Phys. Chem. Earth (C), Vol.26, No. 5, pp.
373-377, 2001
) Pergamon
PII: S 1464-1917(01)00016-2
The Effect of the 1999 Total Solar Eclipse on the Ionosphere
R. A. Bamford
Rutherford Appleton Laboratory, Chilton, Didcot, OX11 0QX, U.K.
Received 14 July 2000; accepted 31 October 2000
Abstract. The localised "night" created as the moon's
shadow travelled across the Earth during the total solar
eclipse of l lth August 1999, produced changes in the
ionosphere across Europe that were monitored with a
variety of modern instrumentation. The passage of the
100km wide, super-sonic lunar shadow offered the
opportunity to examine the changes in electron densities,
radio absorption, neutral wind patterns and the possible
generation of waves in the layers of the ionosphere. All
these for an event for which the cause of the disturbance
can be calculated with accuracy. Reported here are the
results from the vertical ionosondes located under the path
of totality and in the partial eclipse region and dual
frequency GPS TEC measurements. The ionosondes
showed that even in the partial shadow the peak electron
densities of the F & E ionospheric layers decreased by as
much as 20-35%. The TEC measurements showed that the
vertical equivalent line integrated electron density dropped
by 15% at the 97% partial eclipse north of the path of
totality. The consequences of these observations are
discussed in relation to making model predictions. © 2001
ElsevierScienceLtd. All rights reserved
1. Introduction
On the August 11 th 1999 between 9:00 UT and 13:00 UT a
total solar eclipse of the sun passed from West to East
across central Europe. Although the region of 100% eclipse
was very narrow at about 100kin wide, the partial shadow
extended much further. As much as 60% of the sun's disk
was obscured as far north as Northern Norway and as far
south as Lisbon in Portugal.
Correspondence to: R.A. Bamford. Tel.+44 12 35 44 65 17.
E mail: R.Bamford@ rl.ac, uk
© 2001 ElsevierScienceLtd.
All rights reserved
1464-1917/01/$ - see frontmatter
Since the nature of the ionosphere is so closely tied to
radiation from the sun, the loss of sunlight due to the
passage of the lunar shadow during the eclipse was
expected to disturb the ionosphere. However the evidence
from ionospheric observations of previous eclipse has
shown wide variations in the ionospheric response
depending upon solar cycle, time of day and latitude
(Boitman et al., 1999; Cheng et al., 1992; Walker et al.,
1991; Chandra et al., 1981; Baron & Hunsucker, 1973;
Smith et al., 1965).
Presented here are some of the UK ionospheric
observations of the disturbance on the ionosphere caused by
the passage of the 1999 total solar eclipse from ionosondes
and TEC measurements made directly below and 3% north
of the path of totality.
2. A transient disturbance on the ionosphere
The nature of the disturbance on the ionosphere of the
super-sonic passage of the lunar shadow is significantly
different from a normal night-time ionosphere. One major
difference is that the disturbance of the eclipse is relatively
localised compared to the terminator. The Meteosat-7
photograph shown in Fig. 1 clearly illustrates the localised
geographical extent of the eclipse. The image is taken at
10:30UT and the total (umbral) shadow is over northern
France with the partial (preumbral) shadow extending over
a much greater area that encompasses southern France and
the most of the UK. The disturbance is also very transient,
with a duration of approximately an hour and a half from
start to finish at any one location (1 st to 4 ~ contacts).
However unlike other more everyday ionospheric transient
disturbances such as absorption events or travelling
ionospheric disturbances (TIDs), the extent and duration of
the passage of the lunar shadow can be exactly calculated
