WEEK 1

Prepared by:

Mr. Joshua Raniel Ivan C. Juane SHS Department

 The Study on Culture, Society, and Politics

Culture is the subject of Anthropology, society is for sociology, while politics is for political science.
These are disciplines of the social sciences.

The very goal of these disciplines is to prepare people for active and responsible civic engagement
through the development of critical thought. Exposure to these areas of discipline necessarily expose its
learners to the following:

• social diversity and inequality,

• self-reflective knowledge and practice,

• appreciation of complexity, and

• advocacy for social change and order.

Anthropology is the study of humans and their society in the past and present. Dealing with what makes
us human, anthropology delves in objects and materials we have created, our interconnectedness and
adaptability with environment, our lifestyle, our modes of communication, and our understanding of the
world around us.

Goals of Anthropology

• describe and analyze the biological evolution of mankind

• describe and assess the cultural development of our species

• describe, explain, and analyze the present-day human cultural similarities and differences

• describe and explain human biological diversity today

Political science is a social science discipline that deals with systems of government, and the analysis of
political activities and political behavior. Primarily, it helps people gain an understanding on “who gets
what, when they get it, and how they get it.”

Political science helps us understand politics, political institutions and behavior, public policy, and
philosophical concepts, such as justice, equality, fairness, and liberty; and on how the said subject matters
affect economy, public and private life, law, and public services.

Goals of Political Science

• be immersed in current affairs

• build an understanding on the local, national, and international politics

• learn how political activities are organized in and out of our country

• provide substantially critical and scientific contribution to government and society

Sociology is the study of human social relationships and institutions. This social sciences discipline
mainly focuses on society—its functions, its members, and its diversity.

Specifically, sociology tackles the basic unit of the society—the family; the functionality and relevance of
state as an important human institution; social issues on religion, crime, race, social class; and the stability
and instability of societies.

Specifically, sociology tackles the basic unit of the society—the family; the functionality and relevance of
state as an important human institution; social issues on religion, crime, race, social class; and the stability
and instability of societies.

Goals of Sociology

• understand ourselves better

• build a better understanding of mankind

• help with decision-making, both our own and that of larger organizations

• gather systematic information from which to make a decision, provide insights into what is going
on in a situation, and present alternatives

ACTIVITY 1: Individual Research

Directions: The teacher will let the students conduct an individual research on the basic concepts
and goals of Sociology, Anthropology and Political Science.

SOCIOLOGY ANTHROPLOGY POLITICAL SCIENCE

Anthropology and Sociology

Humans are interesting subjects for a study. The human story has a lot to say from their way of living to
the associations they form. The two interrelated scientific studies of society and colloquially known as the
twin social sciences are anthropology and sociology.

I. Anthropology

• Anthropology is the study of people throughout the world, their evolutionary history, how they
behave, adapt to different environments, communicate, and socialize with one another.

• Anthropology provides us with a big picture of what it means to be human.

• The study of anthropology is concerned with the biological features that make us human (such as
physiology, genetic makeup, nutritional history, and evolution) and with social aspects (such as language,
culture, politics, family. and religion).

II. Sociology

• Sociology is the study of human institutions and their relationships. This social sciences
discipline examines how human actions in modern societies are shaped by social groups and by wider
social, economic and political pressures.

• Sociology’s subject matter is diverse, ranging from crime to religion, from the family to the state,
from the divisions of race and social class to the shared beliefs of a common culture, and from social
stability to radical change in whole societies

Anthropological and Sociological Perspective on Culture and Society

In sociology, society is the leading concept while culture is subordinate. In anthropology, on the other
hand, culture comes first as a subject matter followed only by society.

Let us put the two concepts this way.

• When talking about culture, we are talking about things that are tangible, almost like objects.
They are our language, our technology, and our institutions - things like our churches, our schools, or
even our houses.

• However, culture is also intangible; it is our values and our behaviors. Our culture includes our
norms, the standards or rules of acceptable behavior.

• Culture is what makes society "them." It gives a community the form, shape, or identity.

• Society, sociologically speaking, is the people living and interacting with one another to create a
culture. Its population bonded together by their shared beliefs, attitudes, languages, and institutions; in
other words, by their culture

ACTIVITY 2: Group Research

 Directions: The teacher will divide the class into three groups
who will conduct a research anchored on the listed topics below:

Group 1: Philippine
Communication
Group 2: Philippine
Transportation
Group 3: Philippine Dances

Period Anthropology Sociology Political Science

Pre-Spanish

Spanish

American

Modern Society

WEEK 2
 Concept, Aspects and changes in/of culture and society

What is Culture?

 Culture in society refers to the ways of life of the members of a society, or of groups within the
society. It includes how people constructed their life, customs, values, norms, religions,
ceremonies, show the way they dress, eat, drink ect. In other words culture includes all our
behaviours and structured all our lives.

 Culture compromises both intangible aspects (beliefs, ideas and values) which form the content
of culture, and tangible aspects (the objects, symbols or technology) which represents that
content.

Society and Culture as a Complex Whole

Edward B. Tylor defined culture as "that complex whole which includes knowledge, art, belief, law,
morals, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society."

• With this premise, it can be said that culture is a result of society, which these two come together
and dependent on each other.

• Culture just like every person which comprise society is susceptible to change or even death.

• The society is not constant. Its members change from time to time. As a result, culture change
along. New trends exist. Technology innovates, and new forms of communications and thus interaction
have been created.

• People evolve over time as a result of their exposure to renewed or changed laws, values, and
standards of society.

Values and Norms

 In all cultures are the ideas which defined what is considered important and desirable. 2Are the
rules of behaviour which reflect or embody a culture’s values.
 Norms and values work together to shape how members of culture behave within their everyday
life.
Example: Hospitality gets norms like giving gifts, visited etc.
 Every culture differ from each other by values and norms.
Example: Individualism is a new value- modern society. In world are so many societies that
have high technology but they do not accept individualism as values for their society
(Arabia).
 Even within one society, community or groups, values may be contradictory (Children and
parents; Between people with different religions ect).
 In our changing life, filled with the global movement of people,ideas,goods and information,it is
not suprising that we encounter instance of cultural values in conflict.

Cultural Diversity
  The diversity of human bahviour,practices and cultural beliefs forms are so remarkable in a
society.
 Acceptable forms of behaviour vary widely from culture to culture and often contrast dramaticaly
with what people from Western societies consider ‘normal’.
Example: (Marriages in early age; Family structure; Way they give salutes; Kissing)

The Concept of Culture

 Monoculture structure is founded generaly in small societies.

-But some modern societies such as Japon, have remained fairly monocultural and are marked by high
levels of cultural homogenety.

 Subculture do not refer just only ethnic or linguistic groups within a large society. They concern
any segments of population which are distinguishable from the rest of society by their cultural
patterns.
 Subcultures are very broad in scape and might include Goths, Computer hackers, Hippies, Fans of
hip hop or football club supporters est.

Ethnocentrism

 Every culture has its own unique patterns of behaviour, which seem alien to people from other
cultural backgrounds.

Culture Shock

 Often people feel disoriented when they become immersed in a new culture. This happens
because they have lost the ‘familiar’ reference points which help them understand the world
around them and have not yet learned how to navigate in the new culture.

Socialization

The process by which children or other new member of society learn the way of life of their
society. Also socialization is the primary channel for the transmission of culture over time and
generations.

Two Types of Socialization

1. Primary Socialization: is the time when children learn language and basic behavioural patterns which
form the foundation for latter learning. The family is the main agent of socialization during this phase.

2. Secondary Socialization: In this phase other agents of the socialization take over some of responsibility
from family. Schools, peer groups, organizations, workplace and media become socializing forces for
individuals.
  Social interactions in these context help people learn the values, norms and beliefs which make
up the patterns of their culture.

Identity

 Identity is the fact of collecting ‘data’ from the family and the society’s culture where a social
actor is living. Form birth to death we are involved in interaction with others certainly conditions
our personalities, the values we hold and the behaviour we engage in. Socialization is also at the
origin of our very individual and freedom.
 Self identities refers to the process of self development through which we formulate a unique
sense of ourselves and our own relationships to the world around us.
 Refers to the characteristics that are attributed to an individual by others social actors and by the
culture’s values and norms. That can be seen as markers that indicate who that person is, in basic
sense.

A. Social identity: involve a collective dimension. They mark ways that others mark them at the
same way (common values, common norms etc).

Social Roles

 Through the process of socialization, individuals learn about social roles. Social roles are
defined by the social active and passive life.
 Expectations that a person in given social position follows is called also the part of a
social role. A social actor, has so much social roles in everyday life.
 The Greek philosopher Heraclitus pointed out that a person can not step into the same
river twice. On the second occasion, the river is different, since water has flowed along it
and the person has change in subtle ways too. (Difficult to defined, because there is a
sense in which everything changes all of the time)
 The changes that are going on in the world today are producing different cultures and
societies are much more interdependent that they everywhere before. (Electronic
communications)

Three main factors that effect Social Changes

 Has an effect on the development of human social organization. (Chiefs, Lords, Kings,
Governments etc) Includes the effects of religion, leadership and communication system.

Includes the effects of:

1. Religion may be either a conservative or an innovative force in social life.

2. The invention of writing for instance allows for keeping of records, making possible increased
control of material resources and the development of large scale organizations.

3. Politics has always been the main factor for social change (France and Britain revolution).

Society
  A society is a system of interrelationships which connects individuals together.
 It includes groups and communities of people that have relationships to each other by reference
of culture.

Types of Society

1. Hunting and Gathering

 Gain their livelihood from hunting, fishing and gathering edible plants growing in the wild
nature.
 This culture continues to exist in some parts of the world like Afica, Junles of Brazil and New
Guinea.
 Their occupations are religious values with ceremonial and ritual activities.
 They do not have division of rich and poor but difference of position tend to be at age and gender.
This type of societies are not primitive people, because they contain natural life.

