the rated current (7.8A).
3U2 3U1 2U2 2U1

A
V
3V2 3V1 2V2 2V1
3W2 3W1 2W2 2W1
Figure(1A)
1U1 1V1 1W1
No Load
1U2 1V2 1W2
V
Figure(1B)
1U1 1V1 1W1
Loaded
1U2 1V2 1W2

A
V
R
R R
Figure(1D)

Table (1) OCT YY
V1 40 70 110 150 190

I1
P1
P2
V2
P-total
Table (2) SCT YY
V1
I1 2 4 6 7 7.6
P1
P2
I2
P-total
Table (3) YY Loaded
V1 I1 V2 I2 P1 P2 P total
110
(loaded)
Practical procedure (2): Star-Delta connection
-Reconnect the secondary circuit as shown in figure (2A) keeping the primary as shown
in figure (1A).
-Take the readings of currents, voltages and power as shown in first set of table(4).
-Repeat the three steps before for the secondary circuits as shown in figure (2B) with
resistance settings at max, and take the second set of readings of table 4. make sure
that the primary current doesn’t exceeds the rated current.

1U1 1V1 1W1
1U2 1V2 1W2
Figure(2A)
1U1 1V1 1W1
1U2 1V2 1W2
R R R
Figure(2B)
Table (4) Wye-Delta
110 (no-load)
110 (loaded)
Practical procedure (3): Delta-Delta connection
-Repeat practical procedure (2) above for the figures (3A) with (2A) & (2B), make sure that
the primary current doesn’t exceed (10A).
-Take the readings as shown in table (5).

3U2 3U1 2U2 2U1

A
V
3V2 3V1 2V1
2V2
3W2 3W1 2W1

2W2
Figure(3A)
Table (5) Delta-Delta
110 (no-load)
110 (loaded) 10
Discussions & comments
-Draw a graph showing the no-load power against the primary voltage from the graph
obtain the values of power to calculate RC and Xm referred to low voltage side for the
voltages used in various connections.
-Draw a graph showing the short circuit power against the primary current find the
equivalent resistance and reactance for the transformer referred to low voltage side.
-For each of the four connections calculate the theoretical transformation ratios.
compare them with practical values of the tests.
-For each of the four connections calculate the voltage regulation.
-Calculate the efficiency of the transformer of various connections.
-Explain what is meant by vector groups of transformer. how does it effect the
connections if we intend to use the other 110 V windings (un-used in the experiment) to
be connected in parallel with the one already used.
-Compare the four types of connections in terms of harmonics currents and voltages.
-Draw phasor diagrams for each of the four connections with resistive loads used .
-Describe the importance of having vector groups in 3 phase AC transformers.

Matlab Journey
Use Matlab and the following block that you can find in the Simulink ’’Simscape’’ library
and the ratings of the equipment mentioned and used in the lab; to study and envisage
  the following:
1-THD in each connection of the 4 connections constructed in this experiment, and

recommend one connection and discuss your decision.
2-Calculate the transformation ratio.HINT( use the logical operators in simulink)
3-Show all currents of the primary and secondary on the same graph of each
connection.
4-Show all voltages of the primary and secondary on the same graph of each
connection.
5-Study the transient behavior (in rush current) in each connection, is it the
same ?,why ?
*comment on the values obtained in the graphs, why sometimes we need to use a
certain connection.

Experiment Seven
3‐Phase Synchronous Generator

Theory
The generation of electrical power is mostly achieved by a synchronous generator. This

machine is robust, simple to control and almost maintenance free, It generates electrical
  power with a frequency proportional to the speed of the rotor, so the electrical
frequency and mechanical speed are synchronous, which explains the machine's
name.
The frequency of an AC generator is exclusively given by the rotational speed of the

generator shaft. This means that the mechanical drive has to be equipped with a speed
controller to keep the speed within close limits independent of torque fluctuation,
initiated by electrical load variations. Synchronous machines usually consist of two
mechanical parts: rotor and stator and two electrical parts called; field winding and
armature winding.
The stator is made up of sheet steel lamination fitted with three separate windings that
o
are displaced by 120 . The three windings can be connected in wye or delta
configuration. There are two basic rotor structures used, depending on speed. For low
speed machines, such as hydraulic turbines, a relatively large number of poles are
required to produce rated frequency, hence a rotor with salient poles is well suited to
this application. For high speed machines, such as steam and gas turbines, a relatively
small number of poles (2 to 4) are required to produce rated frequency, hence a
cylindrical rotor is well suited to this application.
If the motor is excited by a DC current and run using a prime-mover, a mutual flux will
be developed across the air gap between the rotor and stator. This causes the
interaction necessary to produce an EMF. As the magnetic flux developed by the DC
field poles crosses the air gap of the stator windings, a sinusoidal voltage is developed
at the generator output terminals.
The magnitude of the AC voltage generated is controlled by the amount of DC exciting

current supplied to the field. If “FIXED” excitation were applied, the voltage magnitude
would be controlled by the speed of the rotor

however, this would necessitate a changing frequency since the frequency component
of the power system is to be held constant, solid state voltage regulators or static
exciters are commonly used to control the field current and thereby accurately control
generator terminal voltage. The frequency of the voltage developed by the generator
  depends on the speed of the rotor and the number of field poles. For a 60 Hz system,
According to the arrangement of the field and armature windings, synchronous

machines may be classified as a rotating armature type or rotating field type. For
instance, the rotating armature type has the armature windings located on the stator
and the field system on the rotor. The generated power is brought out of the rotor via
slip rings. Comparing this type with the rotating field type, the later one is considered
better and its universally employed because it does not limit the amount of power being
generated from the armature, unlike the rotating armature type.
In steady state, one phase can be modeled as an AC voltage source E feeding the
current against the terminal voltage VT through the synchronous impedance Z.
A voltage phasor diagram of synchronous generator supplying a unity power factor load
is indicated in the following diagram. Due to the synchronous impedance voltage drop,
the terminal voltage VT is less than the open circuit voltage E.
To describe the behavior of such a synchronous generator, a simplified equivalent circuit

model can be used. The model represents a single phase that has a internal generated
voltage connected in parallel with a load via the synchronous impedance.
Phasor diagram at unity power factor

