Cellular Telephone System

Cellular telephone, sometimes called mobile telephone, is a type of short wave analog or
digital telecommunication in which a subscriber has a wireless connection from a mobile
telephone to a relatively nearby transmitter. The transmitter's span of coverage is called a
cell.

EXTRA

The first cellular telephone for commercial use was approved by the Federal Communications
Commission (FCC) in 1983.

With cellular radio we use a simple hexagon to represent a complex object: the geographical
area covered by cellular radio antennas. These areas are called cells.

Using this shape let us picture the cellular idea, because on a map it only approximates the
covered area. Why a hexagon and not a circle to represent cells?

When showing a cellular system we want to depict an area totally covered by radio, without
any gaps. Any cellular system will have gaps in coverage, but the hexagonal shape lets us
more neatly visualize, in theory, how the system is laid out. Notice how the circles below
would leave gaps in our layout.
BATTERIES:
Capacity:
The electrical charge effectively stored in a primary or secondary battery and available for
transfer during discharge. Usually expressed in ampere-hours (Ah) or
Milli-ampere-hours (mAh).

Energy density:
A measure of the energy storage efficiency of a battery, usually expressed in watt-hours per
kilogram (Wh/kg). In simple, energy density means how much energy is stored by one
kilogram of battery.

Type of Battery Energy density (W-hr/Kg)

Lead Acid 22
Nickel Cadmium 44

Silver Zinc 110

Example for VOR:

Before we look in detail at how the system works the following example illustrates the
principle and should make it easier to understand.

Think of a lighthouse at sea and imagine the white light rotating at a speed of one revolution
per minute (60 seconds). Every time this white narrow beam passes through Magnetic North,
a green omnidirectional light flashes. Omnidirectional means that it can be seen from any
position around the lighthouse. If we are situated somewhere in the vicinity of the light
sources and are able to see them, we can measure the time interval from the green light flash
until we see the white light. The elapsed time is directly proportional to our position line in
relation to the lighthouse.
Doppler VOR (DVOR):

• The Doppler VOR is the second generation VOR, providing improved signal quality
and accuracy. The REF signal of the DVOR is amplitude modulated, while the VAR
signal is frequency modulated.
• This means that the modulations are opposite as compared to the conventional VORs.
• The frequency modulated signal is less subject to interference than the amplitude
modulated signal and therefore the received signals provide a more accurate bearing
determination.
• The Doppler effect is created by letting the VAR signal be “electronically rotated”, on
the circular placed aerials, at a speed of 30 revolutions per second. With a diameter of
the circle of 13.4 meters, the radial velocity of the VAR signal will be 1264 m/s.
• This will create a Doppler shift., causing the frequency to increase as the signal is
rotated towards the observer and reduce as it rotates away with 30 full cycles of
frequency variation per second.
• This results in an effective FM of 30 Hz.
• A receiver situated at some distance in the radiation field continuously monitors the
transmitter.
• When certain prescribed deviations are exceeded, either the IDENT is taken off, or the
complete transmitter is taken off the air.
 Ground Proximity Warning System (GPWS)

Fig: Enhanced Ground Proximity Warning System

• The purpose of a ground proximity warning system is to provide aural and

visual signals to the pilot when the aircraft is in danger of impacting with the
ground, unless corrective action is taken.

• Joint aviation requirements are that all turbine-powered aircraft having a

maximum certificated take-off weight greater than 5700 kg and seating for
more than nine passengers must be equipped with a GPWS.

• There are three types of GPWS currently in use: basic, advanced and
enhanced.
Basic GPWS

• The basic GPWS has five modes of operation, which require the following
source inputs:

1. Radio altimeter: Accurate measurement of height above ground level

is provided by the radio altimeter.
2. Central air data computer: Barometric pressure is integrated by the
GPWS to compute descent rates.
3. ILS glidepath receiver: The GPWS is required to give warning of
descent below the glidepath during a landing approach.
4. Approach configuration: The landing gear and flaps positions are
necessary inputs to the system during the approach to land.

The GPWS must be active between 2500 ft. and 50 ft. above ground level.

