Component-I (A) – Personal details:

Prof. P. Bhaskar Reddy

Sri Venkateswara University, Tirupati.

Dr. Rita Chaudhuri

Dept. of AIHC, University of Calcutta.

Dr. Krishnendu Ray

Dept. of AIHC, University of Calcutta.

Dr. Rita Chaudhuri

Dept. of AIHC, University of Calcutta.

.
Component-I (B) – Description of module:

Subject Name Indian Culture

Paper Name Social and Cultural History of India (From Earliest

to 1707 A.D.)

Module Name/Title Social Stratification in Ancient India

Module Id I C / SCHI / 11

Pre requisites Society, Varna,

Introducing the learner to the concept of
Objectives
stratification in early Indian Society
Keywords Varna, Asrama etc

E-text (Quadrant-I) :
1. Introduction
The more the humans have gathered experiences in due course of their living from the hoary
past through the ages, the more they have faced complexities in their real life situations.
These are supported by the visible artefacts from different excavated sites like Mehrgarh,
Harappa, Mahenjodaro, Chanhudaro, Kalibangan, Banavali, Lothal etc in the Indian
subcontinent. The artefacts from these sites bearing on the forms of both agrarian and non-
agrarian production, town plans with buildings point out the fact that there were people with
skills in different arts in the societies of those days. In other words the society of the day
observed some sort of division among the people. Thus we come to scholarly insights on the
Dholavira habitation characterised by the clearly demarcated four parts. It is said that these
four parts were meant for ‘rulers, noblemen, middle class and lower class respectively’. It
was ‘a class structured society.’ Probably the people of different parts were not allowed to
mix with one another. The concept of such social divisions might have been followed up by
the people of the Vedic days (1500-500 BCE). This may be supported by the Purusasukta of
the Rgveda (1500-1000 BCE) which refers to the rise of the Brahmanas from the mouth, the
Ksatriyas from the arms, the Vaisyas from the thighs and the Sudras from the feet of the
Primaeval Being. Apart from this late evidence the society of the Rgvedic days possibly
witnessed only two varnas and they were aryavarna (Aryans) and dasa varna (non-Aryans).
From those days onwards there were social divisions among the people with occupational
skills/capacities along with the varna divisions in the societies through the ages. Not only the
Vedic texts, but also the Buddhist texts and epigraphic records lend support to social
divisions among the people. With the passage of time social institutions also undergo
changes.
1.1 Political, Economic and Social Changes
It appears that there were socio-economic changes in early India during the period from the
second century BCE to the fourth century CE. Politically the period witnessed the role of a
number of political powers and their political activities in different parts of early India. These
powers included Central Asian political powers like Greeks, Sakas, Pahlavas, Kusanas, in
the north-western part of the Indian subcontinent. The Sungas and the Kanvas were at
Magadha. The Chedi house rose to power in Kalinga. The Saka-Ksatrapas were in western
India. The Satavahanas emerged in the Deccan. The Cholas, Pandyas, Satyaputras and
Cheraputras were in the far south. Economically the development of trade and commerce,
trade routes, ports like Bharukaccha, Kalyana, Muziris etc on the west coast,
Kaveripattinam, Colchi (Korkei), Gange, Tamralipta on the east coast, the growth and
development of artisanal activities, sea voyages for trade, imports like fancy potteries, glass
products etc and exports like cinnamon, nard, cardamom, professional organizations etc
characterized the period. These changes might have influenced the contemporary society.
As a consequence the period observed a new attitude towards life. This was reflected in
achieving success in worldly affairs, gaining material wealth and prosperity, comforts and
luxuries. The development of this attitude may be supported by recalling Bhasa’s Charudatta
who lamented for the loss of his wealth. This new outlook on life might have laid its impact
on the existing social order.
2. Caturvarnavyabastha (Four-Varna System) underwent a change
Besides the above-mentioned four-varna division, the society observed social stratification
along the lines of propensity and occupation of the people. Thus according to the
Mahabharata, the Brahmanas had the white complexion, the Ksatriyas red, the Vaisyas
yellow and the Sudras dark in accordance with their respective occupation and propensity.
The Brahmanas enjoyed the most privileged and supreme position in society. Side by side
we also know that the Mlecchas arose in the society. The intermixture of varnas also took
place in the contemporary society as supported by the Dharmasutras. Besides, from the
earlier days the society had observed a number of occupational groups like Taksan,
Karmmara etc as known from Vedic and other literary texts. Gradually the society witnessed
the existence of multiple social groups with multiple occupations. If we keep this society with