Vt
 
Simplified equivalent circuit model for

synchronous generator
Recall

Parameter Calculation of Synchronous Generator
Two simple techniques are normally performed to determine the parameters of a given
synchronous generator: these are the open circuit test and short circuit test.
1- Open circuit Characteristics

 
During the open circuit test, the generator is driven at rated speed and the armature
terminals are left opened, (Ia = 0A) so VT = E. The field current is then increased in small
steps and the open circuit voltage is measured to obtain the open circuit characteristic
curve.
2-Short circuit Characteristics
The short circuit test is performed by shorting the alternator through a set of ammeters,
to record the rated current. The alternator field current is adjusted to get the rated
current when the alternator is running at rated speed.

Since Zp is almost constant for a given machine, the short circuit current varies directly
with the field current
Since Xs >> Ra, the equation can be reduced to
Resistance Determination
The armature windings are assumed to be connected in Wye. The dc resistance per
phase is calculated by using a dc source and the voltmeter-ammeter method. The ac
resistance is obtained by multiplying the dc resistance by a factor of 1.2 1.7 for
50 HZ 1.5 (Ra= 1.2 X Rdc).
Voltage regulation
When an alternator is subjected to a varying load, the voltage at the armature terminals
varies to a certain extent, and the amount of this variation determines the regulation of
the machine. The numerical value of the regulation is defined as the percentage rise in
voltage when full load at the specified power-factor is switched off with speed and field
current remaining unchanged
Here E is voltage across open terminals of stator (at no load) and VT is voltage across
terminals at full load. E is also called internal voltage ar rated If.
Practice : Three Phase Synchronous Generator
Objectives:
 
-Obtain the open circuit characteristics.
-Obtain the short circuit characteristics.
-The load characteristics.
Equipment:
-D.C machine type seems 3.6 KW connected as a motor.
-3 Phase alternator type seems 2 KVA
-Rheostat (1) 170 ohm ,2.8 A.
-Rheostat (2) 694 ohm, 1.4 A.
-Variable resistance 220 V, 21 A, 3.6 KW.
-Load resistance (3-PH) 3 X (0.5 10) A, 6.6 KW
-Ammeter 0 6 A dc (3 sets) .
-Ammeter 0 6 A AC (2 sets) .
-Voltmeter 0 -1000 V.
-Stroboscope type movistrob.
-Double pole switches .

Practical procedure (A): Open circuit test
1-Connect up the circuit as shown in figure (1), and keep S OFF.
2-Set the value of the motor armature variable resistance to maximum.

 
3-Set the motor field rheostat to the minimum voltage position.
4-Connect a short circuit link across the field terminals of the alternator.
5-Set the alternator field rheostat to minimum voltage position.
6-Switch ON the DC supply to motor field. Make sure that the voltage and currents are
with in the specific limits, otherwise switch OFF the supply immediately.
7-Switch ON the DC supply to motor armature, make sure that the voltages and
currents are with the specific limits, otherwise switch OFF the supply immediately.
8-Decrease the variable resistance in motor armature circuit and allow the motor to start
up.
9-Adjust the motor speed by adjusting the motor field current until a speed of 1500 RPM
is reached.
10-Remove the short circuit link from the alternator field winding.
11-Switch ON the DC supply to the alternator field winding.
12-Vary the alternator field current in steps of 0.1 A until the alternator output voltage
docent exceed (495) volts, this voltage is equal to 130% of the specified line voltage (line
to line voltage =380 V).
13-Switch OFF the supplies to all currents.
Open Circuit Test Table (1)
If (A) 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.9 1.0 1.1
Vt(V)

Motor (Prim mover)

p+
N- 220 V DC
U1 U2
A R
Field circuit
V1 V2
A R
Vt
W1 W2
R
Armature circuit
S
Synchronous generator
Figure (1)

Practical procedure (B): Short circuit test

-Connect up the circuit as shown in figure (1) and keep (S) OFF.
-Connect the terminal U1,V1,W1 by short link.
-Set the value of the motor armature variable resistance to maximum.
-Set the motor field rheostat to the minimum voltage position.
-Connect a short circuit link across the field terminals of the alternator.
-Set the alternator field rheostat to minimum voltage position.
-Switch ON the DC supply to motor field. Make sure that the voltage and currents are
with in the specific limits, otherwise switch OFF the supply immediately.
-Switch ON the DC supply to motor armature, make sure that the voltages and currents
are with the specific limits, otherwise switch OFF the supply immediately.
-Decrease the variable resistance in motor armature circuit and allow the motor to start
up.
-Adjust the motor speed by adjusting the motor field current until a speed of 1500 RPM
is reached.
-Remove the short circuit link from the alternator field winding.
-Ensure that the field current rheostat in the alternator circuit is at the minimum voltage
position.
-Remove the short circuit link in the alternator field circuit.
-Switch ON the DC supply to the alternator field.
-Increase the alternator field current in steps of 0.1 A and make sure that the alternator
current doesn’t exceed (4.3) A this current is (150%) from the rated current,( I sc = 2.9 A),
keep the speed constant at each step.
-Vary the speed witch I sc =2.9 A (I rated) and keep the excitation current constant, How
does the I sc react. Give an explanation.
-Switch OFF all the supplies.
-Plot the short circuit characteristics of the alternator.
-Find the value Zs.