Operating modes:

Mode one, excessive descent rate:

• Using radar altitude and rate of decent information the GPWS monitors the
flight profile when an a/c is within 2500 ft. terrain.
• If excessive rate of descent develops at the current altitude agl (above
ground level) the red GPWS warning lamp will illuminate and voice alert
“SINK RATE” will be heard.
• If rate of descent still increases “PULL UP” voice will be heard.
• Both, the warning lamp and voice will automatically vanish when the a/c
recovers from the excessive rate of descent.

Mode two, excessive terrain closure rate:

• Using radar altitude, rate of decent and air speed information GPWS
compares terrain below the a/c to the flight path.
• If terrain rises significantly within 2000 ft. of a/c the red GPWS warning
lamp will illuminate and voice alert “TERRAIN-TERRAIN” will be heard.
• If closer rate continues “PULL UP” voice will be heard, until the terrain is
no longer threat.
• Red GPWS will continue glowing until the a/c climbs 300 ft. above the
altitude with the last PULL UP voice was heard.
Mode three, altitude loss after take-off or go-around:
• Using a/c speed, radar altitude, barometric altitude and a/c configuration
changes, GPWS recognizes take-off or missed approach.
• GPWS compares any loss of barometric altitude to peak altitude gain. When
this is roughly 10%, the red GPWS warning lamp will illuminate and voice
alert “DON’T SINK” will be heard.
• When positive rate of climb is establish, the warning lamp will extinguish
and the voice alert will cease.
• MODE-3 is disabled when a/c reaches1000 ft. above ground.

Mode four, unsafe terrain clearance:

• Using air speed, altitude, rate of descent and aircraft configuration GPWS
will alert the pilot to insufficient terrain clearance.
• MODE-4 develops a floor below the a/c during climb out, which continues
until 800 ft. above the ground.
• If the a/c penetrates this floor the red GPWS warning lamp will illuminate
and voice alert “TOO LOW TERRAIN” will be heard.
• Once the a/c is safely back above the floor the warning lamp will extinguish
and the voice alert will cease.

Mode five, aircraft below the ILS glideslope:

• GPWS monitors the flight path in relation the glideslope center line while on
the ILS final approach course.
• MODE-5 is enabled when an a/c starts receiving signal from the glideslope.
• If the a/c goes some precise value below the glideslope center-line, amber
GPWS GS lamp will illuminate and voice alert “GLIDE SLOPE” is heard.
• Once the a/c comes back to the correct position on the center line of the
glide slope signal, the warning lamp will extinguish and the voice alert will
cease.

Mode six, situational awareness:

A disadvantage of the basic GPWS is that it does not differentiate between

modes 1 to 4, because it gives the same warning in each case. It is, of course,
useful for the pilot to know the cause of the warning when responding to it.
FLIGHT CONTROL SYSTEM

• An a/c must have a control system that allows the pilot to manoeuver the a/c
in three major axis (Lateral, Longitudinal and Vertical). In addition, the
speed of the a/c must also be controlled.

• The standard method of achieving this control is to provide a set of control

surfaces for pitch, roll and yaw, allowing control of the direction of travel.

• Four primary controls of an a/c are:

a. Elevators for control in pitch.
b. Rudder for control in yaw.
c. Ailerons for control in speed.
d. Throttle for control in speed.

• Each control surface are located near the extremities of the a/c, so utilizing
the largest moment arm about the center of gravity & thus allowing surfaces
to be small in size.

• In fighter a/c, computer control can be used to control an unstable a/c which
would otherwise be impossible to fly.

• In large or fast a/c, the forces required to move the control surfaces are too
high for the pilot to operate them, and a system of power operation or power
assistance is required, using power actuators.

• The control system must be designed in such a way that there is extremely
small possibility of total failure.

TYPES
1. Mechanical Control
2. Hydro Mechanical Control
3. Fly-by-Wire Control
4. Computer Control
 COMPUTER SYSTEM APPLICATION

• A computer is a programmable machine designed to sequentially and

automatically carry out a sequence of arithmetic or logic operations.

• The particular sequence of operations can be changed readily, allowing the

computer to solve more than one kind of problem.