from celestial motions. So for once the nature of the cause
of the observed effect can be characterised precisely.
Underlying geomagnetic activity could complicate
374 R. A. Bamford:The Effectof the 1999Total Solar Eclipse on the Ionosphere
observations. However the 1999 total solar eclipse, despite
being at a time approaching solar maximum, benefited from
geomagneticaly quiet conditions with Kp =9. The solar
cycle activity was also low, with the 10.7 cm radio flux,
F10.7 =128.
Fig. 1. A photographof the 1999total solar eclipse at 10:30UTillustrating
the geographicalextent of the eclipse shadow. The photographis from the
weather satellite Meteosat-7. ©2000 EUMETSAT.
3. Ionospheric observations of the 1999 solar eclipse
The map in Fig. 2 shows the path of totality of the eclipse at
ground level across Europe. The bottomside ionosphere was
monitored by UK ionosondes at Chilton (RL052, 51.6°N,
1.3°W) and at a temporary site in Helston (50.1°N, 5.26°W).
These instruments, along with the total electron content
(TEC) receiver at Chilbolton (49.37°N, 6.08°W), are
indicated on the map with the times of the local maximum
eclipse.
Fig. 2. A map of the path of totality across Europe of the 11'~ August 1999
total solar eclipse on the ground and the locations of the ionosondes at
Chilton and Helston and the TEC receiverat Chilbolton.
The Chilton monitoring ionosonde was at the 97%
eclipsed region and the Helston ionosonde was located on
the centre line of the path of totality. The ionosondes
yielded the critical frequencies of the ionospheric layers and
were analysed to give the height profile of the plasma
concentration, N(h), using the P O L A N inversion routine
(Titheridge, 1985). The TEC is the vertical equivalent line
integrated electron density determined from radio emissions
from the GPS (Global Positioning System) satellites. The
GPS satellites used pass over the region studied at an
altitude of approximately hs=20,000km. The slant path
corrections have been made to give the vertical TEC
fohoSN(h)dh, assuming a horizontally stratified ionosphere
following the method of Ciraolo & Spalla (1997).
4. Total electron content results
The total electron content (TEC) measured by a dual
frequency GPS receiver located at Chilbolton is shown in
Fig. 3 for the day of the eclipse overlaid with the average
TEC for the days immediately proceeding and following the
eclipse. A drop in TEC of about 15% (3x1016 m 2) in total is
observed which commenced at the eclipse onset. The
decrease in total density of electrons is significant despite
the main reservoir of ionisation being in the topside of the F
layer (above about 250 km) that did not experience a 100%
eclipse.
Chilbolton TEC dot(] : 1!/0.8/1999
<10/08/1999 & 12/08/1999>
i
; i i , i
~22
~ 21
12°
,1o, 19
I.'-
08:00 08:45 09:30 10:15 11:00 11 45 12.
Time (UT)
Fig. 3. The total electron content (TEC) during the time of the eclipse as
observed at Chilbolton (solid curve) and the average TEC for the days
immediately proceedingand followingthe eclipse (dashed curve).
Fig. 4 shows a comparison between the measured TEC at
Chiibolton and the calculated TEC based on POLAN
(Titheridge, 1985) inversions of the Chilton ionosonde
measurements. The distance between the ionosonde and the
TEC instrument was only 52 km. The N(h) profiles for the
ionosondes were integrated only up to the hmF2 and a
constant offset of 15x1016 m -2 was included to allow the
comparison. This was necessary since the ionosonde cannot
determine the ionospheric profile above the height of the F-
layer peak.
This comparison confirms the rate of change in the total
electron content and the magnitude of the total decrease
from two independent measurements and shows that the
bulk of the change takes place below the F layer peak.
 R. A. Bamford: The Effect of the 1999 Total Solar Eclipse on the Ionosphere 375