Duties:

WOMEN: gather crops, cook, bring up the children

MAN: always hunter, tend to domain in public and ceremonial position

2. Pastorial and Agrarian Societies

 Raising domesticated animals and cultivations. Are people that relying mainly on the
domesticated livestock ( sheep, goats etc). Migrate according to the seasonal changes (Nomadic
hosts). Today: Africa, Middle East, Central Asia)
 Are people that grow crops (practice agricultures and Horticulture).

Duties:
Collections of crops Many pastoral and agrarian societies still exist in the modern world,
concentrated in areas of Africa, Middle East and Central Asia (Kazakhstan and Mongolia).

Three Non-Industrial and or Traditional Societies

 The society were based on the development of cities, showed very pronounced inequality of
wealth and power. Were associated with the rule of Kings or Emperors. Because the involved the
use of writing, science and art flourished, they are often called civilization base.
 The modern world contains industrial societies. Industrialization refers to the emergence of
machine production, based on the use of inanimate power resources like steam or electricity.
 The industrial modern societies or developed societies which are utterly different from any
previous type of social order and their development has consequences stretching for beyond their
European origins(it is an ideology and propaganda of western country).

ACTIVITY 1: Poster Making

Directions: The teacher will ask the students to make an illustrative interpretation
of the theme, “Society and culture as a complex whole”.
 Activity 2

WORD HUNT

WORD Search Directions: Circle the 10 words listed below. Words appear straight across, backword
straight across, up and down, down and up, and diagonally.Then write their meanings or describe
each word.

H U N T I N G A L A L O P E
A N A U D N G A L A L O P F
E F N H E U A Y U L I O K S
F R M O N O C U L T U R E E
B E A O T P P P P U U U I C
C D I K I A B A N A M U P O
U C U L T U R E L I G I O N
I G L V Y B O T T Y A A L D
M B O B T B L H Y U K A M A
A I O N A N E N D I L A O R
W I P M L M S O C I E T Y Y
L K A O A O R C O L Y A G H
A O A O C E E E H K R A H U
L O C I Y D D N R R T A L I
I T A O U A U T I O U A L L
O L B L O O P R I M A R Y O
O F B U I M O I I O L G J P
L H L I F E L S A D H I U L
E A A E R U I M K E A T L I

1. Hunting
2. Identity
3. Culture
4. Secondary
5. Ethnocentrism
6. Society
7. Religion
8. Primary
9. Social Roles
10. Monoculture
QUIZ
 WEEK 3
Ethnocentrism and Cultural Relativism
Cultural relativism
 Is the view that all beliefs, customs, and ethics are relative to the individual within his own social
context. In other words, “right” and “wrong” are culture-specific
 “Different cultures have different moral codes” often is used as a key to understanding morality.
Proponents argue that there is not as universal truth in ethics; there are only the various cultural
codes and nothing more. The customs of different societies is all that exist

Ethnocentrism

 Ethnocentrism is the view that one particular ethnic group is somehow superior to all others.
 A common idiom is “tunnel vision.” In this context, ethnocentrism is the view that a particular
ethnic group’s system of beliefs and values is morally superior to all others
 Discrimination plays a direct role in the ethnocentric belief. 
 During the exploration period the discrimination against blacks by whites was a major
controversial issue.
 In England many believed that the darker a person is the "dirtier and impure" they are.
 Some people believed that some races were not even races. Instead they were considered
animals and not humans. 

The Cultural Differences Argument

• Theory on the nature of morality

Argument from facts about differences between cultural outlooks to making conclusions about
the status of morality.

Ex.

1. Different cultures have different moral codes

2. Therefore, there are no objective truth in morality. Right and wrong are only matters of opinion, and
opinions vary from culture to culture.

Consequences of Accepting Cultural Relativism

1. We could no longer say that custom of other societies are morally inferior to others.

2. We could decide whether actions are right or wrong just by consulting the standards of our society.

3. The idea of moral progress is called into doubt

Case Study

1996, a 17 year old girl from Togo a West African country arrived in the US and asked for asylum to
avoid “ excision”, a practice referred to as “female circumcision” or “female genital mutilation”.
According to the WHO, the practice is widespread in 26 African countries and 2 million girls are
excised each year.

Reaction in the New York Times, encouraged the idea that excision was a barbaric practice and should
be condemned.

 Young girls often look forward to this because it a acceptance into adulthood. It is an accepted
practice in many villages.

Consequences of excision

 painful, results in permanent loss of sexual pleasure, hemorrhage, tetanus, septicemia, death,
chronic infections, hinder walking, chronic pain
 Apparent no social benefits, not a matter of religious beliefs

Human Rights & Cultural Relativism

 Female Genital Mutilation poses a significant health risk to women. It can lead to infection,
death, permanent psychological damage, among other complications. Women subject to this
practice are being oppressed by men seeking to reinforce their dominance over females
 Is excision, harmful or helpful? Cultural Relativist would conclude that excision has been
practiced for centuries and we should not intervene and change ancient ways

ACTIVITY 3: Group Discussion

Directions: The teacher will group the class into 4 and allow them to discuss among the themselves the
advantages and disadvantages of culural relativism and ethnocentrism.

Advantages Disadvantages

Cultural relativism

Etnocentrism
 Activity 2: Individual Research

Directions: Research on cultural relativism and ethnocentrism with corresponding examples.

CULTURAL RELATIVISM ETHNOCENTRISM

QUIZ
 WEEK 4

Gender and Gender Roles

People play different roles in society depending on one’s age and occupation. There are jobs that require a specific
gender to perform tasks while other jobs are open to both men and women.

Gender
 Gender refers to social, cultural, and psychological characteristics or traits related to males and females
based on certain social contexts.

 It is different from sex, which refers to the biological characteristics that distinguish a male from a female.

 Thus, sex makes a person male or female, while gender makes a person masculine or feminine.

Gender Roles

 Gender roles refer to attitudes and behaviors that the society expects a person to exhibit based on his/her
sex.
 For example, in the traditional Philippine society, women are expected to be plain housewives and take
care of the children, while the men are expected to be a professional and provide the needs of his family.

 Another example is how society expects women to be more emotional and sensitive while men should be
strong and capable of doing things that women cannot do.

Gender Roles in Pre-colonial Philippine Society

During pre-colonial Philippines, males and females enjoy the same rights and privileges. There are different social
functions that are assigned to different members of the society. However, there are functions that are specifically
given to males or females or both.

The babaylan (Visayan) or catalonan (Tagalog) is a shaman or priestess who performs various religious and social
functions. The babaylan can either be a man or a woman, but the role is often given to women.

Aside from being a priestess, the babaylan is also considered a healer, an adviser, and a seer.

Gender Roles in the Philippine Society During Colonial Period

Gender roles during the colonial period had changed drastically. Women were restrained from other activities
outside their homes, while men were given more social functions. These roles also changed as the Philippines was
occupied by new colonizers.

 Upon the coming of the Spaniards and the introduction of Catholicism, the babaylan lost their role in the
religious life of the Indios. This role was taken over by Catholic priests.

 Women were also relegated to doing household chores and taking care of children. More often than not,
young women were not sent to school; rather, they are trained to be good wives and mothers for their future
families. Some women were also forced to marry someone they do not love for economic and political
gain.

 During the American period, women became more open. They were allowed to study and work in
whatever field they want. They also became “liberated,” which is a term used by older people to refer to
 Filipino women who have adopted American values. Men and women became equal, in the sense that it is
acceptable for both genders to have jobs and to be educated.

 Although men and women were able to maintain their status in society during the Japaneseperiod, women
were usually kept inside their houses to protect them from abusive Japanese soldiers. Men also became
busy defending the country, with most of them serving as soldiers.

Gender Roles in Current Philippine Society

Philippine society today is more open to allowing both men and women to perform different tasks, not based solely
on gender, but on an individual’s capabilities and strengths. For example, fields like engineering, architecture, and
medicine, which is often associated with men, have long been open to women. Likewise, there are also a lot of male
teachers, nurses, and even chefs and hairdressers.

Cultural Variations and Social Differences (Socioeconomic Class)

The Philippine society can be categorized into various socioeconomic classes. During the prehistoric times, our
ancestors have developed a society where people were assigned with different social functions. However, as the
society changes, differences in one’s function in the society became wider and more diverse.

Socioeconomic Classes during the Pre-Colonial Period

Prior to the coming of the Spaniards, the community is called a barangay. It is headed by a datu orraha. Our
ancestors were divided into three different groups: the maharlika, the timawa, and thealipin.

Maharlika (Leaders and Royals)

 first social class

 composed of the leaders (datu) and their families
 also called the group of the maginoo, raha, or gat

Timawa (Freemen)

 second or “middle” social class

 composed of all freemen living in the barangay
 consists of workers, warriors, merchants, and others who are not under debt bondage
 have their own property like their own houses and a piece of land to cultivate

Alipin (Slaves)

 third class
 serve another person or family as payment for debt
 became an alipin when their family lose in a war with another family
 are not bound to their master for life
 can go back to their previous status as soon as they pay off their debts, or if they marry amaharlika, who
will then pay for their debt
 has two kinds of alipin: the aliping saguiguilid and the aliping namamahay

Aliping namamahay

 has their own property, like a house or a piece of land

 often from the timawa class and became alipin because of debt or as punishment for a wrongdoing
  can go back to being part of the timawa class once they pay off their debt

Aliping saguiguilid

 does not have the right to own any property

 often came from a family of alipin or are captives in war
 can also be sold or exchanged for goods or other alipin

Socioeconomic Classes during the Spanish Colonial Period

Upon the coming of the Spaniards, they changed the society and created a new set of socioeconomic class. During
this period, the people were divided based on their ancestry—peninsulares, insulares,mestizo, and indio.

