1
Introduction
Overview
This book was written to serve as a use-
ful reference source for the product designer
new to plastics as well as providing an up-
date for those with experience. It should also
be of interest to non-designers and manage-
ment personnel involved in plastic products
that need a general overview of the concepts
and critical issues related to plastic products
in this World of Plastics. It highlights design-
ing with plastics based on material & pro-
cess behaviors. As with designing any materi-
als (plastic, steel, aluminum, wood, ceramic,
etc.) it is important to know their behaviors
in order to maximize product performance-
to-cost efficiency.
The mature plastics industry is a world-
wide, multibillion-dollar industry in which a
steady flow of new or improved plastic mate-
rials, new or improved production processes,
and new or improved market demands has
caused rapid and tremendous growth in the
use of plastics. For over a century the World
of Plastics product production, with over a
billion products, continues to expand enor-
mously with the passing of time. Manufactur-
ers are introducing new products in record
time. The ability to shrink time-to-market
schedules continues to evolve through the
more knowledgeable application and behav-
ior or familiarity of the different plastic ma-
terials, processing techniques, and design ap-
proaches (Fig. 1-1).
During this time very successful and long
lasting designed products have been in ser-
vice that range from primary and secondary
structures in toys to packages to computer
hardware to electricaVe1ectronic communi-
cation hardware to boats to aircraft to
space craft and so on. There are those ex-
posed to extreme environmental conditions
that range from in the ocean, underground,
earth’s surface, and to outer space. Tempera-
ture exposures have been from below freez-
ing to elevated conditions that extended to
2500°F (1370°C) for very short time periods.
Products have performed meeting static and
dynamic loads (creep and fatigue stresses,im-
pact loads, and so on). An inherent character-
istic that makes most plastics performance-
to-cost efficient is the different available low
to high production methods that results in rel-
atively low processing cost (Fig. 1-2).
So the answer to the question of what
is new in designing with plastics actually is
that we continue to do it easier and quicker
because new, improved, and more uniform
behaviors of plastics and their processing
capabilities are always developing. Design-
wise little is new conceptually. What changes
with the passing of time is the level of so-
phistication that is applied to designing any
products.
2 1 Introduction

ldenttly Dirnmsims, stmlural W.govWndustlystandards, service e n v i r m l $ etc.

PROJECT
r- spec*
luncliw

--
-TEAM
FEASIBILITY
STUDY A+& avaikbk +erica
Manual approech

t Applv design creativity

PRELIMINARY
DESIGN
ANALYSIS

DESIGN

I
I

DOCUMENT

Fig. 1-1 Design flow diagram for product design.

 1 Introduction 3

t
LEADS

Performance
Requirements
/A t
Engineering // Molding Injection
Evaluation
Selecting k Compression
e d Plastics
Material Process
Evaluate f l
Delractors-
Constraints Rheology
Sheet
Properties
Compounding
Cost Analysls
Alloys Blends Coating

Elc.
Fig. 1-2 Plastics product growth related to a tree growth.

Unfortunately there is no one plastic or
process (as with other materials such as steel,
wood, glass, etc.) that provide all types of
performance requirements. However it can
be stated that for practically any product re-
quirement(s), particularly when not includ-
ing cost, more so than with other materi-
als, there is a plastic that can be used. The
many different plastics meet different prop-
erty and processing requirements that the de-
signer uses in selecting the most appropriate
plastic that can be fabricated by the required
process.
What has made these plastic products suc-
cessful was that there were those that knew
the behavior of plastics and how to prop-
erly apply this knowledge. Recognize they
did not have the “tools” that make it easier
for us to now design products. Now we are
more knowledgeable and in the future it will
4 I Introduction

THE COMPLETE PROCESSING OPERATION THE FALLO APPROACH

COMPLETE CONTROL lor MANAGEMENT

... I
b- I
I
'I

produce parts

I Set up TESTINGI QUALITY CONTROL -

I FALLO Characternepropellles mechanwal phrjml
chemwal thermal etc
1 Follow ALL opportunnss
I
I Set up pmcIwal/ useful TROUBLESHOOTING
I GUIDE based on 'causes 8 rernsdles'
I Of potenllal 'faults * I
I I
I' -I GOOD MANUFACTURING PRACTICE
1 DVR '!
Fig. 1-3 The FALLO approach: Follow ALL Opportunities.

