H-1 NATIONALISM IN EUROPE (Study Material)

Q.1 What steps were taken by French revolutionaries to create a sense of collective identity among the French?

1. A new French flag, the tricolor was chosen to replace the former royal standard.
2. The Estate General was elected by the body of active citizens and renamed it the National Assembly.
3. The idea of la patrie (the fatherland) and le citoyen (the citizen) emphasized the nation of a united community enjoying equal
rights under a constitution.
4. New hymns were composed, oaths were taken and martyrs commemorated, all in the name of the nation.
5. A centralized administrative system practicing uniform law for all citizens within its territory was setup.
6. Internal custom duties and dues were abolished and a uniform system of weights and measures was adopted.
7. Regional languages were discouraged and French was adopted as the common language of the nation.

Q2. What was the reaction of the people of Europe to the French revolution?

1. When the news of revolutionary events in France reached the different cities in Europe, students and other members of
educated middle classes began setting up Jacobin clubs.
2. Their activities and campaigns prepared the way for the French armies which moved into Holland, Belgium, Switzerland and
Italy in 1790s.
3. With the outbreak of revolutionaries wars, the French armies began to carry the idea of nationalism abroad.

Q3. What changes did Napoleon introduce to make the administrative system more efficient in the territories ruled by him?
(Napoleonic Code - 1804)

Though Napoleon was a dictator and was against democracy but he took certain measures for smooth administration-

1. All privileges based on birth were taken away.

2. The equality before law was established and right to property was secured.
3. Transport and communication system were also paid attention and were improved.
4. Feudal system was abolished and peasants, artisans and workers were given more freedom.
5. The French legal system was reformed. Uniform laws were adopted for all.
6. Standardized weights and measures, and a common national currency were adopted to facilitate the movement and exchange
of goods and capital from one region to another.

Q.4 What was the reaction of the people to the French Rule under Napoleon?

1. In many countries like Holland and Switzerland and cities like Brussels, Mainz, Milan and Warsaw, the French armies were
welcomed as harbingers of liberty.
2. The initial enthusiasm turned into hostility when the people realized that the new administrative arrangements did not
accompany political freedom.
3. Increased taxation, censorship, forced conscription into the French armies required to conquer the rest of Europe, all seemed
to outweigh the advantages of administrative changes.

Q.5 Describe the political, social and economic conditions of mid-18 th century Europe.

1. During mid-18th century, Europe did not have the concept of ‘nation-states’. Today’s Germany, Italy and Switzerland were
divided into kingdoms whose rulers had their autonomous territories.
2. Eastern and Central Europe were under autocratic monarchies in which diverse ethnic people lived. They did not share a
collective identity or a common culture. They even spoke different languages.
3. Peasantry was in majority, to the west most of the land was under tenants and small owners while eastern and central Europe,
there were large estates cultivated by serfs.
4. In western Europe, growth of industrialization and trade led to the rise of new social group ‘middle class’ which included
industrialists, businessmen and professionals.
 5. Industrialization led to the growth of towns.

Q.6 What is meant by the 1848 revolution of the liberals? What were the political, social and economic ideas supported by liberals?

The word ‘liberal’ is derived from the Latin word ‘liber’ that means ‘free’. Liberalism means a political system opposed to centralization
and absolutism.

In 19th century a series of republican revolts started against European monarchies. This was the time when liberals became active and
changed the outlook of European countries.

ECONOMIC IDEAS-

1. Liberals in the 19th century urged the end of state interference in the economic life of society.
2. They fought for the freedom of markets and the abolition of state imposed restrictions on the movements of goods and capital.
3. In 1834, a customs union was formed which abolished tariff barriers and reduced the number of currencies from thirty to two.

POLITICAL IDEAS-

1. They believed that the government should be formed with the consent of the people.
2. They stood for the end of autocracy and clerical privileges, a constitution and representative government through parliament.
3. They also stressed the inviolability of private property.
SOCIAL IDEAS-
1. During that time only property- owning men had right to vote. Napoleonic also preferred the limited suffrage. Women
were considered as the subject to the authority of fathers and husbands.
2. This led to the rise of movement by women and non-propertied men demanding equal political rights.

Q.7 What were the provisions of the Treaty of Vienna of 1815?

In 1815, Britain, Russia, Prussia and Austria collectively defeated Napoleon and to make a settlement, the Treaty of Vienna of 1815 was
signed. Its main provisions were-

1. The Bourbon dynasty was restored to power in France and France lost the territories it had annexed under Napoleon.
2. A series of states were setup on the boundaries of France to prevent French expansion in future, such as the kingdom of
Netherland and Belgium were setup in the north and Genoa was added to piedmont in the South.
3. Prussia was given important new territories on its western frontiers, while Austria was given control of northern Italy.
4. In the East Russia was given a part of Poland while Prussia was a portion of Saxony.
5. German confederation of 39 states that had been set up by Napoleon was left untouched.
6. Thus, monarchy that had been overthrown by Napoleon was restored and a new conservative order was created in Europe.