Short Circuit Test Table (2)
If (A) 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.9 1.0 1.1
Is(A)
 
Practical procedure (C): Load test

-Connect up the circuit as shown in figure (1).
-Carry out steps (2) to (10) in procedure A.
-Set the load resistance to maximum value.
-Remove the short circuit link from the alternator field.
-Switch ON the DC supply to the alternator field.
-Adjust the alternator field current infill the open circuit terminal voltage of the alternator is
equal t the maximum value obtained in the open circuit test (495 V) at the speed of 1500
RPM and keep it constant through the test.
-Switch ON the load and vary the load current from 0.5 A to 2,9 A in steps of 0.5 A. Note
corresponding values of terminal voltage and ensure that the motor speed remains
constant at each step.
-Plot the V-I characteristic for alternator.
-Draw the vector diagrams for each loading condition and correlate the results with the
obtained experimentally.
Loaf Test Table (3; If is constant
IL(A) 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 2.9

Vt(V)

Practical procedure (D): Measurement of armature resistance

-Connect the alternator circuit as shown in figure (2)
 
-Make sure that the rheostat is at zero volt output condition.
-Increase the current (2) A and record the DS voltage.
-Determine the armature DC resistance.
-Is this resistance equal to the A.C resistance.why?
-Determine the value of Xs.
-Why we didn’t use an ohmmeter to measure this value ?
Table (4) DC test
I (A) Vt (V)
V
0-115 V
DC

Matlab Journey
Construct the following synchronous machine with the ratings mentioned in the
equipments before, however the load you should decide the right load match.
  -You should construct the graphs for currents, voltages and speed for each phase
and line to line values. Hint the AVR & AGC are ready blocks .

Experiment Eight
3‐Phase Induction Motor  
Theory
The poly-phase induction motor is the most commonly used industrial motor, finding
applications in industrial machineries where speed regulation is not essential. It is simple
  and relatively inexpensive, and the absence of sliding contacts with the rotor reduces
maintenance to minimum. There are two general types of poly-phase induction motors:
the squirrel-cage type and the wound- rotor machine. Both motors have a stator
structure similar to that of the synchronous generator, consisting of three individual
windings which overlap one another and offset by an electrical angle of 120°.The phase
displacement between the voltages applied to the stator windings produces a travelling
MMF or rotating magnetic field in the uniform air gap. This field links the short-circuited
rotor bars, and the relative motion induces short-circuit currents in them, which move
about the rotor in exact synchronism with the rotating magnetic field. It is well known
that any induced current will react in opposition to the flux linkages producing it,
resulting herein a torque on the rotor in the direction of the rotating field. This torque
causes the rotor to revolve. If the rotor were to revolve at exactly synchronous speed,
there would be no changing flux linkages about the rotor coils and no torque would be
produced. However, the practical motor has friction losses requiring some
electromagnetic torque, even at no-load, and the system will stabilize with the rotor
revolving at slightly less than synchronous speed.
If the stator coils are connected to AC supply, the coils become magnetized and
generate a rotating magnetic field that rotates at a speed known as synchronous speed
(ns): 
The following equation clarifies the relationship between the synchronous speed and
mains frequency.
The difference in speed between rotor and rotating magnetic field is termed “slip” which
is numerically equal to:
At no-load the slip is relatively zero, whereas at full loads it become close to 1. The slip
normally affects the frequency of the induced emf in the rotor bars. If the slip is
increased due to mechanical load, the rotor frequency fr will accordingly increase
according to the following relationships. fr= s.fs.
© Ahmad Bassam Electrical Engineering Department 1

! 00
When the rotor is at standstill (s=1), the rotor frequency will be the same as the stator
frequency (fr= fs). Hence the rotor current I2 increases; in the same way the stator
current I1 will also be increased, resulting in coils overheating. Therefore, blocking the
rotor for longer period of times should be avoided to prevent overheating and damaging
the stator coils.
 
The 3-phase power input Pin to an induction motor is Pin = 3V1I1cos1( ⍬)

The applied input power Pin encounters two types of losses; stator copper-loss Pcu1 =
2
3I1 R1 and Stator core-loss Pcore which is dissipated in the form of hysteresis and
eddy current losses
The remainder power (air gap power Pg) is transferred from the stator to the rotor via
the air-gab.
Pg = Pin - Pcu1 - Pcore
This power Pg Generates an induced emf in the rotor bars, but part of it will be
2
dissipated as a heat due to rotor copper loss Pcu2 = 3I2 R2.
The rest of air-gap power will be converted from the electrical power into developed
power Pd
In this case the motor shaft will rotate, but it will be subjected to friction mechanical
loss. The
remaining and the last power is the output mechanical power. Pout = Tout.Wm 

! 01
The torque developed Td is defined as the torque generated due to mechanical power
developed by the power conversion process in the motor.
The speed-torque characteristic of squirrel cage induction motor shows several

important pieces of information about the motor’s operation. For example, the torque is
  zero at synchronous speed, there is a maximum torque called pull-out torque which is
two to three times the rated full-load torque. The starting torque is slightly larger than its
full-load torque, so the motor is able to start carrying any load.

