Bio Notes
Glycolysis, Kreb’s Cycle, Cellular
Macromolecules – large molecules
 CHO,PRO, Nucleic acid
Macromolecules are polymers built from
monomers
 Polymer – long molecule consisting of
identical building blocks linked by
covalent bonds
 Monomers – repeating units that serve as
building blocks
Synthesis and Breakdown of Polymers
 Enzymes – specialized macromolecules
that speed up reactions
 Dehydration reaction – forms new bond ;
loss of water molecule
-also called as Polymerization
 Hydrolysis – breaks a bond; addition of
water molecule
-ex. digestion
DR.  HR.
(short polymer + unlinked monomerOH
 longer polymer + H2O)
Diversity of Polymers
Polymers are constructed from only 40-50
common monomers
Four Major Classes of Large Biological
Molecules: Carbohydrates, Protein, Lipids,
Nucleic Acid
*Note that on the molecular scale lipids is
not a macromolecule because of its size
Carbohydrates (C6H12O6)
-sugar, starch, fiber
Functions
 Energy Source
Respiration
 Metabolic Primer – starter of metabolic
processes
 Protein Spare
 Central Nervous System Fuel – 70% of
intake sugar goes to the brain
 Polysaccharide – carbohydrate
macromolecule polymer composed of
many sugar blocks
Sugars
(sugar template = carboxyl group +
multiple hydroxyl group)
 Monosaccharide – simple sugar
-multiple of CH2O
 Glucose – most common monosaccharide
 Aldose(aldehyde sugar) – carbonyl group
at the end of carbon skeleton
-ex. Glucose, Galactose
 Ketose(ketone sugar) – carbonyl group
within carbon skeleton
-ex. Fructose
Triose – 3carbon sugar(Glyceraldehyde,
Dihydroxyacetone)
Pentose – 5carbon sugar(Ribose,
Ribulose)
Hexose – 6carbon sugar(glu, galac, fruc)
 Disaccharide – consists of 2
monosaccharides joined by glycosidic
linkage; simple carbohydrates
Glu + Glu = Mal
Glu + Galac = Lac
Glu + Fru = Suc
 Glycosidic linkage – covalent bond
formed by dehydration rxn
 Lactose Intolerance – condition in
humans who lack lactase, the enzyme
that breaks down lactose. Sugar is instead
broken down by the intestinal bacteria,
causing formation of gas and often
cramps
 Polysaccharide – polymers with a few
hundred to thousand monosaccharide
joined by glycosidic linkage
 Starch – carbs bank/storage for plants
-polymer of glucose monomers, as
granules within cellular structures known
as plastids
-ex. Potato tubers, grains: fruits of wheat,
corn, rice
 Amylose – simplest form of starch, not
branched/linear
 Amylopectin – more complex starch,
branched polymer w/ 1-6 linkages at
branch points
 Glycogen – carbs bank/storage for
animals
-polymer of glucose that is like
amylopectin but more extensively
branched
 Cellulose – polysaccharide, major
component of the tough walls that
enclose plant cells
-most abundant organic compound in
Earth
-abrades the digestive tract and
stimulates the lining to secrete mucus,
which aids in the smooth passage of food
in the tract
Starch vs Cellulose
Alpha linkage vs beta linkage
Same orientation vs upside down w/
repect to neighbour
 Fiber –ruminants
Soluble vs Insoluble
Viscous vs Non Viscous
Fermentable vs Non Fermentable
 Chitin – carbohydrates used by
arthropods(insect, spider, crustacean,
etc.)