Q.8 Mention the features of the conservative regimes setup in Europe after the defeat of Napoleon in 1815?

1. The conservative regimes setup in 1815, were autocratic.

2. They did not tolerate criticism and dissent, and sought to curb activities that questioned the legitimacy of autocratic
governments.
3. Most of them imposed censorship laws to control what was said in newspapers, books, plays and songs and reflected the ideas
of liberty and freedom associated with the French revolution.

Q.9 What did Metternick mean to say when he remarked, “When France sneezes, the rest of Europe catches cold”?

1. The revolutionary spirit spread all over Europe only after the French Revolution took place in 1789.
2. The ideas of liberty, equality and fraternity gained popularity among all over Europe.
3. The political upheaval in France that took place in July 1830, The Bourbon kings were now overthrown by liberal
revolutionaries. Louis Philippe was made a constitutional monarch.
 4. This sparked revolutions in places like Brussels which led to Belgium breaking away from the United Kingdom of the
Netherlands.
5. As the conservative powers became strong, revolution started in many regions of Europe such as- Italy, Germany, Ottoman
Empire, Ireland and Poland. These revolutions were led by educated middle class elites, professors, school teachers, clerks
etc.
6. Greece had been a part of Ottoman Empire since 15 th century. The Greek war of independence started in 1821. Finally the
Treaty of Constantinople of 1832 recognized Greece as an independent nation.
7. In this way we see that France was one of the most important countries of Europe. It spread awareness among the people
of Europe.
8. It set values and standards for the entire continent. Other countries of the continent just followed what France did.

Q.10 Explain the Greek war of independence.

1. Greece had been a part of Ottoman Empire since 15 th century. The Greek war of Independence started in 1821.
2. The Russian Empire Great Britain, Kingdom of France and many other European powers helped them in their efforts.
3. Nationalists in Greece also got support from the other Greeks living in exile and also from many West Europeans who had
sympathies towards ancient Greek culture.
4. Poets and artists lauded Greece as a cradle of European civilization and mobilized public opinion to support its struggle against
Ottoman Empire.
5. The war went on for 8 years, 6 months and 3 weeks. Finally the Greek won.
6. The Treaty of Constantinople of 1832 recognized Greece as an independent nation.

Q.11 The 1830s were years of great economic hardships in Europe. Explain it.

1. The first half of the 19th century saw an enormous increase in population all over Europe which gave rise to unemployment.
2. Population from rural areas migrated to cities and lived in overcrowded slums.
3. Small producers in towns were faced with stiff competition from imports of cheap machine made goods from England where
industrialization was more advanced.
4. Peasants struggled under the burden of feudal dues and obligations.
5. The rise of food prices or a year of bad harvest led to widespread poverty in towns and countryside.
Consequences of great economic hardships-
1. In 1848, food shortage and widespread unemployment brought the population of Paris out on the road. Barricades were
erected and Louis Philippe was forced to flee.
2. National Assembly proclaimed a Republic, granted suffrage to all adult males above 21 and granted the right to work.
3. National workshops were setup to provide employment.

Q12. Write a shrt note about Frankfurt Parliament.

1. In the year 1848, a revolution led by the liberals (educated middle class) also took place in other parts of Europe where
independent nation-states did not yet exist e.g. Germany, Italy, Poland, and Austria.
2. In Germany, a large number of political associations came together in the city of Frankfurt and decided to vote for an all-
German National Assembly.
3. On 18th May 1848, 831 elected representatives marched to Frankfurt Parliament organized in a church. A constitution for a
German nation was drafted there.
4. Friedrich Wilhelm IV, the king of Prussia, was offered the crown but he rejected it and joined other monarchs to oppose this
elected Assembly.
5. The Parliament was dominated by middle class who resisted the demands of workers and artisans, so they lost their support.
6. In the end, troops were called in and the Assembly was forced to disband.

Q.13 Briefly trace the process of German Unification.

 1. At the beginning of the 19th century, Germany was a collection of about 39 autocratic states where only rich and powerful
ruled.
2. The middle-class Germans in 1848 tried to unite the different regions of the German confederation into an elected parliament
governed nation-state.
3. Prussian chief minister, Otto Von Bismark, with the help of Prussian army and bureaucracy carried out the task of unification
for which he adopted ‘Blood and Iron’ policy.
4. He fought three wars over seven years to unify Germany- Danish-Prussian War with Denmark in 1864, Austro-Prussian War
with Austria in 1866, and Franco-Prussian War with France in 1870-71, which ended with Prussian victory, and completed the
process of unification of Germany.
5. On 18th Jan. 1871, the Prussian king Kaiser William I was proclaimed German Emperor.

Q.14 Briefly trace the process of the unification of Italy.