! 02
Characteristic Curve of Induction motor
Load Test On Three Phase Induction Motor
The load test on induction motor is performed to compute its complete performance
i.e. torque, slip, efficiency, power factor etc. During this test, the motor is operated at
rated voltage and frequency and normally loaded mechanically by brake and pulley
arrangement from the observed data, the performance can be calculated, following the
  steps given below.
TORQUE:
Mechanical loading is the most common type of method employed in laboratories. A

brake drum is coupled to the shaft of the motor and the load is applied by tightening
the belt, provided on the brake drum. The torque exerted at the brake drum in Nm is
obtained from the reading of the spring i.e. (Output Power= Torque X Speed),  
Thus as the speed of motor does not vary appreciably with load torque will increase
with increasing load
POWER FACTOR:
Power factor of induction motor on NO-LOAD is very low because of the high value of
magnetizing current. With the increase in load the power factor increases because the
power component of the current is increased. Low power factor operation is one of the
disadvantages of induction motor. An induction motor draws heavy amount of
magnetizing current due to presence of air gap between the stator and rotor. Thus to
reduce the magnetizing current in induction motor the air-gap is kept as small is
possible. Input power factor can also be calculated from the reading of the wattmeter
for balanced load =
EFFICIENCY:
Percentage efficiency of the motor,  

Full load efficiency of 3 phase induction motor lies in the range of 72 % (for small
motors) to 82 % (for very large motors).
SPEED: 
When the induction motor is on NO-LOAD speed is slightly below the synchronous
speed. The current due to induced emf in the rotor winding is responsible for
production of torque required at NO-LOAD. As the load is increased the rotor speed is
slightly reduced.

! 03
The emf induced in the rotor causes the current increased to produce higher torque,
until the torque developed is equal to torque required by load on motor.
Many useful motor relationships between time, current, voltage, speed, power
factor, and torque can be obtained from analysis of the Steinmetz equivalent circuit
(also termed T-equivalent circuit or IEEE recommended equivalent circuit), a
mathematical model used to describe how an induction motor's electrical input is
transformed into useful mechanical energy output. The equivalent circuit is a single-
phase representation of a multiphase induction motor that is valid in steady-state
balanced-load conditions.
The Steinmetz equivalent circuit is expressed simply in terms of the following
components which are found in the graph below.
Paraphrasing from Alger in Knowlton, an induction motor is simply an electrical

transformer the magnetic circuit of which is separated by an air gap between the
stator winding and the moving rotor winding.The equivalent circuit can accordingly
be shown either with equivalent circuit components of respective windings
separated by an ideal transformer or with rotor components referred to the stator
side as shown in the following circuit and associated equation and parameter
definition tables.

! 04
Practice : Three Phase Induction Motor
  Objectives:
-Evaluation of the motor equivalent circuit parameters.
-Investigate the load characteristics (torque-speed & torque-current) of induction motors.
-Evaluation of the motor performance parameters ( efficiency, power-factor, ….etc).
Equipment:
-Three-phase squirrel case induction motor: 380/660 V , 50 HZ ,5,5 KW, 11.7/6.8 A,
1450 RPM.
-Variable voltage AC source: 50 HZ,0-400 V.
-Variable voltage DC source 0-220 V.
-Eddy current break 0-50 Nm.
-Variable resistor RB (for eddy-current brake control): 220 V (DC) ,20 A,(11-220) ohm.
-1 DC Ammeters 0-10 A.
-1 DC Voltmeters 0-300 V.
-2 AC Ammeters 0-20 A.
-2 AV Voltmeters 0-400 V.
-Speedo meter.
-3 Electro-mechanical Switches.
Wiring diagrams:
-Load circuit : connect the Eddy-current break circuit as shown in the wiring digram of
figure (1). Make sure that the resistance RB is initially maximum (F-CCW). Eddy-current
switch SB should be initially at the OFF position.

! 05
Wiring diagrams:
-Motor circuit : figure (2) shows the wiring diagram of motor circuit. The armature is
delta-connected. the armature circuit SA should be initially at OFF position.
SA
L1 W1
A
U1
Motor protection
L2 Eddy
break
U2
L3
A
W2
Squirrel cage the
stator is delta
Figure (2)
Test procedure (A):
-No load test:
-Connect the circuit as shown in figure (1) & in figure (2). initially, the applied voltage
should be zero, and the armature switch SA should be at the OFF position.
-Increase the AC variable voltage to 100 V.
-Switch ON SA and while doing so notice the readings of the Ammeters. Record, in table
(A) the voltmeters & Ammeters readings.
-Increase the armature terminal voltage gradually up to the rated value of 380 V.

! 06
Test procedure (A):

-No load test (CONT.):
-While being unloaded, record the line currents, line voltages the motor speed and the
  input power in table (B).
-Reduce the terminal voltage in steps as in table (B), and in each step record the line
currents, the line voltages, the motor speed and the input power.
Table (A)
VBR (V) IL (A_

100
Starting conditions
Table (B)
VL (V) 380 350 300 250 200 150 100 50
IL (A)
Nm (RPM)
P1+P2 (W)
No Load Test
Test procedure (B):
-Blocked Rotor Test:
-Increase the AC variable voltage to 50 V.
-Switch ON the Eddy current break source and vary RB to up the point at which the
motor is blocked (runs at almost zero speed).
-Vaary the terminal voltage up to the point at which the line current reaches its rated
value of 11.7A .Record in table (C).
-Reset RB to its maximum position (F-CCW) and switch it OFF.
Increase the armature terminal voltage gradually up to the rated value of 380 V

! 07
Table (C)
 
IL(A) VBR (V) P1 +P2 (W)
11.7
Block-Rotor Test
Test procedure (C):
-Load Test:
-While being un-loaded recored the currents, voltages power and speed in table (D).
-Switch ON the Eddy-Current break source.
-Vary RB in steps to match to torque readings of table (D).In each step, recored the
currents, voltages power and speed in table (D).
-Reset RB to its maximum position (F-CCW) and switch it OFF.
-Switch OFF the terminal voltage.