Peninsulares

 Spaniards in the Philippines who were born in Spain

 came from “peninsula,” meaning "came directly from the Spanish peninsula"

Insulares

 Spaniards who were of Spanish descent but were born in the Philippines
 came from “insular,” meaning "from the islands"

Mestizo

 those of mixed ancestry

 usually children of Spanish and Chinese couples or of Spanish and Indio couples
 have both economic and political power, coming from their mixed heritage

Indio

 consists of the natives

 the lowest class in the society
 were stripped of their rights and freedom and were forced to bow down to the Spanish colonizers

This kind of system lasted for hundreds of years, until such time when some insulares and mestizos were able to
gain some form of power. In the 19th century, the so-called “middle class” emerged—theprincipalia and
the ilustrado.

Principalia

 consists of native leaders in the government and their families

 are often educated and served as a gobernadorcillo (town mayor) or cabeza de barangay(barangay leader)

Ilustrados

 the children of the principalia who usually studied in Europe

 most of the popular artists and scholars at that time, including Jose Rizal

Modern Socioeconomic Classes

Socioeconomic classes changed when the Philippines gained independence from Spain. The Americans introduced
democracy and did not impose any form of socioeconomic classes.
At present, a person’s position in the society is based mainly on his or her family’s economic status.Social
stratification, or the division of society based on occupation and income, wealth or power; is simpler at present than
in the past.

The National Statistical Coordination Board (NSCB) divided the population into high-income, middle-income,
and low-income classes.

High-income Class

 people earning an average of P200,000 a month, or approximately P2.4 million a year

 the “rich” class and accounts for merely one percent of the country’s total population

Middle-income Class

 people earning an average of P36,000 per month

 consists of professionals and small-scale entrepreneurs

Low-income Class

 people earning less than P10,000 a month

 consists of laborers and minimum wage earners

Social Mobility
Unlike in other societies where one who is born into a specific class has no choice but to die as part of the same
class, people in the Philippines usually have the opportunity to transfer from a lower socioeconomic class to a higher
one. This is called social mobility.

 the movement of people or families within or between different levels in the society
 the opportunity to transfer from a lower socioeconomic class to a higher one
 possible through education, or in some cases, through marriage

Key Points

 Knowing about one’s socioeconomic class is not a cause for discrimination. Everyone in the Philippines
has the same set of rights, regardless of his/her socioeconomic class.
 Anyone can move from one socioeconomic class to the other, depending on his/her educational attainment
and decisions in life.
 If one can move from one socioeconomic class to a higher one, it is also possible for one to move from a
higher class to a lower one.
 Social mobility is the movement of people or families within or between different levels in the society.
 Social stratification is the division of society based on occupation and income, wealth or power.

Cultural Variations and Social Differences (Ethnicity)

Ethnicity and Race

Every society consists of people from different families, ethnic groups, and races. This makes society very diverse
and unique.

 Ethnicity refers to a group of people, also called ethnic group, who have a common or shared culture,
language, history, religion, and tradition.
 Here, the people are divided into groups based on different social factors.
Examples: Filipinos, Malays, Anglo-Saxons, and Muslims.

 Race refers to a group of people who share the same physical attributes, such as skin color, height, and
facial features.
 People are grouped into different races based on their physical appearance.
 Human beings are classified into three major races: Caucasoid, Mongoloid, and Negroid.
 These classifications are based on the color of the skin, the shape of the face, texture of the hair, shape of
the eyes, and other prominent physical features.

PHYSICAL RACE
FEATURES Caucasoid Mongoloid Negroid
Skin color Fair Yellowish Dark
Hair Light colored; straight Straight; black Curly; black
or wavy
Eyes Round Almond-shaped Large round
Others High nose bridge Low to medium nose Low nose bridge
bridge
Origin Americas and Europe Asia Africa

Two people belonging to the same race may be part of different ethnic groups. For example, Asians belong to the
Mongoloid race but consists of different ethnic groups like the Japanese, the Chinese, and the Malays. They all share
the same physical features but have different culture, history, and language.

Ethnolinguistic Groups in the Philippines

There are more than 180 ethnic or ethnolinguistic groups in the Philippines, which are based on the language each
group use.

 There are eight major ethnolinguistic groups in the country:

1. Ilokano, 5. Bikolano
2. Kapampangan, 6. Ilonggo
3. Pangasinense, 7. Cebuano and
4. Tagalog, 8. Waray-waray.
 Other smaller ethnolinguistic groups are the Ibanag, Ivatan, Sambal, Subanon, Maguindanaoan, and
Zambuangueño.

There are also indigenous groups in the country that may belong to the same ethnolingguistic groups, but have a
different culture, tradition, or culture. Some of them are the Mangyans of Mindoro, the Igorots of the Mountain
Province, and the Moros of Mindanao.

Issues About Race and Ethnicity

Ethnicity and race are categories that divide people based on their social affinity or physical similarity. However,
differences in ethnicity and race made some people believe that one ethnic group is better or superior than others.
Thus, this belief creates discrimination and prejudice against people from minor or perceived to be “inferior”
ethnicity or race.

There are different types of discrimination against one’s ethnicity or race:

Racism
  Racism is discrimination or prejudice based on one’s race.
 In the 1970s, white Americans (Caucasians) discriminated black Americans (Negroids), who were
descendants of immigrants from African countries.

Genocide

 Genocide is the elimination of a group of people from the same race, ethnic group, religion or nation.
 It is an extreme action against people from other ethnicity or race.
 The Holocaust during the World War II, done by the Nazis of Germany and headed by Adolf Hitler, killed
millions of Jews all over Europe.

Ethnic cleansing

 Ethnic cleansing is the harassment, rape, or forced migration of an ethnic group to vanish them from a
certain area or territory.
 This happens in certain areas in Africa.

Cultural Variations and Social Differences(Religion)

Religion as a Cultural Variation

 We live in a world with varying and diverse cultures.

 Cultural variation or differences take many forms within and among societies. One of which is religion.

 Religion can be defined as a set of practices and behaviors that relate to a group of people's belief in a God
or a group of gods.

 Sociologists studying religion consider it a part of society's culture.

 In most cases, religion not only affects a person's belief, but one's way of life.

Variety of Religion
 There are many religions around the world.

 Among the major religions in the world are Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Taoism, andBuddhism.

 Each of these religions has its own set of beliefs and practices that must be followed by its believers.

 In a society, several religions may exist and since religion affects an individual’s way of life, we can
observe the cultural variation in the form of different religions.

Religion in the Philippines

 The Philippines is a secular country, which means that the government does not prescribe a specific set of
activities or laws based on religion. A citizen's right to choose his or her own religion is protected by the
Philippine Constitution.

 In the Philippines, the majority of the population are Christians, with a certain portion of the population
practicing Islam, particularly in the southern part of the country.

 Buddhism, Taoism, and Hinduism are also practiced by a small number of inhabitants in the archipelago.
  Different religions are being practiced in the Philippine society today. This variation in religion is a product
of the evolution of Philippine society across time.

Understanding Cultural Variation in the Form of Religion

 Cultural variations do exist as exemplified through different religions in the world, more so in our
Philippine society.

 For example, Christians and Muslims believe in one God, yet Hindus believe in many gods, while
Buddhists do not.

 The sets of practices and beliefs of a particular religion influence the behavior of its followers and their
interaction with other members of the society.

Issues Surrounding Differences in Religion

Because the people have different religions, issues and conflicts between religious groups or denominations cannot
be prevented.

Problems/Conflicts

 Since a difference in religion does not only mean worshipping a different god, conflicts sometimes arise
between their believers.
 Some believers of a particular religion feel like they are being marginalized, while some feel like those
following other religions are taking advantage of their number.
  It may come easy to be swayed by religious differences and start a conflict. A believer or follower of a
particular religion may offend a follower of another religion if he or she imposes his or her beliefs or
practices of his or her religion.
 In history, bloody wars happened because of religious differences, and unfortunately, conflicts continue
until now due to varying religions.

Solutions/Actions

 To prevent conflicts, the Philippine government, for example, has started recognizing some of the special
days in different religions.
 Employees are not required to work during Holy Week; wherein Catholics commemorate the suffering and
death of Jesus Christ.
 The start and the end of the Ramadan are also considered holidays, just like when the Chinese celebrate the
start of their new year.
 This way, the government allows followers of different religions to attend to their religious obligations
without their work getting in the way.
 To those conflicts brought about by differences in religion, the key word here is respect. And respect entails
a conscious effort of acquiring cultural knowledge and understanding which this course is mainly about.

Cultural Variations and Social Differences(Exceptionality)

Exceptionality and the Exceptional People

People has different characteristics, needs, desires, lifestyles, and challenges. However, there are people who, from
one reason or another, are described or categorized by the society as exceptional.

What do the words "gifted," "disabled," "challenged," or "different" mean to you? How does society influence your
knowledge and attitudes toward people with labels and differences?

Exceptionality

 a quality or a characteristic of a person that makes him or her different from an established norm in a
society
  various physical and mental interference or problems that affect a person and which makes it difficult for
him/her to function properly in society

Existing Categories of Exceptionality

Behavior Communication Intellectual Physical Multiple
Exceptionalities
Excessive fears or Autism Giftedness Physical
anxieties disability
A tendency to Deaf Mild intellectual Orthopedic
compulsive reaction disability impairment
A combination of
Inability to build Language impairment Development Health
one or more
and sustain disability impairment such
disabilities or
satisfactory as asthma
impairment
interpersonal
relationships
Speech Impairment Blind and low
vision
Exceptional people

 who differ from societal and community standard of normalcy

 with learning or behavioral problems and with physical and sensory disabilities
 who are intellectually gifted

The characteristics which make a person exceptional may have been acquired from birth, through a medical
condition, or through an accident.

Exceptional People: Challenges and Problems

Exceptional people, disabled or intellectually gifted, encounter challenges and issues in dealing with other members
of the society.

Here are some of the common problems and challenges that exceptional people experience.

Overcoming Challenges and Problems

In the Philippines, despite the passage of Republic Act 7277 or the Magna Carta for People with Disabilities
(PWDs) in 1991, there are still significant barriers that keep them from fully participating in the society---including
the stigma surrounding disability and the society’s poor understanding of the abilities and aspirations of exceptional
people. However, the government, private sectors, media, and some concerned groups have been working together
to solve these existing problems.