1. During the middle of the 19th century, Italy was divided into seven states, of which only one, Sardinia-Piedmont was ruled by an
Italian princely house.
2. The unification process was led by three revolutionaries- Giuseppe Mazzini, Count Camillo de Cavour, and Giuseppe Garibaldi.
3. Mazzini formed secret societies called young Italy and Young Europe in 1830s.
4. The failure of revolutionary uprisings both in 1831 and 1848 meant that Sardinia-Piedmont under king Victor Emmanuel II had
to unify the Italian states through war.
5. His minister Cavour now led the movement. Through a tactful diplomatic alliance with France engineered by Cavour, Sardinia-
Piedmont succeeded in defeating the Austrian forces in 1859.
6. A large number of armed volunteers under the leadership of Garibaldi joined the war.
7. In 1860, they defeated and removed the Spanish rulers from South Italy and the kingdom of the Two Sicily with the local
peasants’ support.
8. In 1861, Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed the king of United Italy.

Q.15 How was the history of nationalism in Britain unlike the rest of Europe?

1. Before the 18th century, there was no British nation. The English, the Welsh, the scot and the Irish lived in British Isles. They
had their own culture and political traditions but were deeply influenced by the English.
2. Nationalism in Britain was not a result of a sudden upheaval or revolution. It was due to a long drawn process.
3. A nation-state in England came into being when the parliament seized power from the monarchy in 1688.
4. The English nation possessed the other three nations of the islands through a study growth in property, wealth and power.
5. The Act of Union 1707 between England and Scotland resulted in the formation of United Kingdom of Great Britain. This led to
the demolition of Scotland’s distinctive culture and political institutions.
6. Ireland was forcibly included into UK in 1801. This led to the growth of a new powerful British nation.
7. The symbols of the new Britain- the British Flag (Union Jack), The National Anthem (God Save Our Noble King), and the English
language were actively promoted and the older nations survived only as subordinate partners of this union.

Q.16 Why did nationalist tensions emerged in the Balkan States?

1. The Balkans was a region of geographical and ethnic variation, consisting of modern days Romania, Bulgaria, Albania,
Greece, Macedonia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Slovenia, Serbia and Montenegro, whose inhabitants were broadly
known as Slavs.
2. A large part of Balkans was under the control of the Ottoman Empire. When Ottoman Empire collapsed, it initiated
nationalism in the Balkan states.
3. Gradually its European subject-nationalities broke away from its control and declared independence.
4. In the race of expanding their territories and imposing their supremacy on each other, Slavic nationalities quickly got
clashes and the Balkan area became an area of intense conflict.
5. Russia, Germany, England and Austria-Hungary, each power was keen to extend its own control over the area. This led to a
series of wars in the region that ended up with the First World War.
Q.17 Who were Marianne and Germania? What was the importance of the way in which they are portrayed?

Artists in the 18th century represented a country as a female figure to give the abstract idea of the nation a concrete form. This is called
Allegory of the nation.

Marianne-

1. She is the allegory of France.

2. Her characteristics were drawn from the Liberty and Republic- the red cap, the tricolor and the cockade.
3. Statues of Marianne were erected in public places to remind the people the symbols of unity.
4. Her images were marked on coins and stamps.

Germania-

1. She became the allegory of Germany.

2. The artist depicted nation as a female figure standing against a background where beams of sunlight are shown through the
tricolor fabric of the national flag.
3. Germania was wearing a crown of oak leaves as the German oak stands for heroism.

Q18. How did culture play an important role in creating the idea of the nation in Europe?

Culture played a vital role in creating the idea of the nation

1. Art and poetry, stories and music helped to express and shape nationalist feelings.
2. Romantic artists and poets made efforts to create a sense of shared collective heritage, a common cultural past as the basis of
a nation.
3. German philosopher Johann Gottfried stated that it was through folk songs, folk poetry and folk dances that the true spirit of
nation was popularized. So collecting and recording these forms of folk culture was essential for nation building.
4. French painters Delacroix painted an incident focusing suffering of Greek women and children by Turks, thus appealed the
emotions of spectators and create sympathy for the Greeks.
5. Karol kurpinski celebrated the national struggle through his operas and music.
6. Regional languages had always been an obstacle in the unification of a country. To overcome it a common national language
was adopted e.g. the Polish language was forced out of schools and Russian language was made obligatory everywhere.

Q.19 Describe the contribution of Mazzini in the unification of Italy.

1. Mazzini was born in Genoa in 1807. He became a member of the secret society.
2. He founded two underground societies- Young Italy and Young Europe, whose members were like minded young men from
Poland, France, Italy and the German states.
3. Following his model, secret societies were set up in Germany, France, Switzerland and Poland.
4. He believed that God had intended nations to be the natural units of mankind. So Italy could not continue to be a patchwork of
small states and kingdoms. It should be a single unified republic. This unification alone could be the basis of Italian liberty.
5. Mazzini’s relentless opposition to monarchy and his vision of democratic republics frightened the conservatives. Metternich
described him as the most dangerous enemy of our social order.