Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Adikesavan2015 Levadura Nanoparticulsd de Mgo PDF
Adikesavan2015 Levadura Nanoparticulsd de Mgo PDF
SMN04
and MgO Nanoparticles—An Integrated (Nano-Bio)
Approach
Adikesavan Selvi and Nilanjana Das
School of Bio Sciences and Technology, VIT University, Vellore 632014, Tamilnadu, India; nilanjana00@lycos.com (for
correspondence)
Published online 27 November 2015 in Wiley Online Library (wileyonlinelibrary.com). DOI 10.1002/ep.12279
The present study evaluates the effect of integrated nano- release harmful compounds which are resistant to degrada-
bio approach involving nanoscale magnesium oxide (n- tion, photo-transformation, and natural degradation [3]. The
MgO) and yeast Candida sp. SMN04 on cefdinir degradation presence of high concentration of cephalosporin in the envi-
in aqueous medium. The nanoparticle was chemically syn- ronment leads to very high chemical oxygen demand, thus
thesized and characterized by atomic force microscopy by increasing the toxic strength of the effluent [4].
(AFM), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), EDAX analysis, Contamination of surface and ground waters by synthetic
and particle size analyser. Nano-bio integrated system was antibiotic compounds is considered as a potential threat to
prepared using chemically synthesized n-MgO (10 mg human and ecological health [5]. Over the past 2 decades,
mL21), coated onto the surface of yeast cells without causing there have been an increasing number of infections world-
any lethal effects to the cell. Cefdinir (250 mg L21) degrada- wide due to third-generation cephalosporin-resistant (3GCs-
tion was studied using individual and nano-bio integrated R) Escherichia coli isolates [6–8].
system both. Nano-bio integrated system was found to be In the last few decades, considerable attention has been
more effective for cefdinir degradation compared to native given to the treatment of pharmaceutical wastewater. A wide
yeast cell. The adherence of nanoparticles on the surface of range of physico-chemical methods are being used for the
the yeast cells increased the permeability of the cell mem- treatment of pharmaceutical wastewaters which are of lim-
brane, thereby enhancing the entry of cefdinir into the cell. ited applicability because of the limitations such as ineffi-
The kinetic data showed the half-life of cefdinir, which was ciency of remediating high strength wastewater, high
1.46 days for integrated system and 2.97 days for native operating cost, huge labor requirement, high equipment
yeast, which confirmed that the integrated approach reduced cost, intervention of toxic by-products, etc. [2]. Bioremedia-
the half-life to less than half of the time taken by the yeast tion using yeasts has attracted special interest in the present
alone. This study signifies the potential efficacy of the nano- study since yeast species are found to be adaptable to chang-
bio integrated approach to serve as an effective remedial tool ing environmental conditions, persist in natural habitats and
for the treatment of pharmaceutical wastewater. V C 2015 Ameri- polluted sites, degrade various toxic and stable organic sub-
can Institute of Chemical Engineers Environ Prog, 35: 706–714, 2016 stances like, pharmaceutical compounds etc. [9,10].
Keywords: cefdinir, degradation, magnesiumoxide nano- Biological treatments always have more advantages com-
particles (n-MgO), nano-bio integrated system, yeast pared to other physico-chemical treatments. Biodegradation
of cephalosporin antibiotics using bacteria have been
INTRODUCTION
reported by few researchers [11,12]. The efficiency of yeasts
In recent years, it has become clear that pharmaceuticals viz., Peudozyma sp. SMN01, Ustilago sp. SMN02, Ustilago sp.
are an important group of environmental pollutants [1]. Phar- SMN03, and Candida sp. SMN04 toward cefdinir biodegrada-
maceutical industries involved in the production of antibiot- tion have been reported in our previous studies [9,13,14].
ics discharge their wastes openly, which contains some In the past few years, MgO nanoparticles have attracted
quantity of these active compounds that are toxic in nature. the interests of researchers for its remarkable properties and
The accumulation and persistence of antibiotics in the envi- important industrial uses such as industrial waste water
ronment produce harmful effects, even at low concentration remediation in the removal of pharmaceuticals, toxic waste,
in which they are detected [2]. toxic gas, paints, semiconductors, and heavy metals [15–17].