• Conventionally a computer consists of some form of memory for data

storage, at least one element that carries out arithmetic & logic operations &
a sequencing & control element that can change the order of operations
based on the information that is stored.

• A peripheral device allows information to be entered from external source &

allows the result of operation to be sent out.

• A computer processing unit executes series of instruction that make it read,

manipulate & then store data. Conditional instructions change the sequence
of instructions as a function of the current state of the m/c or, tis
environment.

• Modern computers based on integrated ckts.are millions of billions of times

more capable than the early machines, and occupy a fraction of the space.

• Simple computers are small enough to fit into mobile devices and can be
powered by a small battery.

• The embedded computers found in many devices from MP3 players to

fighter a/c and from toys to industrial robots are the most numerous.
 SYSTEM FREQUENCY
VHF communication 118-136 MHz, with 720 channels with 25
KHz spacing.
HF communication 2-25 MHz
ADF/NDB 190-1750 KHz, with spacing 0.5 KHz,
channeling time less than 4sec.
VOR 108-118 MHz, with 160 channels, 50 KHz
spacing, channeling time less than 60ms.
OMEGA Multiplexed signals of 10.2, 11.33 and 13.6
KHz transmitted omnidirectional from eight
stations located strategically around the
world.
DME Airborne interrogator: 1025-1150 MHz
Transponder: 962-1213 MHz
ATC Transponder • Center freq. of 1030 MHz
-3dB points at +/- 3 MHz
-60dB points at +/- 0.5 MHz
Weather Radar • C-Band: 5400 +/- 20 MHz
• X-Band: 9345 +/- 20 MHz
Doppler Navigation 13.325 & 13.314 GHz
Intermediate freq. 10.7 MHz
Radio Altimeter 4210-4390 MHz
 INTERFERENCE

• The electromagnetic environment of an a/c radio system is such that it may

suffer from interfering signals and/or noise, man-made or natural, and cause
interference itself to other systems.
• Interference may be either radiated or conducted.
• As the a/c flies through the atmosphere, it picks up electrical charge due to
frictional contact with the atmospheric particles & also while flying through
cloud formations, within which a very strong electric fields exist
(electrostatic induction).
• An uneven distribution of charge will cause current to flow in the a/c skin,
possibly in the form of a spark, between parts of unequal potential.
• Any spark results in a wide band of radiated r.f which will be picked up by
radio systems as noise and possibly masks wanted signals.

• Passengers use electronic devices on board aircraft, including some such as

cellular phones, portable voice recorders, hearing aids, heart pacemakers,
electric shavers or any other portable electronic devices that they shouldn't
in any case be attempting to use, because it may cause interference and may
cause problem in navigational instruments.

• Ignition systems produce sparks. Sparks cause the vast majority of radio
frequency interference. Electricity jumping through air causes ionization of
some of the atoms in the molecules it passes through. When these atoms "de-
ionize" they release a tremendous number of radio waves. The frequencies
are random and come and go in fractions of a second, but almost every
electronic device that you have aboard can be affected by them to some
degree.
Methods of reducing interference:

1. Isolation:

This is the easiest and most practical method of radio noise suppression.
This involves separating the source of radio noise from the i/p circuit of the
affected equipment.

2. Bonding:

During flight the electric charge develops on the surface of the aircraft in
two ways:

Precipitations static discharge:

This is developed, as the a/c moves through the air & due to
friction with other particles such as snow, rain, ice, dust etc. As
the flow moves over the surface the negative charges are left
behind and positive charges are discharged into the atmosphere.

Charge due to electrostatic induction:

This occurs when the a/c moves through the electric field,
generally created due to the cloud formation. Thus develops
high voltage on the certain parts of a/c.

The static or electrostatic discharge may cause hazardous effect due to difference
in potential between the parts of a/c. thus the communication link consisting of low
resistance link between the parts of a/c must be established which will,

• Limit the potential difference between various parts of a/c.

• Eliminate the static discharge & reduces any fire risks.

• Removes the exceptionally high voltage and current from the body of a/c
into the atmosphere from the extremities of a/c.

• Reduces interference between the radio and navigational aids.

This system is called as Bonding System.