multiple communities in mind, then it appears that the traditional four-varna system was not
sufficient enough to cover up all these social groups with their occupations. The society
faced stratification not only on the Purusasukta-based traditional four-varna system, but also
along the lines of privileges given, rights and duties assigned etc. Following the lines of
privileges etc accorded it appears that even within one varna the members were given
differential access to rights and privileges. As a consequence there was stratification among
the members of the Varna.
3. Stratification within the Brahmana Varna
As said above, the society gradually encountered a variety of changes not only along socio-
economic lines, but also in the attitudes of the people. The matter may be understood in
different respects. In the case of paying fines or debt we find that a Brahmana was to pay it
by instalment from his earnings. But the Ksatriya, the Vaisya and the Sudra had to repay it
by rendering labour. In other words, social stratification took place among the four varnas on
the question of repaying the fines/debt. Even in the case of the interest rate the Brahmana
paid the lowest rate of interest. The Brahmana was also made free from paying at ferries etc,
according to the Kautiliya Arthasastra. Interestingly, if a Brahmana found a treasure, he
could keep it fully. But if that treasure was found by other varna members, then a share of
the treasure was to be given to the Brahmana. Here also a clear social stratification is
noticeable. With the passage of time attitudes changed. In point of tax relief for the
Brahmanas we find that according to the Brhaspati and Apastamba Dharmasutras, only the
learned srotriya Brahmanas and not all the Brahmanas are to be given exemption from the
payment of tax. In the Santiparvan of the Mahabharata we find that only the pious
Brahmanas enjoyed exemption from tax payment. But the ordinary Brahmanas had no such
privilege. Therefore it appears that there was social stratification among the members of the
Brahmana varna---srotriya Brahmanas, pious Brahmanas, ordinary Brahmanas. In the
matters of judiciary only the learned Brahmana had the right to try a case. In other words,
here also social stratification is understandable between the learned and ordinary
Brahmanas. In the case of inheritance we find that the son of the Brahmana wife was to
receive four shares, the son of the Ksatriya wife was to be given three shares, the son of the
Vaisya wife was to get two shares and the son of the Sudra wife was to receive one share.
Thus in point of giving shares following the law of inheritance stratification was made among
the different varnas. In point of officiating at a sacrifice we find that only the learned srotriya
Brahmanas were considered competent to officiate at a sacrifice. Professional priests were
not given high status in society.
The more the society witnessed changes, the more it became difficult for the whole
Brahmana varna to rely only on teaching, accepting gifts and sacrificing. According to Panini,
Mahabharata, Manusamhita, Baudhayana Dharmasutra we find Brahmanas to have taken to
soldiering, arms, and fighting. In other words again the Brahmana faced stratification socially
along the lines of profession. In the Dasa Brahmana Jataka it is seen that the Brahmanas
who forget their proper duties and took to professions for gains are not at all Brahmanas.
This also indicates stratification among the Brahmanas. The Buddhist text Sutta-Nipata
refers to a good number of Brahmanas who pursued different professions. Thus we find
wagonrivers, hunters, physicians, servants etc in the text. The Mahasuttasoma Jataka refers
to a Brahmana merchant who went to sell his goods in the west. The well known
Mrcchakatika hero Carudatta was a Brahmana by birth, but trader by profession. This did not
affect his social status.
Thus it appears that the Brahmana varna witnessed social stratification among its members.
4. Stratification within the Ksatriya Varna
Traditionally the Ksatriyas have been placed in the second rung of the social ladder. Their
functions were war and providing protection to the people. According to Richard Fick, the
Khattiyas were the the Rajanyas of the Vedic days. They formed the ruling group which
included the king, lords and his vassals. According to the Arthasastra, Manusamhita, and
Yajnavalkya, the Ksatriyas’ occupations included the Vedic study, carriage of arms,
protection, giving gifts and performance of sacrifice for themselves. Of these duties and
occupations the most appropriate functions of the Ksatriyas were providing protection to the
people and carrying arms. It appears that the Ksatriyas were preferred in the administration
of the military affairs. In this connection the executive power lay with the Ksatriyas. Thus
according to the Kasika Commentary, we find that within the Ksatriya varna some Ksatriyas
had political power and so, called Rajanyas and some Ksatriyas were ordinary ones.
Our attention has been drawn to the Manusamhita in which we find that some Ksatriyas had