Here are some ways on how both private and public sectors have been helping them.

This symbol is the International Symbol of Access (ISA). It can be found at places that are designated for all persons
with disabilities. The location or spot is intended for them.

 special education classes for all students with physical or learning disabilities.

Cultural Variations and Social Difference(Nationality)

Nation, Nationality, and Citizenship

The line of distinction between the terms "nation" and "nationality" is quite thin. Most of the time, "nationality" and
"citizenship" are used interchangeably. However, it is important to note that these words do not mean the same and
pertain to different concepts. They differ in many aspects.

Nation

 a large aggregate of people united by common descent, history, culture, language, and economic life
inhabiting a particular country or territory

Example:

The United Kingdom is a country inhabited mainly by people of four nations: English, Irish, Scott, and Welsh.

Whereas the term nation emphasizes a particular group of people, country emphasizes the physical dimensions and
boundaries of a geographical area, while state is a self-governing legal and political entity.

Nationality
 a person’s instinctive membership to a specific nation or country

 can be acquired by an individual from the country where he/she was born (jus soli)
  can be acquired by an individual through his/her parents (jus sanguinis)

 An individual is national of a particular country by birth. Nationality is acquired through

inheritance from his or her parents.

 People with the same nationality often share the same language, culture, territory, and in some cases,
ancestry. They share the same rights and are protected by the same laws.

Citizenship
 a person’s legal and political status in a city or state, which means that an individual has been registered
with the government in some country

 An individual becomes a citizen of a country only when he is accepted into that country’s political
framework through legal terms.

Examples:

 An individual born in the Philippines has a Filipino nationality. Chances are, he may have a Brazilian or
Colombian citizenship once he has registered with that country.

 People of the European Union (maybe French, Germans, English, and others) may have European Union
citizenship, but that person’s nationality does not change.

 No one will be able to change his nationality, but one can have different citizenships.

Filipino Nationality
 The Philippine nationality law is based on the principles of jus sanguinis or "right of blood." Therefore,
anyone with a parent who is a citizen or national of the Republic of the Philippines can acquire Philippine
citizenship. This is the primary method of acquiring citizenship.

 For those born in the Philippines to non-Filipino parents, the Administrative Naturalization Law of 2000
(R.A. 9139) provides a trail for administrative naturalization for those who qualify.

Issues Regarding Nationality and Statelessness

What are some issues concerning nationality and statelessness?

Right to a Nationality

 Every person has a right to a nationality.

 The right to a nationality is a fundamental human right. It is an individual’s right to acquire, change, or
retain his or her nationality. Thus, a country’s law cannot deprive a person the right to gain a nationality, in
case he or she loses it.

Statelessness

 People who does not have a nationality of any country are considered as stateless people.
 According to Article 1 of the 1954 Convention relating to the Status of Stateless Persons of the United
Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), "a stateless person is someone who is not
considered as a national by any State under the operation of its law."
  Most stateless people are considered "refugees" while others lose their nationality due to war, conflict, or if
their country is annexed by another country and loses its sovereignty.

This concern is also true in areas and territories under war and conflict.

The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) handles all issues regarding refugees and
stateless people. The role of UNHCR is to identify stateless people and protect their rights, as well as to prevent
statelessness from happening all over the world. They also aid stateless people in acquiring new citizenship in other
countries.

Social, Political, and Cultural Behavior and Phenomena

 
Social behavior and phenomena are broad and complicated sociological concepts. These involve every event
between at least two individuals and include all knowledge and experiences a person acquires in the entirety of his
lifetime.

Social phenomena are the individual, external, and social constructions that influence a person’s life and
development.

Political Behavior and Phenomena

In sociology, political behavior and phenomena include events through which authority, governance, and public
opinion are put into practice.

A political behavior of a person or a group may be influenced by their political views, ideology, and levels of
political participation. An obvious example of an act of political behavior is the act of voting.

Political phenomena are not only limited to public office as this also include how institutions like school, a church,
or companies are ran and governed.
Cultural Behavior and Phenomena
Also known as bandwagon effect, a cultural behavior is that event when certain individuals behave a certain way
merely because other persons do as well.

Cultural phenomena happen when something or someone gains widespread popularity. However, it is noteworthy
that it is not the subject that is the cultural phenomena but rather a process of becoming famous.

Interactions within Society

The social, political, and cultural behavior and phenomena in the society are results of the interaction within society.
People talk and share stories. People share ways of living among other things. People do things together and work
for the attainment of the common good and social order. These behaviors, be they usual or not, are but a natural
response to changes, and ideologies developing within society as a result of constant interactions between members
of society

Social, Political, and Cultural Change

Social change is the transformation of social institutions over time. Cultural change, on the other hand, is the
transformation of culture or the way people live.
  Communication is a vital human process. Through communication, people exchange information and
thoughts.

 Unlike in the older times, communication is made easier.

 Nowadays, people can share information in just a click. New media – social networking, texting (text
messaging), through e-mail, and the likes – have defied time and distance.

 While it makes the world as if borderless, this form of communication may produce individuals who lack
the basic understanding of direct and personal connection.

Transnational Families
 A transnational family is where one parent, or in some cases both parents, lives and works in another
country while the children remain in their country of origin.

 While these families remain secured financially, its members are also exposed to its setbacks.

 Children who become overly unsupervised find themselves meeting up with peer pressure, over
independence, and lack of family orientation. These may result in alcohol or drug abuse, unwanted
pregnancy, mood swings, or early marriage.

Political change happens when the rulers of a country lose power or when the type of governance in the country
changes. Governance is the kind of system or ideology used to express authority in a country. It may be a
democracy, monarchy, oligarchy, and others.

Local public services are provided by the government to people living within its jurisdiction, either directly
(through the public sector) or by financing provision of services.

Youth Volunteerism
Volunteerism is the use or involvement of a volunteer or free labor in community services.

Mechanisms of Changes
There are different mechanisms or tools of social and cultural changes.

Diffusion is the process through which the cultural traits of one society are borrowed, transmitted, and adopted by
another one and considered as its own.

Examples:

 Migration

 Globalization

Invention is the process whereby new cultural elements are created to solve social and cultural problems.

Example: Internet

Discovery is the process whereby we recognize or gain a better understanding of already existing elements present
in the environment.

Example: Scientific Research
Changes within Society
Change is said to be constant. It is inevitable. It is expected to happen. No one can stop it. But the big question is
what makes it happen. Of course, there are many factors—social, political, or cultural.

Along with time, people, environment, and ideologies change. People move in and move out. People live and die.
People's stories and experiences change. People make discoveries and innovations.

Environment change as well—nature, water, earth, minerals, climate, seasons, sources of raw materials, and energy.

New knowledge replaces the old ones. Slavery has been banned. Civil rights are granted to those who were once
deprived of it. Same-sex marriage is in its worldwide recognition. Everything changes. Nothing is permanent but
change, so they say.

And all these contribute significantly to changes people experience socially, politically, and culturally.

Aspects of Culture: Dynamic, Flexible, and Adaptive

There are different aspects of culture as art, music, language, food, daily life, clothing, and religion to name a few.
These aspects of culture show us that culture is dynamic, flexible, and adaptive.

Culture constantly changes and adapts to the current state of the society. It continuously restores itself whenever
customs are not fit in the current situation anymore. It does not remain stagnant.

Examples:

 In the aspect of music, we can see that music may change from time to time. The traditional music during
the 1920s was mostly jazz, ragtime, and broadway musical while the popular music during the 1970s was
disco music.

 Because we are now more inclined in using computers and tablets especially when playing games, some
children were not able to play street games anymore. This pushed some game developers to introduce
Filipino street games as video games.

 When it comes to language, we can also see how culture adapts to changing times. We have already
developed new words related to the internet like memes, netizens, vines, and others.

Aspects of Culture: Shared and Contested

Culture is learned and acquired through different interactions with people. Culture is a shared learning experience.
Because culture constantly changes, we get to share the learning process with other people.
If culture is learned and shared, it is also contested in various ways and situations. Because of diversity, culture is
subjected to debate and analysis.

Aspects of Culture: Socialization and Enculturation

Society is different from culture. Within a society are many diverse cultures. While the members of society share
many of the same expectations and experiences, the cultural groups create ones that differentiate them from others in
the community.

Socialization is the process through which people learn to understand the societal norms or expectations and
societal values as a member of the society.

Enculturation is the process by which an individual adopts the behavior patterns of the culture in which a person is
immersed.

Agents of Socialization
There are different agents of socialization: family, community, mass media, and religion.

Family
 The family is the first social group that we all have. It is considered as the most important social group that
a person has. It is also considered as the principal agent of socialization.
  We first start learning things with the help of our parents and our whole family. They are the main source
of our traits, behaviors, the values, norms and rules that we follow, and the ideas we initially believe in.

Community
 Outside our homes, we get to interact with people and institutions from our community. One is the school.
In schools, we expose to ideas, values, norms, and behavior that may be different from what we learned in
our family.

 We also get to interact with other people from our community who become our peers. Since children and
teenager spend most of their time with their peers, researches show that peer groups can create their sub-
culture (Mondal, 2015).

 Our peers can also influence us with different norms, values, and behavior that they got from their families,
and vice versa.

Mass Media
 One of the biggest influences in our culture is mass media. Mass media comes in the form of television,
movies, books, magazines, and now even social networking sites. Mass media proved to play a major role
in shaping the culture and behavior of an individual (Mondal, 2015).

 Unfortunately, we can learn both good and bad behaviors through mass media that is why it is very
important that we are supervised when we are accessing all forms of media.

Religion

 Another agent is our religion. Through our family, we are immediately exposed to the teachings of our
religion. It helps shape us as individuals and equips us with the attitude and behavior our religion deems
right.

Aspects of Culture II
We have learned that culture is dynamic, flexible, and adaptive. It is also shared and contested in various ways and
situations.

