Magnetic Flux Leakage

Method

History

•The
•Theearliest
earliestknown
knownuse
useofofmagnetism
magnetismtotoinspect
inspectan
anobject
objecttook
took
place
placeas
asearly
earlyas
as1868.
1868.These
Theseearly
earlyinspectors
inspectorswere
wereable
ableto
to
locate
locateflaws
flawsininthe
thebarrels
barrelsby
bymonitoring
monitoringthetheneedle
needleof
ofthe
the
compass.
compass.
••In
Inthe
theearly
early1920’s,
1920’s,William
WilliamHoke
Hokerealized
realizedthat
thatmagnetic
magnetic
particles
particles (colored metal shavings) could beused
(colored metal shavings) could be usedwith
with
magnetism
magnetismas asaameans
meansof oflocating
locatingdefects.
defects.
•In
•Inthe
theearly
early1930’s,
1930’s,magnetic
magneticparticle
particleinspection
inspection(MPI)
(MPI)was
was
quickly
quicklyreplacing
replacingthe
theoil-and-whiting
oil-and-whitingmethod
method(an
(anearly
earlyform
formof
of
the
theliquid
liquidpenetrant
penetrantinspection)
inspection)asasthe
themethod
methodofofchoice
choiceby
bythe
the
railroad
railroadto toinspect
inspectsteam
steamengine
engineboilers,
boilers,wheels,
wheels,axles,
axles,and
andthe
the
tracks
tracks

Page 1
 Introduction

•Component
•Componentbeing
beinginspected
inspectedmust
mustbebemade
madeofofaa
ferromagnetic
ferromagnetic material such iron, nickel, cobalt,or
material such iron, nickel, cobalt, orsome
some
of their alloys
of their alloys
•Appplications
•Appplicationsinclude
include
–structural
–structuralsteel
steel
–Automotive
–Automotive
–Petrochemical
–Petrochemical
–power
–powergeneration
generation
–aerospace
–aerospaceindustries
industries
–Underwater
–Underwateroffshore
offshorestructures
structures
–underwater
–underwaterpipelines.
pipelines.

Basic Principles
1. Magnetize the component
that is to be inspected.
2. Any defects on or near the
surface will create a leakage
field.
3. The leakage field can be
detected using a
Magnetic field sensor
Small iron particles (MPI)

Page 2
 Introduction to Magnetism

Magnetism is the ability of matter Magnetic field lines:

to attract other matter to itself. • Form complete loops.
Objects that possess the property • Do not cross.
of magnetism are said to be • Follow the path of least
magnetic or magnetized and resistance.
magnetic lines of force can be • All have the same strength.
found in and around the objects. • Have a direction such that
A magnetic pole is a point where they cause poles to attract
the a magnetic line of force exits or repel.
or enters a material.

Magnetic lines of force Opposite poles attracting Similar poles repelling

around a bar magnet

Magnetic Materials

• In most atoms, electrons occur in

pairs. Each electron in a pair spins
in the opposite direction. So when
electrons are paired together, their
opposite spins cause there
magnetic fields to cancel each
other.
• Materials with some unpaired
electrons will have a net magnetic
field and will react more to an
external field.
• Most materials can be classified
as ferromagnetic, diamagnetic or
paramagnetic.

Page 3
 Magnetic Materials (Cont.)
• Diamagnetic meterials • Ferromagnetic materials
– have a very weak and negative susceptibility
to magnetic fields
– are slightly repelled by a magnetic field does
not retain the magnetic properties when the
external field is removed
– no permanent net magnetic moment per atom.
– Most elements in the periodic table, including
copper, silver, and gold, are diamagnetic
• Paramagnetic materials
– have a small and positive susceptibility to
magnetic fields
– are slightly attracted by a magnetic field and
the material does not retain the magnetic
properties when the external field is removed.
– include Magnesium, molybdenum, lithium,
and tantalum.
– have a large and positive
susceptibility to an external
magnetic field.
– exhibit a strong attraction to
magnetic fields and are able to
retain their magnetic properties
after the external field has been
removed.
– When a ferromagnetic material is in
the unmagnitized state, the
domains are nearly randomly
organized and the net magnetic
field for the part as a whole is zero.
– When a magnetizing force is
applied, the domains become
aligned to produce a strong
magnetic field within the part.
– Iron, Nickel, and cobalt are
examples of ferromagnetic
materials.

Magnetic Domain
• In each domain, all of the atomic
dipoles are coupled together in
a preferential direction.
• Ferromagnetic materials
become magnetized when the
magnetic domains within the
material are aligned. This can be
done my placing the material in Magnetic
MagneticForce
Force
a strong external magnetic field Microscopy
Microscopy(MFM)
(MFM)image
image
showing
showingthe
themagnetic
magnetic
or by passes electrical current domains
domainsininaapiece
pieceofof
through the material. heat
heattreated
treatedcarbon
carbonsteel
steel
• When all of the domains are
aligned, the material is said to
be magnetically saturated.