Cefdinir is an advanced third generation semi-synthetic Magnesium oxide (MgO) is a heterogeneous catalyst that has
cephalosporin antibiotic, characterized by a vinyl group at C- good catalytic potential for degradation reactions of organic
3 and a (Z)-2-(2-amino-4 thiazolyl)-2-(hydroxyimino) acetyl pollutants [18–20]. MgO nanoparticles can act by adsorption
moiety at C-7 and used for the treatment of acute respiratory process or direct cell membrane penetration to facilitate the
related disorders and mild skin infections. The effluents removal of drug resistant microbes from the polluted envi-
released from cephalosporin production units are reported to ronment [20,21].
In recent years, few researchers proposed a new approach
toward degradation of environmental contaminants, which
C 2015 American Institute of Chemical Engineers
V involves the combined treatment of biological system with
706 May 2016 Environmental Progress & Sustainable Energy (Vol.35, No.3) DOI 10.1002/ep
nanoparticles [19,22]. Integrated system may serve as an effec- AFM, SEM, and EDAX Analysis
tive remediation tool for the treatment of pharmaceutical The morphological characterization of the synthesized n-
wastewater containing cephalosporin antibiotics. This is the MgO was carried out using atomic force microscope (AFM:
first report on using integrated nano-bio system composed of Nanosurf, Switzerland; Model: Easy Scan2) and scanning
n-MgO coupled with a cefdinir degrading yeast Candida sp. electron microscope (EVO series-MA15 SEM). EDAX analysis
SMN04 for a faster degradation of cefdinir from aqueous was done with SEM coupled with EDAX-EVO-MA15-SEM,
environment. Oxford instruments.
Environmental Progress & Sustainable Energy (Vol.35, No.3) DOI 10.1002/ep May 2016 707
The obtained degradation data were fitted with pseudo- the degradation rate constant, T1/2 is the biodegradation half-
first order reaction kinetics [25], for the calculation of half-life life period of cefdinir.
and degradation rate constant using the following equations:
Enzyme Analysis
0
Ct 5 C0 : e2k t To study the enzymatic response of the native and inte-
(4) grated system, activities of various enzymes viz. b-lactamase
[26], cytochrome P450 [27], NADPH reductase [28], amylase
[29], manganese peroxidase [30] were assayed following the
T1=2 5 ln 0:5=2k 0
(5) standard protocols by collecting the samples at regular time
intervals. The crude extracts from yeast cells grown in MB
without cefdinir were used as controls. One unit is equivalent
where, C0 is the initial concentration of cefdinir in the to that amount of enzyme required to catalyze the 1.0 mg of
medium, Ct is the concentration of cefdinir at time “t”, k0 is substrate per minute under standard assay conditions.
Figure 2. Characterization studies of n-MgO. (a) AFM image; (b) SEM image; (c) histogram showing particle size distribution
and (d) EDAX spectrum. [Color figure can be viewed in the online issue, which is available at wileyonlinelibrary.com.]
708 May 2016 Environmental Progress & Sustainable Energy (Vol.35, No.3) DOI 10.1002/ep
The microscopic studies revealed that, the synthesized mag- that instant [34]. The SEM particle sizes (10 mm as shown
nesium oxide nanoparticles were of irregular shape with with scale bar) are larger compared to DLS that may be
micropores and have a great tendency for agglomeration. attributed to the larger cluster size of aggregated particle
Similar findings were also reported by Athar et al. [22]. The containing a large number of irregular smaller particles.
corresponding particle size distribution of n-MgO revealed The elemental analysis of chemically synthesized n-MgO
that the average particle diameter of the synthesized n-MgO was done using EDAX spectrum and the results are given in
was in nanometer range of 10–50 nm, which is in quite Figure 2d. It showed a single strong peak at 0.6 keV corre-
accordance with the reported value [32,33]. The particle size sponding to O element (weight percentage: 56.84%) and 1.3
and distribution of the synthesized n-MgO was evaluated in keV corresponding to the Mg element (weight percentage:
solution phase using dynamic light scattering (DLS) tech- 43.16%), thereby, confirming the presence of the main ele-
nique. The intensity particle size distribution histogram is ments in the synthesized nanoparticle which was free from
presented in Figure 2c. DLS analyzes the velocity distribution other impurities. The higher amounts of oxygen weight per-
of particle movement by measuring the dynamic fluctuations centage may be due to the interference of surface adsorbed
of the light scattering intensity caused by Brownian motion oxygen during analysis, which might have contributed to the
of the particle. This technique yields a hydrodynamic radius total oxygen percentage. However, the formation of single
or diameter, which has to be calculated via Stokes–Einstein cubic phase of pure MgO was confirmed by powder X-ray
equation from the measurements. It yields an overall mea- diffraction studies (JCPDS 45-0946) as discussed above.