continue to be easier with new or improved
materials and processing techniques ever
present on the horizon. What is still needed,
as usual, is to have a design plan conceived in
the human mind and intended for subsequent
fabricating execution by the proper method
(Fig. 1-3).
Designers and processors to produce prod-
ucts at the lowest cost have unconsciously
used the basic concept of the FALLO ap-
proach. This approach makes one aware that
many steps are involved to be successful,
all of which must be coordinated and in-
terrelated. It starts with the design that in-
volves specifying the plastic, and specifying
the manufacturing process. The specific pro-
cess (injection, extrusion, blow molding, ther-
moforming, and so forth) is an important part
of the overall scheme and should not be prob-
lematic.
Following the product design is produc-
ing a tool (mold, die, and so forth) around
the product. Next is putting the proper fabri-
cating process around the tool. This action
requires setting up the necessary auxiliary
and/or secondary equipment to interface in
the complete fabricating line. Next is setting
up completely integrated inline equipment
controls to target for the goal of zero defects.
Also in the FALLO process is that of pur-
chasing equipment as well as materials, then
properly warehousing the material and main-
taining equipment. If processing is to be sub-
contracted ensure that the proper equipment
is available and used efficiently. This interre-
lationship is different from that of most other
materials, where the designer is usually lim-
ited to using specific prefabricated forms that
are bonded, welded, bent, and so on.
The designer matches the end use require-
ments with the properties of the selected ma-
terial using a practical or engineering tech-
nique (Fig. 1-4). Target is to achieve the basic
three general requirements of design success:
 1 Introduction
I Performance Requirements I the product be redesigned, different mate-
Material Selection
Properties Processes
-A
Ideal choicelCompromise
- ments should review it; or perhaps one per-
Fig. 1-4 Practical anh engineering approachesto
designing.
(1)economical, (2) functional, and (3) attrac-
tive in appearance. In turn the functional as-
pect relates to the product’s three basic en-
vironment conditions of load, temperature,
and time. The production method to be used
will often set limitations on designs and vise
versa. The way in which a product is manufac-
tured has a profound influence on its design.
There is a number of processing techniques
from which to choose, each of which usually
produces a different type of product.
Consider that the first step is a general
product description with requirements such
as what is it to do, how it is to be used, where
it is to fit, etc. An example of a design pro-
gram approach is reviewedinTable 1-1.Over-
all design or product conception can be initi-
ated from many sources. The most obvious is
the completely new product. Although such
products are not in abundance compared to
modifications,they offer designers the oppor-
tunity to utilize their abilities fully. Depend-
ing on its complexity, a new product requires
several months to several years before com-
mercial introduction. More commonly, over-
all design is using a practical approach such
as a modification of an existing product. This
may be initiated by a company’sneed to make
the product more attractive or easier for con-
sumers to use. Manufacturing may request a
new design to simplify assembly or minimize
breakage; or management may demand that
costs be reduced.
In some cases, achieving these goals re-
quires only a material substitution or a mi-
nor design change. But it could mandate that
5
rial used, and/or the components made and
assembled using a different approach. After
the product is defined, the functional require-
ments and the cost value are established,
which is then followed by a preliminary de-
sign. After a preliminary design is completed
and approved, different departments such as
the manufacturer’s engineering, marketing,
manufacturing, and quality assurance depart-
son may have all these responsibilities. In-
evitably, some changes will be required. If
they are found to be practical (capable of
achievement without compromising product
cost or functionality in the intended use envi-
ronment), the design project can proceed to
its next stage.
The next step is to prepare a detailed design
with drawings, Once the drawings are avail-
able, prototyping and testing can be initiated.
Methods of prototyping vary greatly. In some
cases, a painted model cut from polystyrene
foam blocks will suffice. In other cases, a pro-
totype must be made using the specified ma-
terial and manufacturing process. Prototyp-
ing is essential in many designs, regardless of
how it is done, in order to ensure that a prod-
uct will perform properly prior to production
(Chapter 3).
The aim of product design or redesign is to
achieve the best possible product at the least
practical cost. It is a dynamic procedure, with
the key being communication. As the design
project progresses and as more is learned,
modifications may need to be made. Com-
promise may also be essential. For example,
a superior design may cost more to produce
than was originally estimated, but after an ob-
jective evaluation it may be determined that
it is worth more and market acceptance will
occur. Thus, product cost can be increased
without jeopardizing its chances for success.
Similarly, prototypes usually show where ad-
ditional strength is required, where a product
is over designed resulting in unnecessary cost,
and so on.
A final note regarding overall product de-
sign procedure is that any design, no matter
how good, can be improved. However, there
comes a time when the design must be frozen
and prototyping or production must begin. If
6 1 Introduction