Unmagnetized
UnmagnetizedMaterial
Material Unmagnetized
UnmagnetizedMaterial
Material

Page 4
 The Hysteresis Loop
Retentivity
A measure of the residual flux
density corresponding to the
saturation induction of a
magnetic material
Residual Flux Permeability
Is the same as Retentivity but A property of a material that
the magnetizing force may not describes the ease with which
reach the saturation level. a magnetic flux is established
Coercive Force in the component.

The amount of reverse Reluctance

magnetic field which must be The opposition that a
applied to a magnetic material ferromagnetic material shows
to make the magnetic flux to the establishment of a
return to zero. magnetic field.

Permeability µ = B/H
Wide hysteresis loop
• Lower Permeability
• Higher Retentivity
• Higher Coercivity
• Higher Reluctance
• Higher Residual Magnetism

Narrow hysteresis loop

• Higher Permeability
• Lower Retentivity
• Lower Coercivity
• Lower Reluctance
• Lower Residual Magnetism. A component with high carbon content
will have low permeability and retain
more magnetic flux

Page 5
Magnetic Field Orientation and Flaw
Detectability

Magnetization of Ferromagnetic
Materials

•Magnetization
•MagnetizationUsing
UsingDirect
DirectInduction
Induction(Direct
(Direct
Magnetization)
Magnetization)
•Direct
•DirectCurrent
CurrentInjection
Injection
•Prods
•Prods

Page 6
 Magnetization of Ferromagnetic
Materials (Cont)
• Magnetization Using Indirect Induction (Indirect
Magnetization)
• Permanent magnets or Electromagnets
• Central conductors
• Coils and Solenoids

Magnetizing Current

•Direct Current
–Deeper inspection
–Relatively Large current
–Must be provided through rectification
(HWAC)
(FWAC)
(3FWAC)

•Alternating Current
–Surface inspection (Skin Effect)
–Relatively small current
–Easily available

Page 7
 Field Pattern

Longitudinal Magnetic Fields

Distribution and Intensity

Demagnetization
•Affect machining by causing
cuttings to cling to a component.

•Interfere with electronic

equipment such as a compass.

•Can create a condition known as

"ark blow" in the welding process.
Arc blow may causes the weld arc
to wonder or filler metal to be
repelled from the weld.

•Cause abrasive particle to cling

to bearing or faying surfaces and
Subjecting the component to a reversing and decreasing
increase wear. magnetic field will return the dipoles to a nearly randomly
This random orientation of the magnetic domains can oriented throughout the material. This can be accomplished
be achieved most effectively by heating the material by pulling a component out and away from a coil with AC
above its curie temperature. The curie temperature passing through it. The same can also be accomplished
for a low carbon steel is 770 degrees C
using an electromagnetic yoke with AC selected

Page 8
 Magnetic particle

•Pieces of iron or iron oxide

(50 µm (0.002 inch)
•A pigment (somewhat like paint)
is bonded to their surfaces to give
the particles color.
red, black, gray, yellow
•High magnetic permeability
•Low retentivity
•Available in a dry mix or a wet
solution.

Magnetic particle (Cont.)

•Dry Powder
–Used for irregular surfaces
–Only visible dye is available

•Wet Water-Base, Oil Based

–More sensitive (higher mobility of particles)
–Used for flat surfaces
–Used for wet surfaces (eg., under water)
–Both visible dye and Fluorescent are available

Page 9
 Measuring Magnetic Fields

Field indicators
Small mechanical devices that
utilize a soft iron vane that will
be deflected by a magnetic
field.
The vane is attached to a needle
that rotates and moves the
pointer for the scale.
The measurement range of field
indicators is usually small due
to the mechanics of the device.
From plus twenty gauss to
minus twenty gauss.

Measuring Magnetic Fields

(cont.)
V
V ==IIBBRRhh//bb
h
h

V
Vhh thethevoltage
voltagegenerated.
generated.
II the
theapplied
applieddirect
directcurrent.
current.
BB the
thecomponent
componentofofthe themagnetic
magneticfield
fieldthat
thatisisatat
aaright
rightangle
angletotothe
thedirect
directcurrent
currentininthe
theHall
Hallelement.
element.

R
Rhh the
theHall
HallCoefficient
Coefficientofofthe
theHall
Hallelement.
element.

bb the
thethickness
thicknessofofthe
theHall element. .
Hallelement

Page 10
 Measuring Magnetic Fields
(cont.)