surement of the particle perpendicular to the light source at These results confirmed that the n-MgO formed was in nano-
size and hence these nanoparticles were used as nanocatalyst
for cefdinir degradation in mineral medium.
Figure 4. Survival assay of Candida sp. SMN04 grown with n-MgO. (a) Growth curves of Candida sp. SMN04 grown at vari-
ous concentrations of n-MgO. Error bars on the graph represent the standard deviation of triplicate samples (P < 0.001), (b)
survival assay of strain SMN04 grown in the presence of n-MgO at 5 and 10 mg mL21. [Color figure can be viewed in the
online issue, which is available at wileyonlinelibrary.com.]
Environmental Progress & Sustainable Energy (Vol.35, No.3) DOI 10.1002/ep May 2016 709
Figure 5. AFM images of Candida sp. SMN04. (a) Native yeast cells; (b) yeast cells grown with 5 mg mL21 of n-MgO; (c) yeast
cells grown with 10 mg mL21 of n-MgO; (d) yeast cells grown with 20 mg mL21 of n-MgO showing topography of each image.
[Color figure can be viewed in the online issue, which is available at wileyonlinelibrary.com.]
Figure 6. SEM Images showing (a) native yeast cell; (b) integrated nano-bio n-MgO coated yeast cells at optimal concentration
of 10 mg mL21 and (c) cefdinir-interacted nano-bio cells recovered from stationary phase.
observed in the medium containing 0 mg mL21 of n-MgO. A the nanoparticles were attached to the cell surface, and the
significant amount of biomass was produced in the medium yeast showed growing phase with intact cell wall structure
containing 5 and 10 mg mL21 of n-MgO. When the concen- (Figure 5b). On further increasing the concentration of n-
tration of n-MgO was increased upto 15 mg mL21, yeast MgO to 10 mg mL21, the yeast cells were still found to be in
growth was found to be inhibited (Figure 4a). This result growing condition, which indicated that the adsorption of n-
was supported with the MIC results of our study (Figure 3), MgO did not show any negative impact on the growth of
which confirmed that Candida sp. SMN04 could grow in 0, yeast cells (Figure 5c). In both cases, the yeast cells were via-
5, and 10 mg mL21 of n-MgO. Similarly, the growth of the ble in nature as evident from the presence of intact cell
yeast colonies on YEPD plates also showed that the yeast structures. This implied that the concentration of 5 and
cells could tolerate up to 10 mg mL21 of n-MgO. The results 10 mg mL21 were not lethal to the yeast strain Candida sp.
of this experiment were supportive with yeast survival assay SMN04. The yeast cells grown in 20 mg mL21 of n-MgO
on YEPD plates (Figure 4b). Based on the results, it can be showed the absence of proper cell wall structure, which
inferred that the yeast cells could tolerate till 10 mg mL21 n- might be due to the rupture of the cell because of the
MgO without showing any lethal effects or cell damage. increased concentration of n-MgO as shown in Figure 5d.
Therefore, 10 mg mL21 concentration of n-MgO was fixed as These observations suggested that the toxic effect of n-MgO
an optimum concentration for yeast coating. on yeast is directly proportional to the concentration of the
nanoparticles. Thus, it can be concluded that at a concentra-
Development of Integrated Nano-Bio System tion of 10 mg mL21 of n-MgO, the yeast strain SMN04 could
The topography images of AFM of the native cells and stimulate the coating of n-MgO nanoparticles without caus-
yeast cells with n-MgO (integrated nano-bio system) are pre- ing any lethal effect to the cubicle. Hence, this concentration
sented in Figures 5a–5d. The native cells showed normal was considered optimum for the development of integrated
morphology with oval shaped cells with smooth and intact nano-bio system, which will induce membrane permeabiliza-
cell wall structure (Figure 5a). The AFM images of the nano- tion to facilitate the entry of pollutant into the cell [39].