Table 1-1 Example of a design program approach

Design Category Subcategories Detailed Requirements

Establish functional Estimate allowable Product basic functions

and performance size and shape Aesthetics and marketing
requirements Shipping
Available space
Weight
Standardization
Strength and stiffness criteria
Flexibility
Process limitations
Establish structural Loads:
requirements Gravity
Dead-Own weight superimposed
Live-Occupancy
Snow
Misc.
Pressure
Fluid
Earth
Wind
Dynamic
Impact
Seismic
Handling and shipping
Cyclic
Temperature:
Interior
Service range-
\
Exterior
Gradient across component thickness
No. of cycles-high to low
No. of cycles-freeze-thaw
Solar gain, surface air flow
Liquid, moisture, a n d o r vapor tightness
Strength-weight ratios-relative significance
Establish nonstructural Service environment:
requirements Corrison resistance

Moisture
Organic
Weathering Moisture
Wet-dry cycles
Freeze-thaw cycles
UV exposure
Rain abrasion
Aging
Moisture
Temperature
Fire safety Incombustibility
Flame spread rate
Toxic gases
Fuel content
(Continues)
 1 Introduction 7

Table 1-1 (Continued)

Design Category Subcategories Detailed Requirements
Light Transparency Control of sunlight
transmission Translucency
Opaque
{ and solar heat
Color
Surface texture (Aesthetics
Surface coatings [Abrasion resistance
Barrier
Thermal insulation
Gradient
Moisture and vapor penetration (kondensation
Electrical insulation (Dielectric properties
Establish cost targets Examine economics for successful competition with
similar products in conventional materials
Consider total effect of new design on end product
costs: materials, tooling, finishing, assembly,
warehousing and inventory, quality control,
packaging and shipping, and installation
Consider effect on operating costs. Light weight is
important in some applications
Establish production Number of identical pieces
and marketing Minimum and maximum probable production rates
requirements Available plant
Market locations
Shipping costs
Method of marketing
Installation criteria, if applicable
Cost restrictions imposed by competing products or
technology. Prices can shift with short- and
long-term changes in market conditions
Preliminary Select size and general Consider end use and limitations of suitable plastics,
design of configuration efficient manufacturing processes, requirements
component for sufficient strength and stiffness with
efficient use of materials, and cost
Select feasible Satisfy structural requirements with favorable
plastics material or cost ratios
materials Satisfy nonstructural criteria with acceptable
compromises and trade-offs where necessary
Is efficient fabrication process available?
Select feasible Provide required size and configuration
manufacturing Tooling and plant capital costs to be appropriate for
process or number of pieces and rate of production
processes Compatible with available plant and marketing plan
Provides required structural properties and quality
control
Determine structural Develop suitably simplified concept of structural
response based behavior to permit approximate determination
on approximate of structural response-reactions, stress resultants,
analysis stability and stiffness requirements. Make
appropriate assumptions within confines of laws of
statics
(Continues)
8 1 Introduction

Table 1-1 (Continued)

Design Category Subcategories Detailed Requirements
Establish design Determine suitable allowable design strengths
criteria for and stiffness, taking into account type and
trial materials duration of load, service environments, process
selected effects, quality expectations, etc.
Proportion Determine trial shape of plates, shells, and ribs, depth
component of ribs and sandwiches, and wall thicknesses to meet
for specific strength, deflection, and stability criteria
configuration Review economics and suitability
and thickness
Develop significant Determine concept and principal details for shop
details and field connections, penetrations, and other
subparts (if required)
Determine materials for connections, coatings,
subparts, etc.
Revise preliminary Evaluate preliminary Review economics and suitability of materials
design of component design and process based on preliminary proportions.
Consider overall compatibility and practicality of all
materials and parts in component as a system
Does it meet functional and performance
requirements?
Is it compatible with other components that may
interact with it, relative to effects of expansion
and contraction, structural support or movement,
fire safety, etc.?
Review performance Determine if all original performance requirements
and functional are feasible within economic objectives,
requirements or whether compromises and tradeoffs should
be considered
Optimize design General configuration
to reduce cost or Configuration proportions such as rib depths,
satisfy shell radii, fillet radii, etc.
functional and Material thickness
performance Material alternatives-consider additives to
requirements tailor properties
Process alternatives
Develop final Perform structural Determine structural response-stresses, support
design of analysis of reactions, deflections, and stability-based on a
component acceptable structural analysis of acceptable accuracy.
accuracy Determine acceptable accuracy based on
economic value of component, consequences of
failure, state-of-the-art capability in stress and
stability analysis, margin of safety, knowledge
about loads and materials properties,
conservatism of loads, provisions for further
evaluation by prototype testing
Establish final Allowable stresses, strains, deflections
design criteria Margins of safety against local and overall
instability, vibrations, etc.
Take into account type and duration of load,
service environments, process effects, equality
expectations
(Continues)
 1 Introduction 9

Table 1-1 (Continued)