reduction in foF2 at Helston appears broader than the F1 or

E layer responses. A periodic variation appears to be
- , - . . , - _ _ , . .
Chnton
_ , - _ . , - _ . , - _ ,
present in foF2 before and after the eclipse. The period of
this variation is 50-60 minutes (peak to peak). It is
24 impossible from these observations alone to identify
whether this periodic variation was caused by the eclipse or
22 other phenomena associated with geomagnetic activity.
The fact that this periodic variation occurs before the
20 eclipse has started does not preclude it from being eclipse
related as it could originate from a distant frontal bow wave
of the disturbance for instance (Hanuise et al., 1982; Cheng
et al., 1992). Previous observations of eclipses using
08;20 08~3 09;.26 1(1:00 10;33 11,06 11 ;40
T;me ur ionosondes have suggested eclipse-generated waves with a
wide variety of periods. The periods vary from between 15-
Fig. 4. A comparison of the measured TEC at Chilbolton (clashed curve) 25 minutes (Cheng et al., 1992; Chimonas and Hines, 1971)
and the calculated TEC based on POLAN profiles from the Chilton
ionosonde (solid) during the time of the eclipse. A constant offset was or between 20 and 40 minutes (Ivanov et al., 1998; Walker
added to the POLAN derived TEC. et al., 1991) or as much as 87 minutes in the case of Liu and
co-workers (Lui et al., 1998). Yet others have seen no
evidence of waves (Chandra et al., 1981).
5. The changes in critical frequency There is no evidence for the periodic disturbance seen in
the F2 layer in the F1 layer. This puts a limit on the
The time evolution of the foF2, foFl and foE ionospheric amplitude of the periodic disturbance, which must be less
critical frequencies observed by the DPS-1 ionosonde (Bibl than 20-50 km in true height. However the depletion in
and Reinisch, 1978) at Helston are shown in Fig. 5. At the electron density of the FI layer due to the eclipse is the
top of the figure is a dashed curve that is an idealised more significant than for the F2 layer, as seen by the
representation of the fraction of the solar disk area Helston station. The temporal response of the foFl most
remaining visible indicating the progress of the eclipse. closely resembles the idealised fraction of the uneclipsed
This normalised idealised eclipse curve has been offset by 8 solar disk. This confirms the expectation that the
to place it at the top of the ionosonde plots in order to allow concentration of electrons in the FI layer is following more
the comparisons with the time evolution of the changes in closely the loss of solar radiation than the F2 layer
the ionospheric critical frequencies. Ordinarily 1 would (Rishbeth and Garriott, 1969). The recovery of ionisation in
represent full solar disk visible and 0 total eclipse. the FI layer after the eclipse has passed its maximum,
appears more rapid than the decrease prior to the eclipse
Helston
~ton Digisonde, dot(I,, 1 1 / , 8 / 1 9 9 9 maximum. This results in an asymmetric response in the FI
layer. The F1 layer forms at the transition from a square
ecfipse , ', ," ,, law plasma loss rate (where the limiting factor of the
7 plasma loss is the dissociative recombination of molecular
ions), to a linear loss rate (where the limiting factor is the
transfer reaction that converts atomic O + ions into
molecular ions) (Hargreaves, 1992). Thus the asymmetry of
~5 the F1 layer response implies that the eclipse modified the
CJ- ionospheric composition and temperature, changing the
~ 4 i
i transition between the two plasma loss regions.
Ix. i

A similar asymmetry before and after the eclipse is seen in

i
, foe
i
the E layer. Here though prior to the eclipse maximum the
i
i
rate of loss of ionisation appears to have two distinct
05:00 07:56 10:1: 12:48 15:24 18:00 regions, each with a different gradient. Approximately 20
Time (UT) minutes before the local eclipse maximum the loss of
ionisation, or decrease in the foE, becomes much more
Fig. 5. The ionospheric critical frequencies during the time of the eclipse rapid and thereafter follows the loss of solar radiation more
as observed direction under the path of totality at Helston. The vertical line
indicates the start and end of the eclipse and the time of the local eclipse closely.
maximum at ground level. The dashed curve is a normalised, ideal time
evolution of the eclipse or fraction of the solar disk area remaining visible.
This curve has been offset by 8 units. 6. True height profiles