bio integrated system (Figures 5b–5d) showed an increased Figure 6 shows the scanning electron micrographs of the
surface area due to the coating of n-MgO nanoparticles onto surfaces of the native yeast cells and n-MgO-yeast integrated sys-
the surface of the yeast cells. Due to its high surface area, n- tem. In Figure 6a, the native cells had normal ovoid cell mor-
MgO efficiently catalyzed the variety of organic reactions phology, whereas, the yeast cells with n-MgO (Figure 6b) clearly
[36–38]. At lowest concentrations of n-MgO, i.e., 5 mg mL21, showed that the nanoparticles were efficiently assembled or
710 May 2016 Environmental Progress & Sustainable Energy (Vol.35, No.3) DOI 10.1002/ep
Figure 7. Cefdinir degradation in mineral medium. (a) Residual cefdinir percentage in the culture medium treated with various
degradation agents; and (b) pseudo first-order kinetic plot of cefdinir degradation by various treatments. Error bars on the
curves represent the standard deviation of triplicate samples. [Color figure can be viewed in the online issue, which is available
at wileyonlinelibrary.com.]
Environmental Progress & Sustainable Energy (Vol.35, No.3) DOI 10.1002/ep May 2016 711
Figure 8. Enzyme assays involved in cefdinir degradation. (a) Demonstration of loss of antibiotic activity (b-lactamase) on day
0 (cefdinir) and day 1 degraded products after degradation; and (b) other degradative enzymes of native Candida sp. SMN04
and integrated nano-bio system. Error bars represent the standard deviation of triplicate samples. [Color figure can be viewed
in the online issue, which is available at wileyonlinelibrary.com.]
the enzymatic activities of microbial cells, which leads to the 4. Duan, H. (2009). Study on the treatment process of
release of increased amount of enzymes [45–48]. Additionally, wastewater from cephalosporin production, Journal of
during scaling up process, the retrieval of MgO nanoparticles Sustainable Development, 2, 133–136.
from treated wastewater can be achieved by using commercial 5. Mitchell, S.M., Ullman, J.L., Teel, A.L., & Watts, R.J.
surfactants, which may stop the nanopollution onto the subse- (2014). pH and temperature effects on the hydrolysis of
quent stages of the waste treatment process [49]. three b-lactam antibiotics: Ampicillin, cefalotin and cefox-
itin, Science of the Total Environment, 466–467, 547–555.
CONCLUSIONS 6. Coque, T.M., Baquero, F., & Canton, R. (2008). Increasing
An integrated approach of using n-MgO coated on Candida prevalence of ESBL-producing Enterobacteriaceaein
sp. SMN04 for enhanced degradation of cefdinir is discussed in Europe, Euro surveillance, 13, 1–11.
the present study. Experiments conducted in batch mode 7. Hawser, S.P., Bouchillon, S.K., Lascols, C., Hackel, M.,
revealed that the degradation of cefdinir by integrated nano-bio Hoban, D.J., Badal, R.E., & Cant on, R. (2012). Susceptibility
system was more competent than the individual systems. The of European Escherichia coli clinical isolates from intra-
present work is the first report on the involvement of n-MgO abdominal infections, extended-spectrum b-lactamase
during cefdinir degradation. The concentration of n-MgO for occurrence, resistance distribution, and molecular charac-
coating on the yeast was optimized. The integrated nano-bio terization of ertapenem-resistant isolates (SMART 2008–
system showed 88% degradation of cefdinir at concentration of 2009), Clinical Microbiology and Infection, 18, 253–259.