Design Category Subcategories Detailed Requirements

Evaluate Shape of plates, shells, ribs

proportions Depth of ribs and sandwiches
and design Thickness of shells, flanges, and stiffeners
details; revise Connections: Shop
if necessary Field
Edge conditions
Penetrations
Subparts, Inserts
Prepare engineering Drawings are sometimes prepared in two stages:
drawings Design drawings
Detail or fabrication drawings
Prepare specifications Materials requirements including composition,
for technical quality standards, and minimum structural properties
requirements Fabrication requirements and standards, including
of product dimensional tolerances, allowable defects,
and materials and minimum structural properties
Requirements for prototype and quality control tests
and procedures
Shipping and handling
Requirements for field assembly, installation, or
erection
Prepare manuals or Periodic maintenance, recoating
instructions for Service conditions: temperature limits, chemical
maintenance and exposure limits
repair Repair procedures
Evaluate design Develop practical Develop practical test program to demonstrate
by prototype full-scale prototype components ability to meet structural and
and materials for structural tests performance criteria. Extent of such test program, if
tests any, depends on economic value of component,
number of units to be produced, consequences of
failure, accuracy of structural analysis and
design, margins of safety used in design, knowledge
about service loads and environments, and difficulty
of duplicating service loads and conditions
in test
Test materials for Determine that materials produced in actual fabrication
structural process will have the minimum structural properties
properties and and resistance to service environment assumed in
effect of service the design. Extent of testing, if any, depends
environment on available information about specific materials
and processes to be used
Revise design, if Correct design and detail problems, if any, revealed
required in tests
Modify materials, or process, if production materials’
properties not adequate
Protect or modify materials if service environment
causes excessive degradation of properties
Develop production Pattern design
and distribution and drawings
system
Mold design and Take into account shape limitations and design
drawings rules that facilitate molding
(Continues)
10 1 Introduction
Table 1-1 (Continued)
Design Category Subcategories
Production process
design and
layouts
Develop any special
equipment
Distribution and
marketing plan
Procedures for
packaging, storing,
handling, and
shipping
Installationrequirements
this is not done, the new design will remain
on the board until competition beats you to
the marketplace.
The fabricator places no limits on the de-
sign. There is a way to make the product if
the price is justified. Any job can be done
at a price. The truly limitations are factors
such as usable tool size (mold, die, etc.), ma-
terial shrinkage, substance finishing opera-
tion (that usually is not required), dimen-
sional tolerance allowance, undercut, insert
inclusion, parting line, fragile section, pro-
duction rate, and the essential selling price.
Note that there are companies with in-house
fabricating capabilities that will replace exist-
ing equipment to produce a new product at a
lower cost.
Table 1-2 provides estimates of the major
types of plastics consumed yearly worldwide
that now total 339,990 million lb (154 million
tons). About 90% are thermoplastics (TPs)
and 10% thermoset (TS) plastics. USA and
Europe consumption’s are each about one-
third of the world total. There are well over
35,000 different type plastic materials world-
wide. However, most of them are not used
in large quantities; they have specific perfor-
mance and/or cost capabilities generally for
specific products by specific processes that
principally include many thousands of prod-
ucts (Chapters 6 & 7).
Detailed Requirements
Take into account materials and configuration
characteristicsthat simplify processes
Automated processes are needed for high-volume
production
Production for inventory, or by special order
Replacement part inventory
Locate production facilities to optimize
distribution
Identify special requirements for protection in
handling and shipment
Spec@ special requirements for assembly or
installation
The plastics industry is characterized by a
wide variety of many different plastic materi-
als and distinct processing methods that fab-
ricate many different plastic materials into
many different products. The following Fig.
1-5 provides a summary of the interrelations
of plastics-to-processing-to-products.By fol-
lowing this type of a practical sequence of
events permits fabricating products that meet
performance and cost requirements used sub-
stantially in all industries. This is a “back to
basic” approach that helps one to understand
that there is a logical approach in producing
products that range from the initial concept
to the customer receiving the product.
Plastics are now among the nations and
world’s most widely used materials, having
surpassed steel on a volume basis in 1983 (Fig.
1-6). By the beginning of this century, plastics
surpassed steel even on a weight basis (Fig. 1-
7). These figures do not include the two major
and important materials consumed, namely
wood and nonmetallic earthen (stone, clay,
concrete, glass, etc.). Volumewise wood and
construction materials each are possibly ab-
out 70 billion ft3(2 billion m3). Each repre-
sents about 45% of the total consumption
of all materials. The remaining 10% include
those shown in Figs. 1-6 & 1-7. Plastic mate-
rials and products cover the entire spectrum
of the world’s economy, so that its fortunes
 1 Introduction 11
t - 4 h t-4 t-4
t - 4 t - 4
d t - 4 t-4
 12 1 Introduction