Aside from these characteristics, there are also other aspects of culture as discussed below:

Learned through Socialization or Enculturation

Socialization is an ongoing process of learning language, behaviors, customs, values, norms, and others to acquire a
personal identity. It helps us learn the culture. Socialization also teaches us how to interact with other people and
helps us develop the behaviors that we think are inborn or part of human nature. It is an essential part of building our
character and preserving, spreading, and strengthening our culture.

Another way of learning other cultures is called enculturation. For example, your friend migrated to America with
her family. You noticed on her Facebook that after three months of being in America, she started to act and look
differently and she is using some slang words you only hear Americans say. This is the process of enculturation.
Your friend is slowly starting to adapt to the American culture because it is necessary so she would fit in.

Transmitted through Socialization or Enculturation

Culture can also be transmitted from one person to another, and even from one society to another. One good
example of this is the transmission of a culture of the Spanish to the Filipinos during the Spanish colonization. The
transfer of Spanish culture to the Filipinos is done through both socialization and enculturation. We learned their
culture by socializing with them, through the church and the schools they established.
Aspects of Culture III: Patterned Social Interaction

Patterned Social Interaction

Socialization helps us acquire both good and bad parts of our culture. How do we identify the good and the bad?

There are five patterns of social interaction: exchange, cooperation, competition, conflict, and coercion.

Exchange
It is the most basic pattern of socialization. Exchange or social exchange is our expectation that whenever we do
something good, we will receive something good in return (Thompson and Hickey, 2005, p.129).

Example: You help your mother wash the dishes so that she will let you play outside with your friends.

Cooperation is when people or groups of people work together to achieve a common goal. Cooperation is
considered to be essential for human survival because, without cooperation, social life would be unmanageable
(Thompson and Hickey, 2005, p.129).

Example: The cooperation between the husband and wife in raising their children. Without their cooperation, their
child would not grow up the way they want him/her to be.

There are also negative social interactions that are necessary for us to develop and sharpen our behavior and culture.

Competition may be viewed as the opposite of cooperation because instead of working together towards a common
goal, competing individuals or groups battle to achieve the target that only one can have (Thompson and Hickey,
2005, p.129).

Example: You badly want to win the spelling bee competition because you want your parents to be proud of you.
You studied and practiced hard and eventually won. Whether or not you win, at least you got to enhance your
spelling skills.

Conflict arises when people disobey rules, control a person by force, or hurt other people just to achieve their goals.
But conflict isn't always considered as bad. The existence of a conflict can strengthen the unity within a group
because they are threatened by an external factor (Thompson and Hickey, 2005, p.129).

Example: You and your sibling fight over the TV almost every night, but when conflict arises between you and
your parents, you and your sibling team up.

Coercion happens when a person uses threats or force to persuade another person (Dictionary.com). People usually
coerce others when they cannot achieve their goals on their own.
Example: You force your brother to do your chores by threatening him that you’ll tell your mother that he failed his
exam.

Aspect of Culture: Requires Language for Social Interaction

In every interaction that we do, language is the most important tool that we always use.

 Language is considered as the transporter of a large part of our culture because some parts of our culture
are passed on through our mouths, there are no written records (Young, 1930).

 We can perform the patterns of social interaction through the use of language.

 Language is not only restricted to verbal language, but we also use non-verbal language or body language
when we interact with others. Our first interaction with a stranger is usually a smile. This shows that
language, whether verbal or non-verbal, can help us learn and acquire culture.

Aspect of Culture:Integrated and at Times Unstable

The patterns of social interaction are connected with each other and may change from time to time. Our social
interaction may change from being cooperative to having competition or conflict. A simple social exchange may
lead to cooperation. A small competition may result in a big conflict.

Example: You and your sibling fight over little things almost every day. When you came to school the next day,
you saw your sibling being bullied by his classmates. You immediately came to his aid and you cooperated with
each other to stop the bullies. This scenario shows that even if you and your sibling fight almost every day, you will
still tend to unite in times of need.

Aspects of Culture I
There are different aspects of culture as art, music, language, food, daily life, clothing, and religion to name a few.
These aspects of culture show us that culture is dynamic, flexible, and adaptive.

Dynamic, Flexible, and Adaptive

Culture constantly changes and adapts to the current state of the society. It continuously restores itself whenever
customs are not fit in the current situation anymore. It does not remain stagnant.

Shared and Contested

Culture is learned and acquired through different interactions with people. Culture is a shared learning experience.
Because culture constantly changes, we get to share the learning process with other people. If culture is learned and
shared, it is also contested in different ways and situations. Because of diversity, culture is subjected to debate and
analysis.

Aspect of Culture II
Culture is learned and transmitted through socialization or enculturation.

Learned through Socialization or Enculturation

Socialization is an ongoing process of learning language, behaviors, customs, values, norms, and others to acquire a
personal identity. It helps us learn the culture. Socialization also teaches us how to interact with other people and
helps us develop the behaviors that we think are inborn or part of human nature.

Transmitted through Socialization or Enculturation

Culture can also be transmitted from one person to another and even one society to another. One good example of
this is the transmission of a culture of the Spaniards/Spanish to the Filipinos during the Spanish colonization. The
transfer of Spanish culture to the Filipinos is done through both socialization and enculturation.
Aspects of Culture III
We have learned that culture is dynamic, flexible, and adaptive; shared and contested in various ways and situations;
and learned and transmitted through socialization or enculturation.

Let us continue identifying some aspects of culture.

Patterned Social Interaction

Socialization helps us acquire both good and bad parts of our culture. How do we identify the good and the bad?

There are five patterns of social interaction: exchange, cooperation, competition, conflict, and coercion.

Exchange
It is the most basic pattern of socialization. Exchange or social exchange is our expectation that whenever we do
something good, we will receive something good in return (Thompson and Hickey, 2005, p.129).

Example: You help your mother wash the dishes so that she will let you play outside with your friends.

Cooperation
Cooperation is when people or groups of people work together to achieve a common goal. Cooperation is
considered to be essential for human survival because, without cooperation, social life would be unmanageable
(Thompson and Hickey, 2005, p.129).

Example: The cooperation between the husband and wife in raising their children. Without their cooperation, their
child would not grow up the way they want him/her to be.

There are also negative social interactions that are necessary for us to develop and sharpen our behavior and culture.

Competition
Competition may be viewed as the opposite of cooperation because instead of working together towards a common
goal, competing individuals or groups battle to achieve the target that only one can have (Thompson and Hickey,
2005, p.129).

Example: You badly want to win the spelling bee competition because you want your parents to be proud of you.
You studied and practiced hard and eventually won. Whether or not you win, at least you got to enhance your
spelling skills.

Conflict
Conflict arises when people disobey rules, control a person by force, or hurt other people just to achieve their goals.
But conflict isn't always considered as bad. The existence of a conflict can strengthen the unity within a group
because they are threatened by an external factor (Thompson and Hickey, 2005, p.129).
Example: You and your sibling fight over the TV almost every night, but when conflict arises between you and
your parents, you and your sibling team up.

Coercion
Coercion happens when a person uses threats or force to persuade another person (Dictionary.com). People usually
coerce others when they cannot achieve their goals on their own.

Example: You force your brother to do your chores by threatening him that you’ll tell your mother that he failed his
exam.

Requires Language for Social Interaction

In every interaction that we do, language is the most important tool that we always use.

 Language is considered as the transporter of a large part of our culture because some parts of our culture
are passed on through our mouths, there are no written records (Young, 1930).
 We can perform the patterns of social interaction through the use of language.
 Language is not only restricted to verbal language, but we also use non-verbal language or body language
when we interact with others. Our first interaction with a stranger is usually a smile. This shows that
language, whether verbal or non-verbal, can help us learn and acquire culture.
 Integrated and at Times Unstable
 The patterns of social interaction are connected with each other and may change from time to time. Our
social interaction may change from being cooperative to having competition or conflict. A simple social
exchange may lead to cooperation. A small competition may result in a big conflict.
 Example: You and your sibling fight over little things almost every day. When you came to school the next
day, you saw your sibling being bullied by his classmates. You immediately came to his aid and you
cooperated with each other to stop the bullies. This scenario shows that even if you and your sibling fight
almost every day, you will still tend to unite in times of need.

Cultural Forms and Threats

Cultural Heritage
Legacy is what remains after one’s time. Handed down from one generation to another, legacy magnifies one’s life
and living. It is said that legacy is what cultural heritage is.

According to John Feather, cultural heritage is a human creation intended to inform.

 architectures such as buildings, houses, and structures

 artifacts like books, documents, objects, images, clothing, accessories, and jars
 things that made people who they are like oral stories, values, laws, norms, rituals, and traditions

Cultural heritage helps historians and archaeologists understand and decipher the way of living people of yesterday
had. Through these objects, we are presented with facts and figures which help us draw the landscape of the world
once was.

Tangible and Intangible Heritage

Cultural heritage is a representation of the ways of living established by society or group and passed on from
generation to generation. Cultural heritage can be categorized as either tangible or intangible.

Tangible Heritage
Tangible means perceptible, touchable, concrete, or physical. A tangible heritage is a physical artifact or objects
significant to the archaeology, architecture, science, or technology of a specific culture.
Objects that can be stored are included in this category:

 traditional clothing,
 utensils (such as bead work, water vessels),
 vehicles (such as the ox wagon),
 documents (codes, laws, land titles, literature), and
 public works and architecture built and constructed by a cultural group (buildings, historical places,
monuments, temples, graves, roads, and bridges fall into this category as well).

Intangible Heritage
Intangible is the opposite of tangible. Unlike tangible heritage, an intangible heritage is not a physical or concrete
item. Intangible heritage is that which exists intellectually in the culture.

Intangible heritage includes:

 songs,
 myths,
 beliefs,
 superstitions,
 oral poetry,
 stories, and
 various forms of traditional knowledge such as ethnobotanical knowledge.