250 mg L21 within two and half days, which was a remarkable 8. Rosenthal, V.D., Maki, D.G., Jamulitrat, S., Medeiros, E.A.,
decrease in time compared to the results reported earlier. Fur- Todi, S.K., Gomez, D.Y., Leblebicioglu, H., Khader, I.A.,
thermore, the involvement of major enzyme, b-lactamase, and Novales, M.G.M., Berba, R., Wong, F.M.R., Barkat, A., Pino,
other enzymes was also noted during cefdinir degradation. O.R., Due~ nas, L., Mitrev, Z., Bijie, H., Gurskis, V., Kanj,
Enhanced cefdinir degradation might have occurred through an S.S., Mapp, T., Hidalgo, R.F., Jaballah, N.B., Raka, L., Gikas,
integrated approach, which may serve as an effective remedia- A., Ahmed, A., Siritt, M.G.E & INICC Members. (2010).
tion tool for the treatment of pharmaceutical wastewater con- International Nosocomial Infection Control Consortium
taining cephalosporin antibiotics. (INICC) report, data summary for 2003–2008, issued June
2009, American Journal of Infection Control, 38, 95–104.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 9. Selvi, A. & Das, N. (2014). Isolation, screening and identi-
The authors are thankful to the Nanotechnology Lab and fication of cefdinir degrading yeasts for the treatment of
VIT-SAF Lab, SAS, VIT University. They also like to thank pharmaceutical wastewater, International Journal of Phar-
SEM Lab, SBST, VIT University for the instrumental services. macy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, 6, 382–386.
The financial support and laboratory facility provided by VIT 10. Yang, M. & Zheng, S. (2014). Pollutant removal-oriented
University, Vellore are duly acknowledged. yeast biomass production from high-organic-strength
industrial wastewater: A review, Biomass & Bioenergy,
64, 356–362.
LITRATURE CITED
11. Krishnan, S., Roach, B., Kasinathan, K., Annamalai, P.,
1. Jorgensen, S.E. & Halling-Sorensen, B. (2000). Drugs in Nooruddin, T & Gunasekaran, M. (2012). Studies on the
the environment, Chemosphere, 40, 691–699. biodegradation of cephalosporin drugs in pharmaceutical
2. Homem, V. & Santos, L. (2011). Degradation and removal effluent using Pseudomonas putida and Pseudomonas
methods of antibiotics from aqueous matrices, The Jour- fluorescence. Botany. Conference on July 7–11, 2012;
nal of Environmental Management, 92, 2304–2347. Columbus, OH.
3. Wang, X.H. & Lin, A.Y. (2012). Phototransformation of 12. Wagner, R.D., Johnson, S.J., Cerniglia, C.E., & Erickson, B.D.
Cephalosporin antibiotics in an aqueous environment (2011). Bovine intestinal bacteria inactivate and degrade
results in higher toxicity, Environmental Science & Tech- Ceftiofur and ceftriaxone with multiple b-lactamases, Anti-
nology, 46, 12417–12426. microbial Agents and Chemotherapy, 11, 4990–4998.
712 May 2016 Environmental Progress & Sustainable Energy (Vol.35, No.3) DOI 10.1002/ep
13. Selvi, A., Salam, J.A., & Das, N. (2014). Biodegradation of 29. Yalchin, H.T. & Corbaci, C. (2013). Isolation and charac-
cefdinir by a novel yeast strain, Ustilago sp. SMN03 iso- terization of amylase producing yeasts and improvement
lated from pharmaceutical wastewater, World Journal of of amylase production, Turk, Journal of Biochemistry, 38,
Microbiology and Biotechnology, 30, 2839–2850. 101–108.
14. Selvi, A., Das, D., & Das, N. Potentiality of yeast Candida 30. Hussaini, A., Fisol, F.A., Yun, L.C., Hussain, M.H., &
sp. SMN04 for degradation of cefdinir, a cephalosporin Roslan, H.A. (2011). Lignocellulolytic enzymes produced
antibiotic: Kinetics, enzyme analysis and biodegradation by tropical white rot fungi during biopulping of Acacia
pathway, Environmental Technology, Environmental mangium wood chips, Journal of Biochemical Technol-
Technology, 36, 3112–3124. ogy, 3, 245–250.
15. Kumar, A. & Kumar, J. (2008). On the synthesis and optical 31. Mageshwari, K., Mali, S.S., Sathyamoorthy, R., & Patil, P.S.
adsorption studies nano-size magnesium oxide powder, (2013). Template-free synthesis of MgO nanoparticles for
Journal of Physics and Chemistry of Solids, 69, 2764–2772. effective photocatalytic applications, Powder Technology,
16. Rakmak, N., Wiyaratn, W., Bunyakan, C., & 249, 456–462.
Chungsiriporn, J. (2010). Synthesis of Fe/MgO nano- 32. Kaviyarasu, K. & Devarajan, P.A. (2011). A versatile route
crystal catalysts by sol–gel method for hydrogen sulfide to synthesized nanocrystals by combustion technique,
removal, Chemical Engineering Journal, 162, 84–90. Der Pharmacia Chemica, 3, 248–254.