cattle wealth and big firms. In other words there were some Ksatriyas whose livelihood did
not probably come from soldering. Even in the Jatakas we find some Ksatriyas to have had
taken to trade. We are told that in the republics of early India the Ksatriyas formed a group
with landed wealth.
According to Kosambi, we find that there were some Ksatriya political thinkers in early India.
Thus our attention has been drawn to such political thinkers as Bahudantiputra, Vatavyadhi,
Visalaksa etc who were Ksatriyas. In this connection we find the Manusamhita referring to
non-Brahmana teachers from whom a Brahmana could learn, though in hard times.
It appears from the Jatakas that the poorer Ksatriyas earned their livelihood by rendering
manual service. In the Manusamhita we find that if the Ksatriyas could not earn their
livelihood by their own profession, Brahmanas maintained the poor Ksatriyas .
In the case of the upanayana ritual the Brahmana was initiated on the eighth day. But the
Ksatriya was initiated on the eleventh day. Thus stratification was maintained.
In the case of the defamation of the Brahmana by the Ksatriya the Ksatriya was to pay one
hundred panas. But in the case of the defamation of the Ksatriya by the Brahmana was to
pay only fifty panas. Thus stratification was made.
Thus we get the there were the wealthy Ksatriyas, the ordinary Ksatriyas the poorer Kstriyas,
the Ksatriyas with teaching capacities. So were the layers within the Ksatriya varna,
5 Stratification within the Vaisya Varna
Similarly, social stratification may be noticeable within the Vaisya varna, the third rung of the
social ladder. At this point we should take note of certain economic changes in the society
from c.600 BCE onwards. According to G. C. Pande, N. C. Banerjee, the society of the day
witnessed the growth of towns, commerce, the rise of artisans/manufacturers, the use of
money, the rise of big merchants like Anathpindika etc. Our attention has been drawn to the
Jaina text Uvasaga Dasao in which we find reference to a rich potter named Saddalaputta
under whom several potters used to work. We are told that weavers supplied yarn to the
gahapati. These changes may show differences within the common people or vis. On the
one hand there were big and wealthy people and on the other hand there were artisans
groups in the society of the time. According to a few Jataka evidences and A. N. Bose, we
find that a worker with his wages maintained his life only from hand to mouth. In other words
there were poor workers in society. Although the works of agricultural production, trade and
commerce and rearing the cattle were traditionally assigned to the members of the Vaisya
varna, gradually some of them took to commerce. The rich members of the Vaisya varna
engaged workers to get their agricultural works done. According to the Dharmasutra
tradition, many members of the Vaisya varna were ‘the tillers of soil’. They were probably
cultivators. According to the Gautama Dharmasutra, Vaisyas acquired gains by putting
labour. In other words there were poor Vaisyas in the society. At this point we may recall
that according to the Vinayapitaka, the life of the poor is evil in comparison to that of the rich.
In connection with the rich membes of Vaisya varna we may recall the word Setthi or Sresthi
in Sanskrit. They were very rich persons in the society. Epigraphic records from
Damodarpur point to their connection with the local administration of the king. The seals
from Basarh draw our attention to the expression sresthi-sarthavaha-kulika. Possibly the
sresthis were the most important among the traders. Similarly we come across another term
sarthavaha. It signified the travelling merchants who with caravans full of trading goods
moved from one place to another. They were also important personalities in the local
administration. It may be said that these fabulously rich Vaisyas because of their direct
connection with the king through the local administration rose in status in the society.
In addition to such big merchants we have references to small traders such as gold traders,
textile traders, corn sellers etc from the Jaina text Angavijja. Inscriptions also support these
traders.
We have epigraphic references to female traders such as vanijini, sarthavahini from the List
of Inscriptions by Luders numbering 1285, 1292, 30.
Therefore there were clearly two sections---ordinary and rich---within the Vaisya varna.
Again among the wealthy Vaisyas stratification may be noticeable. Some rich Vaisyas had
political status. Social stratification along the line of gender within the Vaisya varna is
noticeable from the word vanijini mentioned above.
6. Stratification within the Sudra Varna
Traditionally and theoretically the Sudras belonged to the lowest rung of the varna-ladder of
the early Indian society. Born as they were from the feet of the Purusa, they were asked to
serve the upper varna people, particularly the Brahmanas. In other words their services were
required for the other categories of people of the society. But they were not allowed to
participate in the social life of the people. But their social position began to change with the