Threats to Tangible and Intangible Heritage

There was a time in contemporary history when museums were in constant search and hurry to look for historical
materials to display. Due to the ascent of demand for cultural materials, opportunists saw this as an avenue for them
to earn money. They invented materials and claim that these were excavated or unearthed and once owned by a
cultural group.

 Documents whose authenticity are yet to be determined include Hitler diaries, crystal skulls of
Mesoamerica (tangible), and the status/story of Saint Nicholas' companion Black Peter (intangible).

 Authenticity or truthfulness of origin, attributes, and intentions of cultural heritage are one of the issues
concerning sources of our culture.

 Aside from authenticity issues, preservation or the act of making a cultural heritage lasting and existing is
also a primary concern.

Threats to Tangible and Intangible Heritage

There was a time in contemporary history when museums were in constant search and hurry to look for historical
materials to display. Due to the ascent of demand for cultural materials, opportunists saw this as an avenue for them
to earn money. They invented materials and claim that these were excavated or unearthed and once owned by a
cultural group.

 Documents whose authenticity are yet to be determined include Hitler diaries, crystal skulls of
Mesoamerica (tangible), and the status/story of Saint Nicholas' companion Black Peter (intangible).

 Authenticity or truthfulness of origin, attributes, and intentions of cultural heritage are one of the issues
concerning sources of our culture.

 Aside from authenticity issues, preservation or the act of making a cultural heritage lasting and existing is
also a primary concern.
 WEEK 5

SOCIALIZATION

• LIFELONG PROCESS OF SOCIAL INTERACTION THROUGH WHICH PEOPLE ACQUIRE THEIR IDENTITIES
AND NECESSARY SURVIVAL SKILLS IN A SOCIETY.

• IT IS CONSIDERED AS THE CENTRAL PROCESS OF SOCIAL LIFE, AND IS ALSO A PROCESS OF MEMBER
RECRUITMENT AND REPLACEMENT.

 ENABLES THE PERSON TO GRADUALLY BECOME A SELF – AWARE AND KNOWLEDGEABLE

HUMAN BEING, AND LEARN THE WAYS, VALUES, RULES, AND CULTURE OF HIS / HER SOCIETY.
 GREATLY INFLUENCED BY THE CONTEXT OF HIS / HERS RESPECTIVE SOCIETY, AND THE SOCIAL
GROUPS THAT HE / SHE INTERACTS.

A. POLITICAL SOCIALIZATION

 ENABLES THE DEVELOPMENT OF CITIZEN TO FUNCTION EFFECTIVELY WITHIN A PARTICULAR

POLITICAL SYSTEM.

SOCIALIZATION IS VIEWED IN THE CONTEXT OF INTERNALIZATION

• PROCESS OF ACCEPTING THE SOCIAL NORMS, ATTITUDES, ROLES, AND VALUES TRANSMITTED BY
PEOPLE AND SOCIAL GROUPS WITHIN SOCIETY AS ONE’S OWN. SOCIETY IS THE PRIMARY FACTOR
RESPONSIBLE FOR HOW INDIVIDUALS LEARN TO THINK AND BEHAVE.

ASPECTS OF SOCIALIZATION
  SOCIAL CONTEXT
PARTICULAR CIRCUMSTANCES OF A SOCIETY AND CONSIST OF ITS CULTURE, LANGUAGE,
AND THE SOCIAL STRUCTURES THAT DEFINE SOCIAL CLASS, ETHNICITY, AND GENDER.

 CONTENT AND PROCESS

1. CONTENT - IDEAS, BELIEFS, BEHAVIOR, AND OTHER INFORMATION THAT ARE PASSED ON BY
MEMBERS OF SOCIETY TO THE INDIVIDUAL.

2. PROCESS - METHODS OF INTERACTION THAT ENABLES THE CONTENT TO BE GIVEN TO THE

PERSON UNDERGOING SOCIALIZATION

RESULTS

• OUTCOMES OF SOCIALIZATION, AND ARE EVIDENT WHEN INDIVIDUALS BEGIN TO PRACTICE THE
BEHAVIORS, ATTITUDES, AND VALUES THAT SOCIETY CONSIDERS NECESSARY FOR THEM TO
FUNCTION EFFECTIVELY AS ITS MEMBER

SIGNIFICANT RESULT OF SOCIALIZATION

A. SELF IDENTITY

 ESTABLISHMENT OF A UNIQUE SENSE OF IDENTITY AND AN AWARENESS OF HOW IT RELATES TO

THEIR SOCIETY AND THE WORLD

ENCULTURATION

• PROCESS OF BEING SOCIALIZED INTO A SPECIFIC CULTURE. INDIVIDUALS LEARN CULTURAL

SYMBOLS, NORMS, VALUES, AND LANGUAGE BY OBSERVING AND INTERACTING WITH FAMILY,
FRIENDS, AND THE REST OF SOCIETY.

SOCIAL ORGANIZATION

 Type of collectivity established for the pursuit of specific aims or goals.

 Characterized by a formal structure of rules, authority relations, a division of labor and limited
membership or admission.
 WEEK 6

SOCIAL GROUPS AND SOCIAL ORGANIZATIONS

SOCIAL GROUP

 Unit of interacting personalities with interdependence of roles and statuses existing between
and among themselves.
 Collection of people where members interact on a regular basis, guided by structure and
agreements, defined by roles and responsibilities.

CHARACTERISTICS OF SOCIAL GROUP

 Group members interact on a fairly regular basis through communication.

 Members should develop a structure where each member assumes a specific status and adopts
a particular role.
 Certain orderly procedures and values are agreed upon.
 The members of the group feel a sense of identity.

TYPES OF SOCIAL GROUPS

According to Social Ties

1. Primary Group

 It is the most fundamental unit of human society.

  A long-lasting group
 Characterized by strong ties of love and affection.
 Do’s and Don’ts of behavior are learned here.

Examples: Families, Gangs, Cliques, Play Groups, Friendship Groups

2. SECONDARY GROUPS

 Groups with which the individual comes in contact later in life.

 Characterized by impersonal, business-like, contractual, formal and casual relationship.
 Usually Large in size, not very enduring and limited relationships.
 People needed other people for the satisfaction of their complex needs.
Examples: Industrial Workers; business associates, Faculty Staff, Company Employees

ACCORDING TO SELF-IDENTIFICATION

1. IN-GROUP

 a social unit in which individuals feel at home and with which they identify. 

2. OUT-GROUP

 a social unit to which individuals do not belong due to differences in social categories
and with which they do not identify.

3. REFERENCE/PSYCHOLGICAL GROUP

 groups to which we consciously or unconsciously refer when we evaluate our life

situations and behavior but to which we do not necessarily belong.
 It serve a comparison function
 It has a normative function

ACCORDING TO PURPOSE

1. Special Interest Groups

 groups which are organized to meet the special interest of the members. 

2. Task Group

 groups assigned to accomplish jobs which cannot be done by one person.

3. Influence or Pressure Groups

 groups organized to support or influence social actions.

ACCORDING TO GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION AND DEGREE OR QUALITY OF
RELATIONSHIP

1. Gemeinschaft

 A social system in which most relationships are personal or traditional.

 It is a community of intimate, private and exclusive living and familism.
 Culture is homogeneous and tradition-bound.

2. Gesselschaft

 A social system in which most relationships are impersonal, formal, contractual or bargain-like.
 Relationship is individualistic, business-like, secondary and rationalized
 Culture is heterogeneous and more advanced.

ACCORDING TO FORM OF ORGANIZATION

1. Formal Groups

 Social organization
 Deliberately formed and their purpose and objectives are explicitly defined.
 Their goals are clearly stated and the division of labor is based on member’s ability or merit

Bureaucracy
-an administrative structure w/c is aimed to enable members meet their goals.
-A hierarchical arrangement in large scale formal organizations in w/c parts are ordered in the
manner of a pyramid based on a division of function and authority.
-Formal, rationally organized social structure

CHARACTERISTICS OF BUREAUCRACY

 Positions and offices are clearly defined

 The hierarchical arrangement of authority, rights and obligations is specifically drawn and clear-
cut
 The personnel are selected on the basis of technical or professional qualification and expert
training and competence through competitive examination
 Definite rules govern official behavior
 Security of tenure and the pursuit of a career with promotion in the hierarchy are assured

2. Informal Groups

 Arises spontaneously out of the interactions of two or more persons.

 It is unplanned
 Has no explicit rules for membership and does not have specific objectives to be attained.
  It has the characteristics of primary groups and members are bound by emotion and
sentiments.

3. Relationship Groups

 Groups organized to fulfill the feeling of companionship.

ELEMENTS OF EFFECTIVE GROUP FUNCTIONING

 Democratic or “participate” leadership is employed.

 Flexible patterns of communication are used.
 A cooperative problem-solving approach to discussion is employed rather than a competitive
“win-lose” approach.
 Members deal openly and candidly with one another.
 Decision techniques which favor a sharing of responsibility via protection of the individual rights
are used rather than techniques which place the responsibility clearly in the hands of but a
portion of a group.

LEADERSHIP, QUALITIES OF A LEADER, STYLE OF LEADERSHIP

LEADERSHIP

 The process of influencing the activities of individuals in a group towards the attainment of
group goals in a given situation.
 It implies the existence of particular influence relationship between two or more persons.

QUALITIES OF A LEADER

They have traits such as

 Intelligence
 Dominance
 Charisma
 Enthusiasm
 Courage
 Determination
 Self-confidence
 High sense of integrity
 Tact
 Diplomacy
 Involvement

Groups needed leaders for two basic purposes :

 To direct various tasks

  Provide support to group members

Task Leadership
 the act of directing a group toward its goal.

Socio-Emotional Leadership
 the act of maintaining good spirits.

STYLES OF LEADERSHIP

 Functional Leadership
 Status Leadership
 Task-Oriented Leadership
 Relationship or person-oriented Leadership
 Transactional Leadership 
 Authoritarian Leadership
 Democratic Leadership
 Tradition-oriented Leadership
 Development-oriented Leadership

WEEK 7

Non-state institutions

This are groups and organizations which operate outside the support of any state or
government. They are referred to be ‘stateless’ since they are considered to be independent of
any state, although, they usually collaborate with the government in implementing projects. Non-
state institutions assume different functions and focus on a specific objective. In general, they
develop certain services needed by members of the society for their progress.