Acetal Acrylics
ABS Alkyds
Alloys I Blends
Barrier Resins
1 Process Simulation

Cellulos,cs Extruders
Diallyl Phthalates lnjedion Molding Machines
ngineenng Plastics Slow Molding
Epoxies Compresion Presses
Fluoropolymers
Liquid Crystals
e Transfer presses
Thermoforming Machines
Melamine Molds I Dies
Nitrile Resins Auxiliary Equipment
Nylon Liquid Depensing Systems
Phenolics Impregnators
Polyamide-lmde
Polycarbonate
polyester
Polyethylene
Polyimdes
Polypropylene
Plotten
Test & Measurements
Components
Process Control Equipment I
'

PROCESSORS
T
Polyurethanes L
r
Custom I Captive I I I
PVC
Silllcones
TPO/TPElTPU
4 I
Agricultural
Appliances
Urea In~ectlonMolding Transportation- Auto
-b mruson Packaging
Blow Molding Buildingand Construction
I
Accelerators
Arttioxidants
Antistats
I ' Blown ICast Film
Coaten
Rotational Molding
PullNslo"
Computers - Electronics - Electrical
Geotechnical Structures
Telecommunication
Medical- Health Care
SlowingAgents Thermoforming Adhesive - Coatings
Colorants Calendering Furniture
Conductive Compression Molding Industrial Machinery
EM1 Shellding Reacton Molding Fast Foods
Fillers Transfer Molding Consumer & Instituiioml Products
Flame Retardants RecreationI Toys
Inhibitors Rope & Cordage
Lubricants Textile - Synthetic Fibers
Plastlclzers
Stablllzers

Fig. 1-5 The plastics industry.

are not tied to any particular business seg- tion, medicine and health care, recreation,
ment. Designers are in a good position to and so on (Chapter 4).
benefit in a wide variety of markets: pack- The effective exploitation of product de-
aging, building and construction, electronics sign opportunities is the key to success. In
and electrical, furniture, apparel, appliances, turn, success hinges on other factors, such as
agriculture, housewares, luggage, transporta- the proper selection of materials and using
the best available processing equipment. Be-
cause new materials and equipment continue
to be more productive and produce better
1o.M)o quality products, one should stay abreast of
new material and equipment developments
f and evaluate them logically. With designing,
v
9 there is an extremely vast area for improv-
C
u
ing profitability by ensuring that the best
0
= 1.000 available material and equipment are used
f
to meet specific design performance require-
ments. Recognize that there are occasions
when a higher cost material can provide a
1960 I970 1980 1990
lower processing cost that result in a lower
Year
cost product. To design, as to live is to change,
Fig. 1-6 World consumption of plastics by vol- and to aim for perfection is to have changed
ume. often (Chapter 4. RISK, Perfection).
 1 Introduction 13

Steel Plastics

1 .ooo,ooo

0
t00.000

l-

Year
Fig. 1-7 World consumption of plastics by weight.