Table (D)
TL (N.m) 0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21
IL (A) =IA(A)
Nm (RPM)
P1+P2 (W)
Load Test (VT=380V)
Test procedure (D):
-DC Test:
-Connect the wiring diagram of the circuit shown in figure (3).
-Increase, gradually and carefully, the DC voltage in steps to match the readings of table
(E). in each step, record the DC voltage.

! 08
Table (E)
VDC (V)
IDC (A) 1 2 3
 
DC Test
L1
A
Variable
V
L3
DC
L2
Results and Discussion:
-Procedures (A,B&C):
-Estimate the starting current if the motor if directly started at rated voltage.
-Sketch the no-load characteristics (V/I) of the motor.
-Calculate the stator resistance/phase.
-What is the value of slip at no load, rated voltage conditions.
-Plot the no-load losses versus the terminal voltage. From the curve estimate the
approximate value of the rotational losses.
-Calculate the parameters of the excitation branch.
-Calculate the input power factor at no-load and the percentage value of the no-load
current.
-Describe a scenario where to use an induction motor when other motor types will fail or
will not function probably.

! 09
Results and Discussion:
-Procedures (A,B&C): cont.
-From the blocked rotor test calculate the equivalent circuit parameters Req and Xeq,
  then estimate R1,R2,X1’ AND X2’.
-Calculate the input factor at blocked rotor and the percentage value of the blocked
rotor voltage.
-From the load test, it is required to calculate the following:
-Plot the line current versus the output power.
-Plot the input power factor versus the output power.
-Plot the motor speed versus the output power.
-Plot the motor efficiency versus the output power.
Matlab Journey
Modify the code below with the results obtained in the lab with the induction motor
available in the electrical machines lab.
% M-file: torque_speed_curve.m
% M-file create a plot of the torque-speed curve of the
% First, initialize the values needed in this program.
r1 = 0.641; % Stator resistance
x1 = 1.106; % Stator reactance
r2 = 0.332; % Rotor resistance
x2 = 0.464; % Rotor reactance
xm = 26.3; % Magnetization branch reactance
v_phase = 460 / sqrt(3); % Phase voltage
n_sync = 1800; % Synchronous speed (r/min)
w_sync = 188.5; % Synchronous speed (rad/s)
% Calculate the Thevenin voltage and impedance from Equations
% 7-41a and 7-43.
v_th = v_phase * ( xm / sqrt(r1^2 + (x1 + xm)^2) );
z_th = ((j*xm) * (r1 + j*x1)) / (r1 + j*(x1 + xm));

! 10
Matlab Journey
r_th = real(z_th);
x_th = imag(z_th);
  % Now calculate the torque-speed characteristic for many
% slips between 0 and 1. Note that the first slip value
% is set to 0.001 instead of exactly 0 to avoid divide-
% by-zero problems.
s = (0:1:50) / 50; % Slip
s(1) = 0.001;
nm = (1 - s) * n_sync; % Mechanical speed
% Calculate torque for original rotor resistance
for ii = 1:51
t_ind1(ii) = (3 * v_th^2 * r2 / s(ii)) / ...
(w_sync * ((r_th + r2/s(ii))^2 + (x_th + x2)^2) );
end
% Calculate torque for doubled rotor resistance
for ii = 1:51
t_ind2(ii) = (3 * v_th^2 * (2*r2) / s(ii)) / ...
(w_sync * ((r_th + (2*r2)/s(ii))^2 + (x_th + x2)^2) );
end
% Plot the torque-speed curve
plot(nm,t_ind1,'Color','k','LineWidth',2.0);
hold on;
plot(nm,t_ind2,'Color','k','LineWidth',2.0,'LineStyle','-.');
xlabel('\itn_{m}','Fontweight','Bold');
ylabel('\tau_{ind}','Fontweight','Bold');
title ('Induction Motor Torque-Speed Characteristic','Fontweight','Bold');
legend ('Original R_{2}','Doubled R_{2}');
grid on;
hold off;

! 11
Matlab Journey
GUI Program for Induction Motor

You can simulate infinite numbers of infusion motors using matlab, use this gui to
simulate the list of induction motors provided by your lab instructor ,This self-
 
extracting installation file contains two graphical user interface programs for
transformer and induction motor analyses. After downloading this file double-click
on the file to install the programs in a directory of your choice. Use MATLAB Path
Browser to add this directory to the MATLAB path. Among the important aspects
in the steady-state analysis of a three-phase induction motor are the variation of
current, power, losses and torque associated with various operating conditions. In
the induction motor program the parameters of the equivalent circuit can be
entered on the circuit diagram. The program draws the Thevenin's equivalent
circuit. Performance characteristics are then obtained for the specified slip and the
torque slip curve is plotted on the screen. The analysis can be repeated for
different slips. To run the induction motor program at the MATLAB prompt type.
Download it from( totally free):
http://www.saadat.us/matlabgui.htm