There are different non-state institutions that operate in society. Two of them are banks
and corporations.

 Banks

The term ‘bank’ has no single definition for many authors have provided their own
definition of it. For the purposes of uniformity, we define a bank as a financial institution
licensed to provide several financial services to different types of customers. Banks are in
operation mainly for their deposit and lending function. Customers are allowed to deposit their
money to banks which grow through an interest rate. Banks also provide loans, at a higher
interest rate, to customers who need money either for personal consumption or for investment
and businesses. This process of taking in deposits and lending them to customers in need is
called financial intermediation. This means that the bank serves as a connecting link between
its depositors and borrowers of money.

Banks also act as a custodian of customer’s money, which help guarantee the safety of
each deposit. When a person puts his money in a bank, the amount given is maintained in a
deposit or savings account which prevents the risk of theft and robbery. Certain types of bank
accounts also make it possible for customers to withdraw money as needed. This ensures a more
secured transaction of funds. Some secondary functions of a bank include money remittance,
which make it easier for people to send money from one place to another. This holds importance
especially for overseas Filipino workers (OFWs) who provide financial assistance to their
families in the Philippines. Most banks also accept payments to house and other utilities such as
electricity and water utility. This function of the bank eases the transaction of its customers with
utility companies.

Other bank functions include currency exchange, allowing customers to convert foreign
currencies to another currency they need and safety deposit boxes, which provides customers a
safe place to keep their priced possessions (e.g. gold, silver, or jewelries). Due to the countless
services that banks provide, there are types of bank which only specialize in a specific bank
function. However, there is no clear line categorizing banks to a classification since one bank
may engage itself in several functions. In this case, a specific bank can be classified into two or
more bank types. Some of the most common types of banks are as follows:

 A retail bank is a type of bank that focuses on consumers or the general public as its
customers. One’s personal bank account, like checking and savings account, are usually
in a retail bank. Retail banks can be considered to be the most common and widespread
of all the types of banks.

 A commercial bank also provides the same services as a retail bank; however, it focuses
on businesses and businessmen as its main customers. Commercial banks provide short
term loans for businessmen to be used for investment purposes.

 An investment or an industrial bank provide medium and long-term loans and deposits

to business industries.

 Agricultural banks, as the name suggests, caters to the financial needs of farmers and
the farming industry. They provide short-term and long-term loans to facilitate
agricultural activities. Loans from this type of bank is used for buying seeds, fertilizers,
land, or any materials needed for farming. An agricultural country such as the Philippines
is unsurprisingly abundant of agricultural banks. Examples of which are the The central
bank is the main financial institution in a country since it supervises the monetary system
in the country. It functions as a regulating institution to all other banks in a country and it
 issues all the bank notes (or money bills) and coins of the country in which it operates.
The Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas  is the central bank of the Philippines. A central bank is
the only banking institution established through a special law of the government, which
makes the government of great influence to its central bank.

If you try to think of companies and businesses you know, it is possible that some of
them arecorporations, since corporations are one of the most commonly known non-state
institutions.

A corporation is an organization, created by a group of people known as shareholders,

which is legally recognized to act as a single person in carrying out certain goals and objectives.
As a ‘legal person’, a corporation is mandated to enjoy the rights, privileges, and responsibilities
of an individual. Using its own name, a corporation has the right to enter into contracts, to hire
employees, and to loan and borrow money. It is also authorized to have its own assets.

Any corporation-owned property belongs to the corporation itself and not to the owners
of the corporation. Like most individuals, a corporation is also obligated to pay taxes. This non-
state institution is created to operate businesses and to pursue a common objective, may it be
profit-oriented or not. Although, many corporations are usually set up for profit. It is important to
take note that a corporation is a distinct and separate entity from the people who own it. This
enables the corporation to have powers and liabilities of its own. Any debt of the corporation is
the responsibility of only the corporation itself; shareholders cannot be personally held
accountable for these debts. This feature also enables the corporation to sue and be sued in behalf
of its name. Any lawsuits directed to the corporation is solely the responsibility of the
corporation itself and not of its owners.

There are different types of corporations that are classified based on specific factors like
the corporation’s purpose, manner of taxation, and number of shareholders.

 A business corporation is created to operate and to generate profit. Companies like

McDonald’s and Starbucks are examples of a business corporation.

 A non-profit corporation is established with a purpose of serving the public rather than
pursuing profits.

 A corporation whose income is taxed through the corporation itself is a C-corporation.

 An S-corporation is taxed through its shareholders. An S-corporation can only have less
than 100 shareholders, unlike a C-corporation which can have an unlimited number of
shareholders.

Banks, Corporations and their Social Implications

 Banks and corporations both play a part in the economic growth of society. As mentioned
earlier, financial intermediation in a bank allows the institution to issue loans to borrowing
customers (individual or group) who need money for their investment, at a higher interest rate.
This loan will, then, facilitate businesses and investments. In short, loans from the bank will keep
businesses going. Continued operation of businesses leads to greater chances of generating more
income for the business and increasing employment. More income would entail more savings to
be deposited in a bank which will be used to lend to future customers.In this case, it can be seen
that the bank plays a role in facilitating the cycle of expediting investments and generating more
income and savings.

Cooperatives

According to the International Labor Organization (ILO), a cooperative is “an

autonomous association of persons united voluntarily to meet their common economic, social,
and cultural needs and aspirations, through a jointly owned and democratically controlled
enterprise”.Members of a cooperative usually joins together in order to achieve a specific
objective, an objective which usually benefits the members of the organization itself. In short,
cooperatives are mainly structured to benefit its members and to satisfy its members’ needs. In a
cooperative, the people who use its products or services are the same people who own and
control the organization. Cooperatives exist among different industries and are composed of
different types of people, may it be farmers, consumers, or workers.

There are several principles that uniquely characterize this non-state institution. It is an
essential characteristic of a cooperative that its owners and financers are also the people who use
the cooperative.

Meaning, in a typical cooperative, the customers are also the ones who own the
organization. These members or users are also the ones who have control over the cooperative.
They have the power to elect a board of directors which will handle the overall operation of the
organization. Users or customers of a cooperative are also the ones who benefit from it. To have
a clearer grasp of these principles characterizing cooperatives, let us look at an example of a
consumer cooperative. The function of a consumer cooperative is to provide products and
commodities needed by people. A consumer cooperative may put up a supermarket to satisfy this
necessity for certain products.

The people that serve as primary customers of the supermarket are usually the people
who created the cooperative itself. They created the cooperative because they needed an
organization that would meet their specific objective. Since these customers are the financers and
owners of the cooperative, they also have the power and control to elect their board of directors
through a democratic election (i.e. one vote per member). The board is expected to spearhead the
general operation of the supermarket.
 Although non-members of the cooperative can also shop and be customers in the said
supermarket, only cooperative members are entitled to benefits and profits of the organization.
Assuming that the supermarket generated a profitable income, the cooperative must distribute
this profit to its customers who are also members and owners of the association. Benefits from
such profits can be monetary in form or discounts to products sold.

The International Cooperative Alliance also came up with seven principles to

characterize a cooperative. These principles are as follows: (a) voluntary and open membership,
(b) democratic member control, (c) member economic participation, (d) autonomy and
independence, (e) education, training and information, (f) cooperation among cooperatives, and
(g) concern for the community.

There are several types of cooperatives, depending on its specific function and purpose.

 A credit cooperative provides financial services to its members, including securing

savings and creating funds to be used for issuing loans.

 A consumer cooperative operates mainly to obtain and distribute products and

commodities to its customers, both members and non-members.

 Producer cooperatives aids those in the sector of production, either agricultural or

industrial. A subtype of a producer cooperative is agricultural cooperatives which help
producers or farmers in marketing their crops as well as in purchasing supplies needed for
further production.

 A service cooperative (or a worker cooperative) concentrates on helping workers in the

service-oriented occupations (i.e. health care, transportation, labor) by creating
employment opportunities and other benefits to its members.

 A multi-purpose cooperative undertakes two or more functions of different

cooperatives. For example, multi-purpose cooperative could act as a consumer
cooperative and establish a supermarket. At the same time, it could also provide financial
services like a credit cooperative.

Trade Unions

Part of the universal human rights of every individual is his right to organize and form
associations that would protect his rights as a worker; the embodiment of this right is trade
unions. A trade union or labor union is an organization with a membership composed of
workers or employees from related fields, which aim to represent the interests and rights of its
members, both in the workplace and in the society.

While an individual has the capacity to demand better conditions from his employer,
trade unions recognize that a unity of several employees would act as a more powerful tool in
advancing these interests. This is how trade unions became the voice of the workers to the
management; they serve as link between employees and their employers. Trade unions work to
improve certain issues like wage adjustment, good working environment, and rewards and other
benefits.

There are different types of trade unions according to its members.

 A general union represents workers with a range of jobs and skills, from different
industries and companies. An example of this type of union is a trade union of drivers,
janitors and office workers.

 Industrial unions are composed of workers from one particular industry, across different
levels of the hierarchy. A trade union of all employees who work in the mining industry
(with different levels and positions) is an example of an industrial union.

 A craft union seeks to represent skilled workers doing the same work who may be
employed in different industries. A craft union of carpenters is one example.

 A white-collar union is composed of professionals doing similar jobs across different

industries. A trade union of teachers and professors is an example of a white-collar union.

Although there are many types of trade unions, these classifications still perform the
same functions expected from a trade union. In addition, a trade union may not only be limited to
a particular company. here are unions in the Philippines which are composed of several workers
from different companies.