What this book provides is information on
the extensive different properties (Figs. 1-8
& 1-9) and processing capabilities the many
different plastics offer. It also provides facts
such that most of the plastic products pro-
duced only have to meet the usual require-
ments we humans have to endure such as
the environment (temperature, etc.). Thus
there is no need for someone to identify that
most plastics can not take heat like steels.
For certain plastic products there are definite
properties (temperature, chemical resistance,
load, etc.) that have far better performance
than steel and other materials. Recognize that
most plastics in use also do not have a high
modulus of elasticity or long creep and fa-
tigue behaviors because they are not required
in their respective product designs. However
there are plastics with extremely high modu-
lus and very long creep and fatigue behaviors
(Chapter 2).
What this discussion identifies is that each
material (specific plastic, specific steel, spe-
cific wood, etc.) behaves certain ways. If a
product can be made from a specific steel
rather than a specific plastic, that is the mate-
rial to use. However, unfortunately for steel
and other materials, plastics continue to ex-
pand its use where these other materials are
not competitive propertywise and/or cost-
wise.
This book will not provide extensive en-
gineering equations since they are readily
available from industry that are reviewed in
Appendix A: PLASTICS DESIGN TOOL-
BOX and references (3,6, 10, 14,20,29, 31,
36, 37, 39, 43 to 125). Equations will be re-
viewed throughout this book where they are
required to understand the behavior of plas-
tics in order to meet different load require-
ments (static to dynamic). What this book
provides is information on the behavior of
14
ModulusOt Ehsticitr
Compotilal Reinlorad PlsJtia
A
Specific Gravity
Cmporites I Reinlorad PI&
I
III
Glass
CoOudC - stone / /
i i i i i
Fig. 1-8 General comparison of different materials.
plastics that permits the designer to properly
design with plastics usually not requiring any
engineering equations.
When one becomes familiar with plastics
such as their viscoelastic behavior [that is
a combination of viscous and elastic prop-
erties in a plastic with the relative contri-
bution of each being dependent on time,
temperature, stress, and strain rate (Chap-
ter 2)], plastics can be properly applied to the
equations, etc. This book is targeted to have
you become both familiar and how to ap-
ply the behavior of plastics in any equations.
Your book authors as well as many of the
referenced authors have extensive experi-
ence in adapting the behavior of plastics to
products with or without equations that have
different shapes, decorations, etc. They in-
clude toys, packages, building panels, medical
devices, electronic devices, lighting devices,
chemical operations, building to bridge struc-
tures, small to very large pipe lines, boats,
underwater devices, aircraft primary and sec-
1 Introduction
4
CmueteardGlau 0 in.lin."F
6
x10 Pri
Miorbnun Contlnaous Sslrlce Tempemtm
'F
0 m 4m 603 ax, l m , 1m 14m 1Km 18
/
OC
ondary structures, missile components, reen-
try spacecraft protective shields, etc. These
examples of a few of the products designed
basically range from just requiring the proper
aesthetics (practical approach) to those be-
ing subjected to extensive high dynamic
creep and fatigue stress loads (engineering
approach).
Generalization Justifiable
A short dissertation upon almost any ex-
tensive subject such as this subject is usually
blessed by the reader's understanding that
generalizations are not only justifiable but
also mandatory in order to cover the scope
of the subject. However, a learned treatise
of ponderous bulk can be readily exempted
from criticism for tedious passages devoted
to details in that the authors are attempting
to present a full and uncompromised assay of
the subject. Somewhere in between lies this
 1 Introduction 15

properties

9 Chemical

Composition
Microstructure
Tensile properties
Toughness
Available shapes
Available sizes
phose¶ Ductility Available surface texture
Metals Grain size Fatigue Manufacturing roleram
Corrosion resistance Hardness
Inclusions Creep resistance

Composition Tensile properties Menufacturing tolerances

Fillen Heat dinortion Stability

Plastin
Crystallinity
Molecular weight
Flammability
I
Melting point
Compression strength
PV Limit
Toughness
Available sizes

Thermal
Spatial configuration Magnetic
Chemical resistance El s t r i u l
Composition Optical Tensile properties Available shapes
Porosity Acoustic Compression strength Available sizes
Ceramics Grain size Gravimetric Fracture t w a h n a r Manufacturing tolerances
Binder Hardness Available surface icxiure
Corrosion mistame

Composition Tensile properties Available shapes

(matrixlreinforcementl Compression strength Available sizes
MatrixIrainforcement Fracture toughness Manufrruricq tolerances
bond Creep resiftlm Stability
Composites
Volume f m t i o n
reinforcement
Rsinforcament nature
Corrosion m i n a m
Fig. 1-9 Guide to various material properties.