! 12
Experiment Nine
Synchronous Motor  

! 13
Theory
Synchronous motor has a special property in maintaining a constant running speed

  under all conditions of no- load to full load. This constant running speed can be
maintained even under variable line voltage conditions. It is, therefore, a useful motor in
applications where the running speed must be accurately known and unvarying. It
should be noted that, if a synchronous motor is severely overloaded, its operation will
be pulled out of synchronism and suddenly lose its synchronous properties and the
motor will come to a halt.
Synchronous motors in their simplest form are not self-starting motor. The rotor is
heavy and it’s not possible to bring it in magnetic lock with the rotating magnetic field.
For this reason, all synchronous motors are equipped with some kind of starting
device that brings the rotor speed to 90% of its synchronous speed. The most
commonly starting method is to have the rotor core fitted with squirrel cage rotor. This
achieves a strong magnetic field that provides a good interaction with the stator’s
rotating field. Starting the motor from the standstill is now possible by firstly energizing
the armature windings and waits till the rotor picks up a good speed (that is equal to
synchronous speed). Thin switch the motor from asynchronous mode to synchronous
by exciting the field windings.
Synchronous motor has an additional interesting property which is the ability of acting
like a variable 3-phase inductor/capacitor during no-load. The value of reactance is
determined according to the amount of field excitation.
When running the motor at zero excitation current a considerable amount of positive
reactive power will be drawn from the supply to create the necessary magnetism in the
stator windings. The reactive power has the disadvantage of low power factor. The
motor in this case act in much the same way as any other type of motors (a
combination of inductive-resistive load).
Once the rotor is excited, some of the magnetism in the motor will be produced by
which the stator draws less reactive power, when field excitation is brought further up,
a point can be reached where all the magnetism produced by rotor is used to
compensate for the stator magnetism. As a result the power supply will only produce a
real-power and the power factor becomes unity.

! 14
Tending to create more magnetism is likely achievable by over exciting the field
winding. The power supply in this case produces a negative reactive power in an
attempt to keep the total flux constant. The synchronous motor acts like a capacitive
load.
 
The armature current drawn by a synchronous motor for a definite power output is a
function of its field current. For a given load on the motor, as the field current is varied,
both the input current and the input power factor change. the plot of armature current
as the function of field current for a constant power output is called a V curve because
of its characteristics shape.
At given load, the armature current is minimum at a particular value of field current. If
field current is gradually decreased below this value, the armature current will gradually
increase till a point is reached where the motor starts hunting.
A similar phenomenon is observed if the field current is increased above this value. The
points on the V - curve where the armature current is minimum corresponding to unity
power factor of the input current. The curve joining the minimum current points of a set
of V-curves is often called a unity power factor-compounding curve.
‘V’ CURVES OF A SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE
Theory
V-curve of a synchronous machine shows its performance in terms of variation of

armature current with field current when the load and input voltage to the machine is
constant. When a synchronous machine is connected to an infinite bus, the current
input to the stator depends upon the shaft-load and excitation (field current). At a
constant load, if excitation is changed the power factor of the machine changes, i.e.
when the field current is small (machine is under-excited) the P.F. is low and as the
excitation is increased the P.F. improves so that for a certain field current the P.F. will be
unity and machine draws minimum armature current. This is known as normal
excitation. If the excitation is further increased the machine will become overexcited
and it will draw more line current and P.F. becomes leading and decreases. Therefore,
if the field current is changed keeping load and input voltage constant, the armature
current changes to make V.I.cosφ constant. Because of their shape, graphs of
variation of armature current with excitation are called ‘V’ curves. If the ‘V’ curves at
different load conditions are plotted and points on different curves having same P.F. are
connected the resulting curve is known as “compounding curves”.

! 15
Starting of synchronous machines
A synchronous machine does not possess starting torque but once brought near to
synchronous speed, it is capable of developing torque. Synchronous machine can be
started either by means of some auxiliary machine coupled to its shaft or by running it
as an induction machine till it attains a speed near to the synchronous speed.
-Synchronous motor is not self-starting if it is coupled with a d.c. Machine, the latter
may be used as an auxiliary motor for starting. The synchronous machine is run up to
its synchronous speed using d.c. motor drive and then synchronized with three phase
main supply. If the D.C. motor is now switched off the synchronous machine will start
running as a synchronous motor off the a.c. supply. Now the field current is increased
in steps and corresponding armature current are noted.
-Usually starting synchronous machines as an induction motor is quite common. In

this case, the field circuit of the synchronous machine is closed through high
resistance and reduced voltage is applied across the stator windings. Due to three-
phase balanced supply into the windings of the stator a rotating magnetic field is set
up which rotates at synchronous speed. This rotating field interlinks with the damper
winding (short circuited copper grids placed on the pole shoes), which behaves just
like the squirrel cage rotor of an induction motor. Thus the motor starts as an induction
motor in the direction of rotating field and comes to full speed which is slightly less
than synchronous speed and field circuit of the synchronous machine can be
connected to the D.C. supply. During starting, the field winding is closed through high
resistance to reduce the current in the field winding.

! 16
Phasor diagrams for different excitations and constant power of a synchronous motor

! 17
Practice : Three Phase Synchronous Motor
Objectives:
-Starting Procedure.
-Load characteristics.
-V-Curves.
Equipment:
-Three-phase synchronous machine (Salient pole): 380 V, 1 KVA, 1500RPM, 4-Pole,

Excitation current 0.6 A .
-Exciter for synchronous machines.
-3-Pole circuit breaker.
-3-Phase supply: 380 V, 50 HZ.
-Control Unit : 1 KW.
-Load : Magnetic power break: 1 KW.
-2 Ammeters.
-1 Voltmeters.
-1 Wattmeters.
-1 Power Factor meter.
-Panel mounting frame.
-Connection cables and plugs.
-Rubber coupling sleeves and coupling guards.
-Prime Mover set ( DC shunt motor).