The true height electron density profiles were obtained from

The passage of the lunar shadow clearly produced a the ionosonde data using POLAN inversion procedure
reduction in all the critical frequencies in the ionosphere of (Titheridge, 1985) are shown in Fig. 6. Profiles are shown
between 12% for the foF2 and 36% for the foF1. The for 08:50 UT (before first contact totality), at 09:30 UT
376 R. A. Bamford: The Effect of the 1999 Total Solar Eclipse on the Ionosphere

(between first contact and totality) and at 10:12 UT (at 10:I0:57UT and 10:I3:03UT resulting in 2 minutes 6
totality). Here the changes in peak densities and heights seconds of totality. However at the altitude of the E layer
between the profile just prior to the arrival of the eclipse totality occurred for just 8 seconds between 10:I0:53UT
and mid-eclipse are very clear. The intermediate profile at and 10:11:01 UT. From Fig. 7 it can be seen that the
09:30UT shows the FI ledge, which became more maximum drop in the foE occurs slightly ahead of the
pronounced and moved down in frequency and height maximum loss of solar radiation at 10:07:30 + 00:01:30
during the time approaching the eclipse maximum. UT. The plots of foFl and foE from the Chilton ionosonde
are shown in Fig. 8. Note that the 2 ~a and 3 m contacts never
Helston occurred for this site which was outside the path of totality.
400 | i |
The middle dashed line in Fig. 8 is the time the maximum
occultation of the disk at E layer heights. There is a
"'.." suggestion that the minimum foE is again before the peak
3O0 occultation for the Chilton site, although the time resolution
E between ionograms was not so good at 4 minutes interval
w.
10: 1 2 ~ " ; .." rather than 3 minutes of Helston.
"~'
e-
20(]
Chilton ,Digisonde data, 11/,8/1999
2
100
~ • .'--'"08:50
;~='--'" UT
08:50 U'] 5.5

5.0 i

I 4.5
0 i , , ' - - - i . . . i

0 2 4 6 8 4.0
E
Plosmt~ freq IOHz
O- 3.5
Fig. 6. The POLAN true height electron density profiles derived from the
Helston ionosonde observations before and up to eclipse totality. ~' 3.0
i
i
2.5 i
i i

7. Timing of the ionospheric response

08:30 09:12 09:54 10:36 11:18 12:00
Time (UT)
Helston ,Digison,de data, 11/,8/1999
Fig. 8. The foFI and foE critical frequencies during the time of the eclipse,
5.5 ', i
as observed at Chilton (RL052).