book. For those desiring more details, appro- cost-effectiveness or ROI (return on invest-
priate references are provided. ment). It encompasses the important interre-
Often the authors set their own ground lationship practical factors such as shape, ma-
rules in a probably futile attempt to satisfy terial selection (including unreinforced and
the inquisitiveness of those from another reinforced, elastomers, foams, etc.), consoli-
technical discipline in an expeditious man- dation of subparts, fabricating selection, and
ner, and yet not to incur the criticism of those others that provide low cost-to-performance
highly knowledgeable in the subject area. products.
The writers have followed this important but Product design is as much an art as a
perilous course. science. Recognize that a successful design
is usually a compromise between the re-
quirements of product function, productibil-
Design Definition ity, and cost. Basically design is the mecha-
nism whereby a requirement is converted to
The term “design” has many connotations. a meaningful plan. Design guidelines for plas-
They can range from industrial designers to tics have existed for over a century.
high structural load engineering designers. With plastics to a greater extent than other
A few of these will be summarized in or- materials, an opportunity exists to optimize
der to highlight that different designer skills product design by focusing on material com-
are used to meet different product require- position and orientation to structural mem-
ments. Essentially it is the process of devising ber geometry when required. The type of de-
a product that fulfills as completely as possi- signer to produce a product depends on the
ble the total requirements of the user, and product requirements. As an example in most
at the same time satisfies needs in terms of cases an engineering designer is not needed
16 1 Introduction
because the product has no major load re-
quirement. All that is needed is experience
and/or a logical evaluation approach based
on available material and processing data.
This practical approach is the least consumer
of time and least expensive (Fig. 1-4).
Design Technology
It is the prediction of performance in its
broadest sense, including all the characteris-
tics and properties of materials that are essen-
tial and relate to the processing of the plastic.
To the designer, an example of a strict defi-
nition of a design property could be one that
permits calculating product dimensions from
a stress analysis. Such properties obviously
are the most desirable upon which to base
material selections.
However, like with metals, there are many
stresses that cannot be accurately analyzed.
Hence one is forced to rely on properties that
correlate with performance requirements.
Where the product has critical performance
requirements, such as ensuring safety to
people, production prototypes will have to
be exposed to the requirements it is to meet
in service.
In plastics, these correlative properties, to-
gether with those that can be used in design
equations, generally are called engineering
properties. They encompass a variety of situ-
ations over and above the basic static strength
and rigidity requirements, such as impact, fa-
tigue, flammability, chemical resistance, and
temperature.
Industrial Designer
IDS are essential to all industries that re-
late to research, engineering, production, and
marketing activities. They must exercise the
creativity imagination that sets them apart
from being a mere modifier of what the com-
petition offers. There is a difference between
IDS and other professions whose functions
are sometimes confused with those of IDS.
The true artist, for instance, produces a per-
sonal interpretation of what one feels and cre-
ates the final object alone. The IDS do not;
they help to provide directions by which oth-
ers create the final product. They differ in
their approach as an engineering designer.
The ID profession has embraced plastics
with enthusiasm for several reasons. First,
plastics provide enormous freedom of shape
compared with traditional materials of de-
sign. They also permit product production
that is faster and more consistent, and they
can do it all at a fraction of the cost for mak-
ing nonplastic products. This low product cost
does not stem from the fact that plastics are
low in cost. On a per-pound basis, they are ac-
tually more costly than many competing ma-
terials. But the processability and relatively
low density of plastics (which translates into
lower costs per volume) gives them a big eco-
nomic advantage. The net result is that the ID
can now achieve quality products at dispos-
able price levels (216).
Colorability is another reason IDS select
plastics for many products. Molding color
into a product eliminates finishing and paint-
ing operations, thus reducing costs. Beyond
cost, integral color also masks the nicks, chips
and scratches that impair appearance dur-
ing the life of the product. Color effects
are almost limitless.Transparent, translucent,
pearlescent, fluorescent, or marbleized colors
are readily available for use in plastics.
Another design appeal of plastics is
their ability to accept topical decoration. A
permanently affixed multicolor label can be
provided by means of heat transfer or hot
stamping. When a more secure surface is
required (for computer keycaps, containers,
etc.) the markings, decorations, or labels can
be placed directly in the mold cavities and
subsequently molded into the product as it
is formed. Two-color injection molding is
another option. This is a process in which a
product is first molded in line color and then
(without demolding) a second cavity is placed
over the part permitting a second color to
be molded over a predetermined portion of
it. Other in-mold decoration processes are
available, including a selection of patterns
that can be etched into the mold surface rang-
ing from a very high polish usually reserved
for lenses to a medium matte finish adequate
to mask minor sink marks (Chapter 8).
 1 Introduction
Appearance means something different to
each discipline involved in the development
of a new product. Industrial designers, en-
gineering designers, tool builders, and pro-
cessors are each affected in a different way.
Yet the cooperation of all is necessary in or-
der to achieve the best possible appearance.
Concern for appearance generally translates
to more work for the designer. It would’
certainly be far easier to construct a rectan-
gular box or a drafted cylinder with a few ap-
propriately placed screws. But a world full of
rectangular boxes and drafted cylinders usu-
ally would not be eye appealing. The principal
problems associated with appearance factors
are the development of contoured housings,
space limitations, and assembly devices. Con-
toured housings are far more difficult to cal-
culate than those with regular dimensions. In
some cases, initially it is practically impossi-
ble to achieve complex molded shapes with-
out creating wall thickness variations that can
cause sink marks and warpage.
The ID function involves a great deal more
than appearance design. The designer is of-
ten called on to create the very concept of the
product. In doing so, they will consider the
utility, cost, innovation and human engineer-
ing aspects of the proposed product that re-
lates to its basic appeal to the end-user.
Human engineering. While the designer
usually regards the problems of space limi-
tations as being appearance related, they are
most often the outcome of the ID’S concern
for human engineering, or the proper rela-
tionship of the product to the human body.
For example, personal computers should be
small enough to be carried by many people,
coffee-cup handles should be comfortable to
the hand, eyeglass frames should be easy on
the ears, etc.
Human engineering requirements often
dictate the size,weight, and form of a product.
This translates to smaller, lighter and con-
toured products as the ID works from the
outside to its interior. Often this results in
conflict with the company’s engineering de-
signer, who works basically from the interior
to its outside. Compromise becomes an im-
portant factor as they all bring their require-
17
ments to bear on the appearance and perfor-
mance of the product.
Engineering Designer
It is the area of engineering that involves
the application of graphic principles and
practices to the solution of engineering load-
ing equation problems. It is the systematic
process by which a solution to a problem
is created. A definition that contains the
necessary ideas and speaks broadly is that
engineering design is a decision-making ac-
tivity whereby scientificand technological in-
formation is used to produce a product or sys-
tem. It is different in some degree from what
the designer knows to have been done before
and that is meant to meet new needs.
Graphic Designer
It covers the principles of engineering
drawings, computer graphics, descriptive ge-
ometry, and problem solving. The overall
study of graphics involves the three basic as-
pects of terminology, skills, and theory.
Innovative Designer
A skilled designer blends a knowledge of
materials, an understanding of manufactur-
ing processes, and imagination of new or in-
novative designs. Recognizing the limits of
design with traditional materials is the first
step in exploring the possibilities for innova-
tive design with plastics. Some designers op-
erate by creating only the stylish outer ap-
pearance, allowing basic designer to work
within that outside envelope. This approach
is used very successfully such as in certain
products or parts for furniture, etc. There
are also the combination of designing appear-
ance with engineering so that the stylish prod-
uct incorporates the best combination with
ease of processing when using a specific plas-
tic, simplify assembly, provide capability of
repair, streamlining quality control, and/or
other conditions. The stylish envelope that
 Next Page
18 1 Introduction