-exoskeleton of arthropods, cell wall
material of fungi
-beta linkage
 Insulin – too much sugar(hyperglacemia),
triggers lowering of blood sugar;
formation of glycogen
 Glucagon – too low sugar(hypoglacemia),
triggers increase of blood sugar; breaking
down of glycogen to glucose
 Type 1 Dia – IDD, Type 2 Dia – NIDD,
Predia – HBS not in range
Lipids
-mix poorly with water
-not big enough to consider as a
macromolecule
-fats, phospholipid, steroids
Functions
 Energy Storage
 Insulation
 Protection
 Shock Absorption
 Fats – not polymers; constructed from
two kind of molecules: glycerol and fatty
acids
 Glycerol – an alcohol; each of its 3 carbon
bears OH
 Fatty Acid – long carbon skeleton; at one
end has CO
 Ester linkage – bond formed by
dehydration reaction in fats
 Triacylglycerol/Triglyceride – consists of 3
fatty acids linked to one glycerol molecule
 Saturated Fat – no double bonds in
carbon, no bending, solid in room temp
 Unsaturated Fat – one or more double
bonds of carbon, cis bonds cause
kinks/bendings
 Hydrogenated fats – trans fat, addition of
H2O allowing them to solidify
 Phospholipids – major constituents of cell
membranes; similar to fat molecules but
have only two fatty acids attached to
glycerol cuz the third hydroxyl group of
glycerol is attached to phosphate group
Hydrophilic head – loves water
Hydrophobic tail – fears water
Bilayer – when phospholipids are added
to water, they assemble to this double-
layered sheet
 Steroids – lipids characterized by a
carbon skeleton consisting of four fused
rings
 Cholesterol – type of steroid
Protein
-proteios = first/primary
-constructed from the same set of 20
amino acids, linked in unbranched polymers
Functions
 Enzymatic protein – selective acceleration
of chemical reactions; ex. Digestive
enzymes catalyse the hydrolysis of bonds
of foods
 Defensive protein – protection against
disease; ex. Antibodies inactivate and
help destroy viruses and bacteria
 Storage protein – storage of amino acids;
ex. Casein, the protein of milk, is major
source of amino acids for baby mammals.
Plants have storage in seed. Ovalbumin is
the protein of egg whites
 Transport protein – transport of
substances; Hemoglobin, the iron-
containing protein of vertebrate blood,
transports oxygen from lungs to other
part of the body.
 Hormonal protein – coordination of an
organism’s activities; ex. Insulin, a
hormone secreted by the pancreas,
causes other tissues to take up glucose,
thus regulating concentration
 Contractile and motor protein –
movement; Motor proteins are
responsible for the undulations of cilia nd
flagella. Actin and myosin are responsible
for the contraction of muscles
 Receptor proteins – response of cell to
chemical stimuli; ex. Receptors built into
the membrane of a nerve cell detect
signalling molecules released by other
nerve cells
 Structural proteins – support; ex. Keratin
is the protein of the hair, nails, horns,
feathers, etc. Insects and spiders use silk
fibers to make cocoons and webs.
Collagen provide fibrous network in
animal connective tissues
 Peptide Bond – bond between amino
acids
 Polypeptide – polymer of amino acids
 Protein – biologically functional molecule
made up of one or more polypeptide
Amino Acid Monomers
 Amino Acid – organic molecule with both
amino group and carboxyl group
 Protein Structure
Side chain(R group)
| Primary – linear chain of amino acids
(NH2) (C) (CHO2) Secondary – regions stabilized by
Amino -- Alpha -- Carboxyl hydrogen bonds between atom of the
Group Carbon Group polypeptide backbone
(N-terminus) (C-terminus)
(Polypeptide Backbone) Alpha helix – coiled
|
Beta pleated sheet – folded
H
Tertiary – Three-dimensional shape
20 Amino Acids of Proteins stabilized by interactions between side
Nonpolar side chains; hydrophobic chains
-Glycine/Gly/G
-Alanine/Ala/A Disulfide bridges – covalent bonds that
-Valine/Val/V reinforce the shape of protein
-Leucine/Leu/L
Quaternary – Association of two or more
-Isoleucine/Ile/I
polypeptides(some proteins only)
-Methionine/Met/M
-Phenylalanine/Phe/F single amino acid substitution causes Sickle-
-Tryptophan/Trp/W cell disease.(glu becomes val in the sixth
-Proline/Pro/P position of amino acids in hemogoblin)
Polar side chains; hydrophilic
-Serine/Ser/S Key Factors that determine protein structure
-Threonine/Thr/T
-pH, temperature, salt concentration,
-Cysteine/Cys/C
specific part=specific function and factor
-Tyrosine/Tyr/Y
-Asparagine/Asn/N
-Glutamine/Gln/Q  Enzyme – type of catalytic protein
Electrically charged side chains;  Activation Energy – energy barrier/energy
hydrophilic needed to convert rct to prod
(acidic - )
-Aspartic acid/Asp/D Oxydoreductase – redox rxn
-Glutamic acid/ Glu/E
transterases –
(basic + )
-Lysine/Lys/K hydrolase – hydrolysis rxn
-Arginine/Arg/R
-Histidine/His/H lyase – dehydration

isomenases –
 Globular proteins – spherical in structure
 Fibrous proteins – shaped like long fibers ligases – ex. Dna ligase
 Denaturation of protein – deterioration
of enzyme
 Cofactors – helpers of enzymes

 Sd
 Sd