-r- 4.5 8. Discussion

4.0
= 3.5
(2-
" 3.0 , composition or the additional input of transport of
2.5 i the F layer will be more resilient in general to the loss of
08:30 09:12 09:54 10:36
Time (UT)
Fig. 7. The foFl and foE critical frequenciesduring the time of the echpse,
as observedat Helston.The vertical line indicates the start and end of the
eclipse and the time of the local eclipse maximumat an altitude of 105km
+- 5km (E layeraltitude.
Fig. 7 shows a close up of the foFl and foE critical
frequencies for the time immediately around the eclipse.
The vertical lines indicate the time of the eclipse
commencement (l st contact), eclipse totality (2 nd a n d 3 'd
contact) and eclipse end (4 m contact) calculated for the
altitude of the E layer of the ionosphere at 105+5 km (Davis
et al., 2000). The times of 2 "d and 3 'a contact on the ground
for the latitude and longitude of the Helston ionosonde were
It is not sufficient to assume the differences in the response
times of the ionospheric layers is due to the variation in
production and loss rates associated with changes in
ionisation in the F region. Although the expectation is that
11:18 12:00 direct solar radiation than the more photosensitive E and Fi
layers, there is another altitude factor that must be allowed
for.
At Helston the E layer of the ionosphere was directly in
the path of totality. However because of the declination of
the sun the F1 and F2 layers, above this location, never
experienced 100% eclipse. The map and sketch insert
shown in Fig. 9 shows the effect of the declination of the
sun to the 100% eclipse regions at the different altitudes of
the ionospheric layers. The path of totality for the F, E and
D regions of the ionosphere has been projected onto the
map of Europe in red, orange and yellow respectively. The
path on the ground is shown in black and like the D layer is
partly obscured by the higher layers. This figure illustrates
how any one vertical ionosonde station observing an eclipse
does not observe the same percentage eclipse for each
 R A Bamford: The Effect of the 1999 Total Solar Eclipse on the Ionosphere
ionospheric layer unless the sun is directly overhead. At
Heiston the E layer e x p e r i e n c e d totality whereas the F layer
did not.
I
Ohiiton
Helston F
Ground
' ' • '~'~i~
~":"...........
" "'
P a t h o~ t o t a l i t y .......• --7:: ...... } .i:::i:
Fig. 9. A map of the path of totality across Europe of the I 1~' August 1999
total solar eclipse at the altitudes of the F. E and D layers of the ionosphere
and at ground level. The insert shows the eclipse geometry relative to the
vertical ionosonde locations.
The similarity o f the variation o f the T E C data with the
integrated bottomside T E C ( d e d u c e d from ionosonde data
using P O L A N algorithm) shows the d o m i n a n t changes
were in the l o w e r ionosphere. The P O L A N true height
analysis also s h o w s that the F I layer b e c a m e much more
pronounced as the critical frequencies decayed, and the
semi-thickness o f the F2 layer was m u c h reduced. These
o b s e r v e d changes highlight the importance o f c o m b i n e d
ionosonde and T E C observations o f the eclipse before
ionospheric model c o m p a r i s o n s can be made o f the
temporal and spatial disturbance caused by eclipse. For
e x a m p l e , m o d e l l i n g by M t i l l e r - W o d a r g et al., (1998)
predicted the fall in foE and f o F I , but also predicted that
the foF2 w o u l d rise slightly at Chilton. This w o u l d be
caused by a modulation to the thermospheric temperature
and the winds, and the changes in foF2 are very sensitive to
the changes in the t h e r m o s p h e r e (Mtiller-Wodarg, 1998).
The o b s e r v e d foF2 actually f e l l (see Fig. 5 and Fig. 6)
which might be r e p r o d u c e d in the model if the initial
conditions closer to those that existed on the I1 th August
were used. Both m o d e l and observations s h o w only minor
changes a b o v e the F2 peak.
9. Conclusions
The total concentration o f electrons and the peak densities
o f E, FI and F2 layers o f the ionosphere, showed a
substantial decease due to the passage o f the 1999 total
solar eclipse at mid-latitudes within the 97% and 100%
eclipse regions.
The changes in electron density and hence critical
frequency in the FI and E layer more closely f o l l o w the
loss o f solar radiation than the F2 layer. This due to the
faster r e c o m b i n a t i o n rate at the l o w e r altitudes and higher
photosensitivity, the F2 layer density being dependant on
377
transport processes and the e x a c t b e h a v i o u r being very
sensitive to the changes in thermospheric winds. H o w e v e r
the responses o f the F I and E layers before and after the
eclipse m a x i m u m are not symmetric. This implies that the
eclipse shadow c h a n g e d the conditions o f the neutral
thermosphere and so modulated the plasma loss rates.
In order to model the transient response o f the ionosphere
to the passage o f the lunar s h a d o w it is essential to include
the 3D g e o m e t r y o f the eclipse projection onto the different
ionospheric altitudes. T h i s is best done using a collection of
ionosonde m e a s u r e m e n t s from a more than one location
relative to the eclipse path.
Acknowledgements. Thanks to Fred Espenak of NASA for the latitude
and longitude data of the path of the eclipse. Thanks also to EUMSAT for
the use of the Meteosat-7 photograph.
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