! 18
Setting of the control unit:
-Set the control unit as follows: Speed N = 1500 RPM, Torque M = 10 N.m
Operating mode: m= constant
Note (1) : In any of the practical procedure, thermal and earth protection of each of the
machines involved should be assured.
Note (2) : Synchronous motor is not a self motor. if the rotor field poles are excited by the
field current and the stator terminals are, connected to the AC supply, the motor will not
start; instead, it vibrates. three methods are normally used to start Synchronous motor :
1-By another machine as a prime mover.
2-By using a variable-frequency supply.
3-Start the machine as an induction motor.
Notice that the last method, an additional winding, which resembles the cage of an
induction motor, is mounted on the rotor. this cage-type winding is known as its damper
winding, which without exciter, operates in the same way as short-circuit cage rotor and
permits asynchronous starting of the machine. the exciter voltage is interrupted during
start-up by a normally closed contact and is connected only when the motor has
reached its highest asynchronous speed, to provide the easiest possible transition from
asynchronous to synchronous running, the motor should be started without a load being
applied.
Prime mover connection and control:
-A prime mover is required to conduct test procedure (2). The prime mover to be used in
this experiment is a DC shunt motor. This wring diagram is shown in figure (1). The
sequence of steps that should be followed t start and control the speed of this motor is
as follows:
-While the voltage knob is fully counterclockwise (i.e, zero output voltage) switch S1 ON
(Position I).
-Press the START switch (green indicator ON).

! 19
-Set the resistance of the field regulator Rfm to almost 200 ohm.
-To start the drive motor, increase Vs gradually up to 120 V.
-Use the field regulator of the motor field to set the motor speed to the required value
(1500RPM).
Figure (1)
Practical procedure (1): measurement of armature resistance
-Connect the circuit of figure (2).
-Switch S ON. Carefully and gradually increase the applied voltage in steps to match the
requirements of table (1), inch step record the value of VDC.
-Reduce VDC gradually to minimum. Switch S OFF.
S
U1 U2
A
DC V
V1 V2 Stator Circuit
DC Test
W1 W2
Figure (2)
! 20
Table (1)
I DC (A) 0.5 1.0

V DC (V)
R DC (ohm)
DC armature resistance
Practical procedure (2): No-load and short circuit tests
-Switch S1 ON and set the exciter current to zero Ampere.
-Start the prime mover as previously mentioned, set its speed at 1500 RPM and keep
this speed fixed throughout the test.
-Measure the voltage at the terminals of the synchronous machine.
-Increase the exciter current in steps to match the requirements of table (2), for each
step, record the terminal voltage.
-Reduce the exciter current to zero once more.
-Short circuit the terminals of the synchronous machine by closing S2.
-Measure the stator current and recored it in table (3), for each step, record the stator
current (short circuit current).
-Reduce the exciter current to zero. switch S2 OFF.
Table (2)
If (mA) 0.0 50.0 100 150 200 300 400 500 600
Ea (V)
No-load test
Table (3)
If (mA) 0.0 50.0 100 150 200 300 400 500 600
Ea (V)
Short circuit test

! 21
S2
E1
Exciter
E2
Field circuit
Figure (3) :No load / short circuit tests
Practical procedure (3): Load characteristics
-Switch ON the control unit. adjust its set-start value such that the motor can be started
without a load being applied (i.e, position 10).
-Set the measurement instruments as follows:
-100 V AC for the Voltmeter at the stator terminals.
-10 A AC for the Ammeter in the field circuit.
-(0.1-30) A RMS, (0.3-1000) V RMS, real power mode for the wattmeter.
Remember to choose the appropriate scale for each instrument without overloading it,
this overloading is indicated, when occurs, by red light.
-Adjust the exciter current to 0.6 A.
-Press the push button switch on the motor terminal board, and while doing so, switch
ON the circuit breaker S. Keep the push-button switch pressed until the motor has
reached its highest asynchronous speed, then release this switch so that the motor
continuous to run in a synchronous behavior.
-Set the torque on the control unit in steps in table (4), in each step record line voltage,
speed, stator current, input real power (single phase), input reactive power (single phase)
and input power factor.
-Note that the measured power should be multiplied by 3 to evaluate the total input
power.
-Reduce the load torque gradually to minimum.
-Switch OFF S.
! 22
Table (4)
T (N.m) 2.0 4.0 6.0

Ia (A)
Vt (V)
N (RPM)
PI (W)
Qi (Var)
P.F
Load test
Practical procedure (4): V- characteristics

-Switch ON the control unit. adjust its set-start value such that the motor can be started
without a load being applied (i.e, position 10).
-Set the measurement instruments as follows.
-Set the excitation current to 0.6 A.
-Set the torque by control unit to zero N.m (no-load).
-Record the stator current and the input active power and reactive power, input power
factor in table (5).
Note that when the machine is under excited if the exception current falls below a certain
value, the operation becomes un-stable, this will limit the minim value, the operation
becomes un-stable, this will limit the minima value of the excitation current, if this
happens while conduction the test switch S OFF immediately.
-Repeat steps (3)-(5) but for T= 2 N.m

! 23
Figure (4)
T (N.m) 0.0 N.m 0.0 N.m 0.0 N.m 0.0 N.m 0.0 N.m 0.0 N.m
If (mA) 600 500 400 300 200 100
I st (A)
N (RPM)
Pi (W)
Qi (Var)
PF
Table (5-A)
T (N.m) 2.0 N.m 2.0 N.m 2.0 N.m 2.0 N.m 2.0 N.m 2.0 N.m
If (mA) 600 500 400 300 200 100
I st (A)
N (RPM)
Pi (W)
Qi (Var)
PF
* Please indicate if the p.f is capacitive or inductive.
Table (5-B)

! 24
Results and comments

-Calculate the average value of the armature resistance Ra, what can you suggest to
correct for AC operation.
-Plot, on one graph paper, the open circuit and short circuit characteristics of the tested
machine, show scales.
-Calculate the synchronous reactance of the armature, plot the synchronous reactance
versus the field current and comment on the variation.
-If the speed of the machine is not fixed during the short circuit test, do you expect the
short circuit current to vary?, please justify your answer.
-From the load test, calculate the developed torque, recored the results obtained in table
(4).
-Plot, for the load test, the output horsepower, developed horsepower, developed torque,
stator current, input power factor, input reactive power and torque angle versus the load
torque, comment on the curves.
-Plot, in one graph paper the V-Curves from the results of test procedure (5), also plot in
one graph paper, the input power factor versus the field current.
-What can you deduce from plots of (7) above? , give full explanation of the shapes and
meanings of these plots.