passage of time. The society had changed with the accompanying socio-economic changes
as said above. We have also seen that many people of the Vaisya varna took to trade and
commerce. The tasks of the agrarian and artesanal productions were therefore largely left
behind.
In the Manusamhita we find the Sudras to have been mentioned together with the artesans
and mechanics (karukan silpinaschaiva) in the context of taxation. In other words some of
the Sudras might have taken to the pursuit of artisanal production.
At this point it is to be noted that some inscriptional records from Luders’ List draw our
attention to the economic prosperity of artesans. They included workers in jewellery, leather,
wood, gold etc. Apparently they lived on manual labour. These workers gave religious
donations. This shows the fact that they were financially capable enough to make such gifts
to the religious institution. In this connection it is also to be noted that an artesan, according
to the List no. 346, belonged to the king Sri Satakarni. Possibly he was a royal artesan. It
therefore appears that among the Sudras some were financially prosperous. At this point we
may look at the Gautama Dharmasutra. In the text we are told that the performance of paka-
yajna meaning domestic sacrifice was allowed to Sudras. Some Sudras were given this
privilege. On this account there was a layer of stratification among the Sudras. Again among
the prosperous Sudra artesans a few might have acquired the status of the royal artesan. In
the Jataka we find reference to the fact that the artesan was attached to the royal house. So
there was social stratification not only among the Sudras in general, but also in the section of
the prosperous Sudras. Even some Sudras might have taken to trade and commerce
according to the Kautiliya Arthasastra. In the Manusamhita we find that if a Brahmana sold
milk, he became a Sudra (sudribhavati brahmanah ksiravikrayat). This statement may lead
one to assume that there might be some Sudras who pursued the trade of selling milk in the
society of the time. In other words there might be some Sudras whose occupation was the
keeping of the cattle in the society. Thus along the lines of the occupations of the selling of
milk and the keeping of the cattle the members of the Sudra varna witnessed stratification.
The economic prosperity of the Sudras might have taken them close to the upper varnas.
Thus according to the Manusamhita and Yajnavalkyasmriti, if a daughter of a Sudra woman
by a twice-born man was given in marriage to a male of a upper varna, then after seven
generations the Sudra family could attain Brahmanahood. In other words the social status of
the Sudra family became higher. According to the Yajnavalkyasmriti, some Sudras could
perform funeral rites (sraddha) and five great sacrifices (pancamahayajna) like pitriyajna,
bhutayajna etc. Possibly such rights to the performance of socio-religious rites were given to
the prosperous Sudras. For at this point we know that the Sudras maintained servants.
Possibly some Sudras were capable of maintaining servants. Thus on the account of
keeping servants there was stratification among the Sudras.
We have already seen that some Sudras could donate. It is interesting to note that the act of
the donation by a Sudra was praised and considered meritorius. By making donation of
certain things one Sudra could become refined again. Possibly the prosperous Sudras were
encouraged to do the act of donation.
It therefore appears from the above discussion that the society witnessed not only inter-
varna, but also intra-varna social stratification. The society also witnessed the existence of a
number of mixed castes like Ambastha (Brahmana father and Vaisya mother), Nisada
(Brahmana father and Sudra mother), Ugra (Ksatriya father and Sudra mother), Candala
(Sudra father and Brahmana mother), Suta (Ksatriya father and Brahmana mother),
Vaidehaka (Vaisya father and Brahmana mother), Ayogava ( Vaisya father and Brahmana
mother) etc.
7. Summary
Historically, it is learnt that people have done different types of works in order to live in the
world. In this connection they have established working relationships among them. Thus,
they have established societies characterised by different categories of people.
Archaeologically, it appears that the people have developed a tendency towards social
division from the hoary past. We have seen varna-divided society through the ages. We
have also seen that the early Indian society was characterised by a number of mixed castes.
Thus we have noticed social stratification along the lines of varnas and mixed castes. Even
within every varna we have seen stratification on the accounts of the capacities, wealth etc
of the people. Further among the wealthy people there were the layers of stratification. The
survival of the human society proverbially depends upon the different types of services
rendered by the people with different capacities in fact. The concept of stratification is
therefore implied in the social space. It is only expressed in different manners.