Defining Transnational Advocacy Groups

To have a general understanding of what a transnational advocacy group is, it is better to

first individually define terms that make of it. The word ‘transnational’ denotes something that
goes beyond one’s national borders. ‘Advocacy’ can be defined as issues or causes that are being
defended or supported by a certain group of people known as advocates. A ‘group’, as you were
familiarized in previous lessons, is generally defined as a collection of individuals with
significant relations among each other.

Combining these terms and definitions, we may define a transnational advocacy

group as a collection of actors (individuals or groups) characterized by their fluid and open
relations with each other, united by their commitment to work on and defend certain issues and
causes that are relevant across several nations. They “use the power of information, ideas, and
strategies to influence the value context within which states make policies”.Transnational
advocacy groups are also referred to as “transnational advocacy networks” due to the nature of
actors’ connection with each other.
 As discussed in a previous lesson, networks are a web of weak social ties among groups
and individuals. This definition may also apply to the relationship of actors in a transnational
advocacy group. Actors in the group can be a combination of advocates and activists, non-
government organizations, foundations, church, media, politicians, or corporate business actors.
Their relationships are not highly structured and crystallized but they are loosely organized and
connected as they share values and exchange information about certain issues which they are
committed to promote.

The word ‘transnational’ characterize this network of actors since members of a

transnational advocacy group come from different nations involved. In addition, the term
‘transnational’ also illustrates the group’s involvement to certain ‘trans-sovereign’ issues—
issues that exist in multiple countries. These issues include human rights, women’s rights,
environmental protection, and indigenous peoples’ rights.

Functions and Strategies

The main function of a transnational advocacy group is the creation and development of
advocacies and campaigns about certain causes, issues, ideas, values and beliefs. These
campaigns aim to motivate changes in policies, which are necessary for the betterment of people
involved. Since this non-state institution do not have inherent power to make instant policy
changes in the state, they use, instead, the power of information dissemination, together with
other strategies, to influence state actors who are in legitimate position to create such changes.

Keck and Sikkink named four tactics used by transnational advocacy groups to influence
the state’s behavior and policy making. These are information politics, symbolic politics,
leverage politics, and accountability politics.

First, information politics is the ability to produce and circulate accurate and credible
ideas and information to persuade people and motivate them to take action. Transnational
advocacy groups do these through campaigns and other ways of communication.

    Symbolic politics is the ability of the group to interpret and use symbols or stories in
such a way that it would emphasize the issue at hand. They provide explanations about an event
and connects it to the specific cause. For example, the death and extinction of certain animal
species may be used by environmental advocacy groups to raise awareness about environmental
degradation.

    Leverage politics enables transnational advocacy groups to use some form of

leverage, to tap and influence target actors that are powerful enough to institute policy changes.
These powerful actors may come from the government, larger institutions (e.g. World Bank), or
even corporate business owners.
 Lastly, accountability politics happens as transnational advocacy groups convince state
actors to change their position about certain issues, and persuades them further to act upon their
verbal support about certain issues. Advocacy groups can use their power of information to
expose the discrepancy between an actor’s words and his action. Let’s take for example, a
senator who verbally expressed his support about protecting indigenous peoples’ rights. In this
scenario,the senator has confirmed his position about the issue, but he does not make any
concrete actions in support of the cause. Because of this, advocacy groups may point out to the
public,the inconsistency between the senator’s words and his actions (or lack thereof). This will
then push the senator be true to his word and translate them into concrete operations.

Development Agencies

The establishment of development agencies can be found in history. In the Second World
War,many countries had been grounds for attacks and bombings which resulted to crises such as
starvation and food scarcity, among others. Because of these, many European countries saw the
need for the creation of an organization that would attend to the crises brought about by the war.

Development agencies were formed as a response to crises like war damage and
industrial decline. In some countries, such agencies were established with the hope of stimulating
economic development, post- war. Development agencies have come a long way since they were
first established, as thousands of them are currently operating within the globe.

Nonetheless, there is still no solid formula to create this type of non-state institution since
different development agencies across the world have a range of specific functions and roles.
This lack of common understanding about development agencies makes it more difficult to
define it. In general, we refer to development agencies as groups or entities that are tasked and
committed to pursue certain developmental agendas of a state. They are an institution that
provides help in support of a state’s economic growth and social progress.

Roles of Development Agencies

As mentioned earlier, development agencies have a range of tasks. It is, however,

important to note that it is up to the organization to decide which among the wide array of tasks
they will pursue. Normally, specific tasks of a development agency are dependent on the aspect
of development it focuses on. In a research commissioned by the Organisation for Economic
Cooperation and Development (OECD), the roles of development agencies may include;

 A.strategic roles, such as coordinating with local actors and international donors,
monitoring the local economy, and strategic planning for economic and local
development;
  B.asset and investment roles, such as land and property management, funding and
investing in local development projects, income generation, and provision of grants or
donations for other organizations;

 C. innovation, enterprise, skills, and employment roles, which include workforce and
skills development, employment creation, and support of small and medium scale
businesses;

 D. promotional roles, like foreign investment promotions and project management; and;

 E. capacity building roles which include providing technical assistance to other local
development organizations and informing them of good practices and models.

The word international organization is an umbrella term used to refer to institutions

established by three or more states as voluntary members, formed through a formal agreement or
treaty, in order to promote cooperation and coordination among them. Members of an
international organization work together for the development and management of their common
interests.

The main feature and characteristic of an international organization which distinguishes it

from other non-state institutions, is that its membership is entirely composed of national states or
governments. These member states give power to the international organization which gives the
institution some degree of authority to manage and govern the same member states. International
organizations tend to focus on different agendas. The decision of what agendas to pursue by an
organization exclusively depends on the interests of its members. Some agendas may be
economic (e.g. finance and investments), humanitarian (e.g. human welfare, human rights), or
environmental (e.g. global warming, climate change, biodiversity) in nature.

Significance of International Organizations

International organizations provide an avenue for different countries and states to

connect. This connection among countries help form international laws, norms, and ideas, which
in turn strengthen the relationship among member states. These norms also serve as guides on
how toregulate and manage these member states.

Through the development of these norms, states are guided in their actions both locally
and internationally. Due to the presence of an independent international institution, issues that
are present across different national borders will be addressed and recognized. There will be a
body to monitor actions of member states and investigate those actions against humanity (e.g.
human rights violation). In the end, we can claim that international organizations have been
embedded in the lives of people, as they perform multiple functions— tasks that aim to improve
the lives of people by pursuing different development agendas.
WEEK 8
 WEEK 9

What is social stratification?

Stratification describes the way in which differentgroups of people are placed

within society.

The status of people is often determined by how society is stratified - the basis
of which can include;
 Wealth and income - This is the most common basis of stratification
 Social class
 Ethnicity
 Gender
 Political status
 Religion (e.g. the caste system in India)
  is a hierarchy of positions with regard to economic production which
influences the social rewards to those in the positions.

In sociology and othersocial sciences, social stratification refers to the

hierarchical arrangement of individuals into divisions of power and wealth
within a society.

Stratification

 derives from the geological concept of strata - rock layers created by

natural processes.

 The term most commonly relates to the socio-economic concept of class,

involving the "classification of persons into groups based on shared socio-
economic conditions ... a relational set of inequalities with economic,
social, political and ideological dimensions."

What is class?

 is large set of people regarded by themselves or others as sharing similar status

with regard to wealth, power and prestige.

Major forms of stratification

1. Primitive communalism- characterized by a high degree of sharing and minimal

social inequality.

2. Slavery-involving great social inequality and the ownership of some persons by

others.

3. Caste-in which an individual is permanently assigned to a status based on his or

her parents status.

4. Estate- in which peasants are required by law to work land owned by the noble
class in exchange for food and protection from outside attacks.
Webers three dimensions ofstratification (three-componenttheory of social
stratification

1. Class

 A persons economic position in a society.

 (group) set of people with similar amounts of income and wealth.

2. Party (Power)

 A persons ability to get their way despite the resistance of others.

 (group) a set of people with similar amounts of power.

3. Status

 A persons prestige, social honor, or popularity in a society.

 (group) a set of people with similar social prestige or positive regard from
members of a society.

Basic viewpoints why stratificationexists

1. Natural inevitability
 suggests that inequality exists because of natural differences in
peoples abilities and is a just system.
2. Structural –functionalist
 states that stratification is useful to society because it enhances
stability and induces members of the society to work hard.
3.Conflict
 suggests that stratification occurs through conflict between different
classes, with the upper classes using superior power to take a larger
share of the social resources.
4. Evolutionary
 states that people will share enough resources to ensure the survival
of the group until a surplus exists at which time power determines
how the surplus is distributed.
5. Symbolic Interactionist
 calls attention to the importance of symbolic displays of wealth and
power that influence ones definition of self and the importance of
ideas in defining social situations.
Three characteristics of stratified systems

1. The rankings apply to social categories of people who share a common

characteristic without necessarily interacting or identifying with each other.
The process of being ranked can be changed by the person being ranked.
Example: The way we rank people differently by race, gender, and
social class
2. Peoples life experiences and opportunities depend on their social category.
This characteristic can be changed by the amount of work a person can put
into their interests.
Example: The greater advantage had by the son or daughter of a king
to have a successful life than the son or daughter of a minimum-wage
factory worker, because the king has a greater amount of resources
than the factory worker — The use of resources can influence others.
3. The ranks of different social categories change slowly over time. This has
occurred frequently in the United States ever since the American revolution.
The U.S. Constitution has been altered several times to contain rights for
everyone.
Examples:
 Thirteenth Amendment: Ended slavery in the United States
 Fourteenth Amendment: Gives African-Americans citizenship in the
United States
 Fifteenth Amendment: Ended the denial of suffrage based on race
 Nineteenth Amendment: The United States governments recognition
of womens suffrage
 The Civil Rights Act of 1964: Ended racial segregation in public
places in the United States — Also extended the right to vote
Social mobility

 is the movement of a person from one status to another, either between

generations or within a persons adult career.

Structural mobility

 is mobility brought about by changes in the stratification hierarchy for

instance as society becomes more technologically advanced.