17. Hossain, F., Perales-Perez, O.J., Hwang, S., & Roman, F. 33. Srivastavaa, V., Sharmab, Y.C., & Sillanp€a€aa, M. (2015).
(2014). Antimicrobial nanomaterials as water disinfectant: Green synthesis of magnesium oxide nanoflower and its
Applications, limitations and future perspectives, Science application for the removal of divalent metallic species
of the Total Environment, 466–467, 1047–1059. from synthetic wastewater, Ceramics International, 41,
18. Gulkova, D., Solcova, O., & Zdrazil, M. (2004). Prepara- 6702–6709.
tion of MgO catalytic support in shaped mesoporous 34. Murdock, R.C., Braydich-Stolle, L., Schrand, A.M.,
high surface area form, Microporous and Mesoporous Schlager, J.J., & Hussain, S.M. (2008). Characterization of
Materials, 76, 137–149. nanomaterial dispersion in solution prior to in vitro expo-
19. Moussavi, G., Khavanin, A., & Alizadeh, R. (2010). The sure using dynamic light scattering technique, Toxicologi-
integration of ozonation catalysed with MgO nanocrystals cal Sciences, 101, 239–253.
and the biodegradation for the removal of phenol from 35. Li, Z., Greden, K., Alvarez, P.J.J., Gregory, K.B., &
saline wastewater, Applied Catalysis B: Environmental, Lowry, G.V. (2010). Adsorbed polymer and NOM limits
97, 160–167. adhesion and toxicity of nano scale zero-valent iron to
20. Moussavi, G., Aghapour, A.A., & Yaghmaeian, K. (2014). E. coli, Environmental Science & Technology, 44,
The degradation and mineralization of catechol using 3462–3467.
36. Stengl, V., Bakardjieva, S., Marıkova, M., Bezdicka, P., &
ozonation catalyzed with MgO/GAC composite in a fluid-
Subrt, J. (2003). Magnesium oxide nanoparticles prepared
ized bed reactor, Chemical Engineering Journal, 249,
by ultrasound enhanced hydrolysis of Mg-alkoxides,
302–310.
Materials Letters, 57, 3998–4003.
21. Shi, L.E., Hou B. X. L., Ge, H., Guo, X., & Tang, Z.
37. Gawande, M.B., Branco, P.S., Parghi, K., Shrikhande, J.J.,
(2010). Inorganic nano metal oxides used as anti-
Pandey, R.K., Ghumman, C.A.A., Bundaleski, N.,
microorganisms agents for pathogen control. In A. Men-
Teodorod, O.M.N.D., & Jayaram, R.V. (2011). Synthesis
dez-Vilas (Ed.), Current research, technology and educa-
and characterization of versatile MgO–ZrO2 mixed metal
tion topics in applied microbiology and microbial oxide nanoparticles and their applications, Catalysis Sci-
biotechnology, Badajoz, Spain: Formatex. ence & Technology, 1, 1653–1664.
22. Athar, T., Hakeem, A., & Ahmed, W. (2012). Synthesis of 38. Camtakan, Z., Erenturk, S., & Yusan, S. (2012). Magne-
MgO nanopowder via non aqueous sol–gel method, sium oxide nanoparticles: Preparation, characterization
Advanced Science Letters, 5, 1–3. and uranium sorption properties, Environmental Progress
23. Li, Y., Du, X., Wu, C., Liu, X., Wang, X., & Xu, P. (2013). & Sustainable Energy, 4, 536–543.
An efficient magnetically modified microbial cell biocom- 39. Grigoriev, P. (2002). Unified carrier-channel model of ion
posite for carbazole biodegradation, Nanoscale Research transfer across lipid-bilayer membranes, Journal of Bio-
Letters, 8, 522–524. logical Physics and Chemistry, 2, 77–79.