! 25
MATLAB Journey
-Download the file in clearing website (exp9), Follow the link below which will
lead you to a Matlab m-file that have the procedure to Plot the values of
synchronous motor, but modify the values for the machine ratings by the lab
instructor:
-Plotting Stator abc Currents.
-Plotting Rotor abc Currents.
-Plotting Rotor Speed in Radian/sec and Revs/min.
-Plotting Mechanical and Electrical Torque. -
-Plotting Mechanical and Electrical Torque vs Rotor Speed (rpm).
-Plotting Stator abc Voltages.
-Plotting Rotor abc Voltages.
- https://bit.ly/2sczwQ8

! 26
Electrical safety
-Make sure that the instructor of the lab check all circuits and Don’t switch on the circuit
only the instructor should switch on or switch OFF.
-Under emergency conditions only, the student is allowed to switch OFF the
main supply.
-Connect to the power source as a LAST step.
-If you are working with a lab kit that has internal power supplies, turn the main power
switch OFF before you begin work on the circuits. Wait a few seconds for power supply
capacitors to discharge. These steps will also help prevent damage to circuits.
-If you are working with a circuit that will be connected to an external power supply, turn
the power switch of the external supply OFF before you begin work on the circuit.
-Check circuit power supply voltages for proper value and for type (DC, AC, frequency)
before energizing the circuit.
-Do not run wires over moving or rotating equipment, or on the floor, or string them
across walkways from bench-to-bench.
-Remove conductive watchbands or chains, finger rings, wristwatches, etc., and do not
use metallic pencils, metal or metal edge rulers, etc. when working with exposed
circuits.
-When breaking any high-voltage or high current inductive circuit open the switch with
your left hand and turn your face away to avoid danger from any arc which may occur
across the switch terminals.
-When using large electrolytic capacitors be sure to wait long enough (approximately five
time constants) for the capacitors to discharge before working on the circuit.
-All conducting surfaces intended to be at ground potential should be connected

together.

! 27
Special Thanks the Electrical Engineering Department for

giving me this opportunity to do this Manual Specially
Dr.Eyad Abu-fielat and Eng.Enaam Al-Khatib.
Ahmad Bassam

! 28

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ELECTRICAL MACHINES LAB

© Ahmad Bassam Electrical Engineering Department !1

Schematic Diagram of a transformer connected with supply & load

Voltage Regulation Test

Schematic symbol of a transformer connected to calculate VR

© Ahmad Bassam Electrical Engineering Department !3

Schematic symbol of a transformer connected to determined Magnetizing current

OCT & SCT Test for 1-φ Transformer

Equivalent circuit of a transformer

© Ahmad Bassam Electrical Engineering Department !4

Approximate model of transformer equivalent circuit

© Ahmad Bassam Electrical Engineering Department !5

Approximate model of transformer equivalent Open circuit test

Approximate model of transformer equivalent Short circuit test

© Ahmad Bassam Electrical Engineering Department !6

Approximate model of transformer equivalent short circuit test

(Ii) Copper Loss In Transformer

Condition For Maximum Eﬃciency

© Ahmad Bassam Electrical Engineering Department !8

Practice : Single-phase Power Transformer:

1- Determine the parameters of the transformer equivalent circuit by conducting the

2- Investigate the performance characteristic of transformers under resistive loading

-Power transformer ( 240VA ,120/130 V,2701/296 T, 50HZ).

-Transformer Trainer unit TT179 : measurement console, dissectible transformer and

-Variable resistive load.

-Wattmeter (Electronics or Moving coil).

Practical procedure (1): no load test (OCT).

-Connect the circuit shown in Fig (A).

-set the load resistance to it’s maximum, and keep S2 OFF.

-Ask the lab instructor to check your connections.

- Turn the VARIAC knob fully to minimum and turn S1 OFF.

© Ahmad Bassam Electrical Engineering Department !9

Table (1) No load test

V1 V2 (V) I1 (A) Pi (w) Turns ratio

-Ask the lab instructor to check your connections.

-Turn the VARIAC knob to minimum and turns S1 OFF.

-Remove the short across the load and switch S2 OFF.

Table (2) Short circuit Test

Practical procedure (3): Load test.

-Connect the circuit as shown in Fig (A).

-Ask the lab instructor to check your connections.

-Turn the VARIAC knob fully minimum and turn S1 OFF.

© Ahmad Bassam Electrical Engineering Department !11

Table (3) Load Test

-Calculate the Turns Ratio.

-Calculate the parameters R1,R2,X1 and X2.

-What do we mean when saying R max; what is this simulating ? .

From the Results of the No-Load Test (OCT):

-Plot Pin Versus V1 and explain the nature of the curve.

From the Results of the Load Test :

-N0-Load, Short-Circuit , Resistive Loading ,Inductive loading ,and capacity loading.

-What core type is the transformer you worked on in this experiment ?

% M-file to calculate and plot the voltage regulation

% of a transformer as a function of load for power

% factors of 0.8 lagging, 1.0, and 0.8 leading.

VS = 230; % Secondary voltage (V)

amps = 0:6.52:65.2; % Current values (A)

Req = 0.0445; % Equivalent R (ohms)