eventually emerges will be a logical and aes- a controlled environment present continual
thetic answer to the design challenge. challenge that vary as the regulations change
and the cost of materials and manufacturer
increases.
Material Optimization Designer Different systems are used to aid people,
including designers. An example is a system
Designers can turn to materials as a means designed to ensure efficient contamination
of dramatically improving their products’ control operations. It is called PACT (preven-
performancewise and costwise. Over 70% tion, assessment, corrective action, and train-
of product designs are geometric. With over ing). PACT is designed to assist supervisor,
80,000 materials worldwide (including over managers, and engineers with contamination
35,000 plastics) to choose from, the material control management. It involves the contin-
software tools have become an asset to de- uous improvement principles of total qual-
signers and engineers with or without expe- ity management. Also involved is the quality
rience in material familiarity. There is soft- system regulation (Appendix: TERMINOL-
ware that provides information on specific OGY, Quality system regulation).
performance requirements so that only one
or a few will be listed as the best material to
meet the product performance requirements. Design Features That Influence Performance
These tools let designers consider materials
as a variable in design to meet their specific One of the earliest steps in product de-
product requirements. (Appendix A: PLAS- sign is to establish the configuration of the
TICS TOOLBOX) product that will form the basis on which a
suitable material is selected to meet perfor-
Maximum Diametrical Interference Designer mance requirements. During this phase cer-
tain design features have to be kept in mind
An example of an interference fit design to avoid problems such as reduction of prop-
is the maximum allowable interference for a erties. Such features are called detractors or
particular hub and shaft. It depends on the constraints. Most of them are responsible for
types of materials used in the huband shaft, the unwanted internal stresses that can re-
and on the ratio of the shaft diameter to the duce the available stress level for load bearing
hub outside diameter. It is determined to en- purposes. Other features may be classified as
sure that hoop stress in the interference fit precautionary measures that may influence
does not exceed the allowable stress of mate- the favorable performance of a product if
rials used (Chapter 7). they are properly incorporated.
For example, something as simple as a stiff-
ening rib is different in size for a solid or
Medical Device Designer foamed product even when both products
use the same plastic. Familiarization of de-
Designing medical devices is one of many sign constrains is a critical first step in design
others (buildings, chairs, jewelry, aircraft, to eliminate product problems. A designer
toys, etc.) with each having their specific re- might have an expensive tool (mold or die)
quirements. As an example in USA designing prepared based on a plastic’s shrinkage value.
medical devices with developing controlled It is discovered belatedly that the plastic did
manufacturing environments are required to not meet some overlooked design constrain
be submitted to FDA for approval. They are and the plastic required a much lower shrink-
(necessary) time-consuming, costly activities age value. The tool has too large a mold cavity
for medical device manufacturers. Such activ- or die opening requiring expensive modifica-
ities generally have a target time line with a tion or replacement of the tool.
set completion date and budget. In the mean This book contains information that can
time, the daily operations of manufacturing in be used to setup a checklist on plastic