24. Cabri, W., Ghetti, P., Alpegiani, M., Pozzi, G., Justo- 40. Stoimenov, P.K., Klinger, R.L., Marchin, G.L., & Klabunde,
Erbez, A., Perez-Martınez, J.I., Villalo, n., Rubio, R., K.J. (2002). Metal oxide nanoparticles as bactericidal
Monedero-Perales, C.M., & Munoz-Ruiz, A. (2006). Cef- agents, Langmuir, 18, 6679–6686.
dinir: A comparative study of anhydrous vs. monohy- 41. Richards, R., Li, W., Decker, S., Davidson, C., Koper, O.,
drate form microstructure and tableting behavior, The Zaikovski, V., Volodin, A., Rieker, T., & Klabunde, K.
European Journal of Pharmaceutics and Biopharmaceu- (2000). Consolidation of metal oxide nanocrystals. Reac-
tics, 64, 212–221. tive pellets with controllable pore structure that represent
25. Capellos, C., & Bielski, B.H. (1972). Kinetic systems: a new family of porous, inorganic materials, Journal of
Mathematical description of chemical kinetics in solution, the American Chemical Society, 122, 4921–4925.
New York: Wiley-Inter science. 42. Shan, G., Surampalli, R.Y., Tyagi, R.D., & Zhang, T.C.
26. Wayne, P.A. (2002). National Commitee for Clinical (2009). Nanomaterials for environmental burden reduc-
Laborotory Standards (NCCLS). Performance standards tion, waste treatment and non-point source pollution
for antimicrobial disk susceptibility testing. Twelfth Infor- control—A review, Frontiers of Environmental Science &
mational supplement, USA: Pennsylvania, (M100-S12). Engineering in China, 3, 249–264.
27. Kanaly, R.A. & Hur, H.G. (2006). Growth of Phanero- 43. Mashelkar, U.C. & Renapurkar, S.D. (2010). A LCMS
chaetechrysosporium on diesel fuel hydrocarbons at neu- compatible stability-indicating HPLC assay method for
tral pH, Chemosphere, 63, 202–211. cefdinir, International Journal of ChemTech Research, 2,
28. Kappeli, O., Sauer, M., & Fiechter, A. (1982). Convenient 114–121.
procedure for the isolation of highly enriched cyto- 44. Okamoto, Y., Kiriyama, K., Namiki, Y., Matsushita, J.,
chrome P-450 containing microsomal fractions from Can- Fujioka, M., & Yasuda, T. (1996). Degradation
dida tropicalis, Analytical Biochemistry, 126, 179–182. kinetics and isomerization of Cefdinir. A new oral
Environmental Progress & Sustainable Energy (Vol.35, No.3) DOI 10.1002/ep May 2016 713
Cephalosporin in aqueous solution. 2. Hydrolytic deg- 47. Macario, P., Verri, F., Diaz, U., Corma, A., & Giordano, G.
radation pathway and mechanism for b-lactam ring (2013). Pure silica nanoparticles for liposome/lipase sys-
opened lactones, Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences, tem encapsulation: Application in biodiesel production,
85, 984–989. Catalysis Today, 204, 148–155.
45. Petkar, M., Lali, A., Caimi, P., & Daminati, M. (2006). 48. Cipolatti, E.P., Silva, M.J.A., Kleina, M., Feddernb, V.,
Immobilization of lipases for non-aqueous synthe- Feltes, M.M.C., Oliveiraa, J.V., Ninowa, J.L., & Oliveiraa,
sis, Journal of Molecular Catalysis B: Enzymatic, 39, D.D. (2014). Current status and trends in enzymatic nano
83–90. immobilization, Journal of Molecular Catalysis B: Enzy-
46. Besteti, M.D., Cunha, A.G., Freire, D.M.G., & Pinto, J.C. matic, 99, 56–67.
(2014). Core/shell polymer particles by semibatch com- 49. Bhawana, P. & Fulekar, M.H. (2012). Nanotechnology:
bined suspension/emulsion polymerizations for enzyme Remediation technologies to clean up the environmental
immobilization, Journal of Molecular Catalysis B: Enzy- pollutants, Research Journal of Chemical Sciences, 2,
matic, 299, 135–143. 90–96.
714 May 2016 Environmental Progress & Sustainable Energy (Vol.35, No.3) DOI 10.1002/ep