Induction Coil
V = d (φ)/dt
V The voltage generated
B Magnetic flux within the coil

SQUID

Portable Magnetizing Equipment for

Portable Yoke with

battery Pack
Permanent Magnet

Portable
Electromagnets Particle kid

Page 11
Portable Magnetizing Equipment
(Cont.)

Conductive Cable
Prod

Portable Cable

Fixed Magnetizing Equipment

Page 12
 Pre-cleaning

When inspecting a test part with the magnetic particle method it is

essential for the particles to have an unimpeded path for migration to
both strong and weak leakage fields alike. The part’s surface should be
clean and dry before inspection.
Contaminants such as oil,
grease, or scale may not
only prevent particles from
being attracted to leakage
fields, they may also
interfere with interpretation
of indications.

Dry Particle Inspection

• Prepare the part surface

• Apply the magnetizing
force
• Dust on the dry
magnetic particles
• Gently blow off the
excess powder
• Terminate the
magnetizing force
• Inspect for indications

Page 13
 Wet Suspension Inspection

• Prepare the part

surface
• Apply the
suspension
• Apply the
magnetizing force
• Inspect for
indications

Examples of Visible Dry

Magnetic Particle Indications

Page 14
Examples of Fluorescent Wet Magnetic
Particle Indications

Crane Hook with

Service Induced Crack

Fluorescent, Wet Particle Method

Page 15
 Gear with Service Induced Crack

Fluorescent, Wet Particle Method

Drive Shaft with Heat Treatment

Induced Cracks

Fluorescent, Wet Particle Method

Page 16
Splined Shaft with Service Induced
Cracks

Fluorescent, Wet Particle Method

Threaded Shaft with Service Induced

Crack

Fluorescent, Wet Particle Method

Page 17
Large Bolt with Service Induced Crack

Fluorescent, Wet Particle Method

Crank Shaft with Service Induced Crack

Near Lube Hole

Fluorescent, Wet Particle Method

Page 18
Lack of Fusion in SMAW Weld

Indication

Visible, Dry Powder Method

Toe Crack in SMAW Weld

Visible, Dry Powder Method

Page 19
Throat and Toe Cracks in Partially
Ground Weld

Visible, Dry Powder Method

Advantages of Magnetic Particle

Inspection

• Can detect both surface and near sub-surface defects.

• Can inspect parts with irregular shapes easily.
• Precleaning of components is not as critical as it is for some
other inspection methods. Most contaminants within a flaw will
not hinder flaw detectability.
• Fast method of inspection and indications are visible directly on
the specimen surface.
• Considered low cost compared to many other NDT methods.
• Is a very portable inspection method especially when used with
battery powered equipment.

Page 20
 Limitations of Magnetic Particle
Inspection

• Cannot inspect non-ferrous materials such as aluminum,

magnesium or most stainless steels.
• Inspection of large parts may require use of equipment with
special power requirements.
• Some parts may require removal of coating or plating to achieve
desired inspection sensitivity.
• Limited subsurface discontinuity detection capabilities. Maximum
depth sensitivity is approximately 0.6” (under ideal conditions).
• Post cleaning, and post demagnetization is often necessary.
• Alignment between magnetic flux and defect is important

Glossary of Terms

• Black Light: ultraviolet light which is filtered to produce a

wavelength of approximately 365 nanometers. Black light will
cause certain materials to fluoresce.
• Central conductor: an electrically conductive bar usually made of
copper used to introduce a circular magnetic field in to a test
specimen.
• Coil: an electrical conductor such a copper wire or cable that is
wrapped in several or many loops that are brought close to one
another to form a strong longitudinal magnetic field.

Page 21
 Glossary of Terms

• Discontinuity: an interruption in the structure of the material such

as a crack.
• Ferromagnetic: a material such as iron, nickel and cobalt or one
of it’s alloys that is strongly attracted to a magnetic field.
• Heads: electrical contact pads on a wet horizontal magnetic
particle inspection machine. The part to be inspected is clamped
and held in place between the heads and shot of current is sent
through the part from the heads to create a circular magnetic field
in the part.
• Leakage field: a disruption in the magnetic field. This disruption
must extend to the surface of the part for particles to be attracted.

Glossary of Terms

• Non-relevant indications: indications produced due to some

intended design feature of a specimen such a keyways, splines or
press fits.
• Prods: two electrodes usually made of copper or aluminum that
are used to introduce current in to a test part. This current in turn
creates a circular magnetic field where each prod touches the part.
(Similar in principal to a welding electrode and ground clamp).
• Relevant indications: indications produced from something other
than a design feature of a test specimen. Cracks, stringers, or laps
are examples of relevant indications.

Page 22
 Glossary of Terms

• Suspension: a bath created by mixing particles with either oil or

water.
• Yoke: a horseshoe magnet used to create a longitudinal magnetic
field. Yokes may be made from permanent magnets or
electromagnets.

Page 23