Stability PDF

Flight dynamics –II Prof. E.G.
Tulapurkara
Stability and control
Chapter 2
Longitudinal stick–fixed static stability and control
(Lectures 4 to 11)
Keywords : Criteria for longitudinal static stability and control ; contributions of
wing, horizontal tail, fuselage and power to pitching moment coefficient (Cmcg)
and its derivative with respect to angle of attack (Cmα) ; stick-fixed neutral point
and static margin ; elevator angle for trim; limitations on forward and rearward
movements of c.g. ; determination of neutral point from flight tests.
Topics
2.1 Introduction
2.1.1 Equilibrium state during flight in the plane of symmetry
2.1.2 Mean aerodynamic chord
2.1.3 Criteria for longitudinal control and trim in pitch
2.1.4 Criterion for longitudinal static stability
2.1.5 Alternate explanation of criterion for longitudinal static stability
2.1.6 Desirable values of Cm0 and Cmα
2.1.7 Effect of elevator deflection on Cmcg vrs α curve
2.1.8 Cmcg expressed as function of CL
2.2 Cmcg and Cmα as sum of the contributions of various component
2.3 Contributions of wing to Cmcg and Cmα
2.3.1 Correction to Cmαw for effects of horizontal components of lift and
drag – secondary effect of wing location on static stability
2.4 Contributions of horizontal tail to Cmcg and Cmα
2.4.1 Conventional tail, canard configuration and tailless configuration
2.4.2 Effect of downwash due to wing on angle of attack of tail
2.4.3 Interference effect on dynamic pressure over tail
2.4.4 Expression for Cmcgt
2.4.5 Estimation of CLt
2.4.6 Revised expression for Cmcgt
2.4.7 Cmαt in stick-fixed case
Dept. of Aerospace Engg., IIT Madras 1

Flight dynamics –II Prof. E.G. Tulapurkara
2.5 Contributions of fuselage to Cmcg and Cmα
2.5.1 Contribution of body to Cmα based on slender body theory
2.5.2 Correction to moment contribution of fuselage for fineness ratio
2.5.3 Correction to moment contribution of fuselage for non-circular
cross-section
2.5.4 Correction to moment contribution of fuselage for fuselage camber
2.5.5 Contribution of nacelle to Cmα
2.6 Contributions of power plant to Cmcg and Cmα
2.6.1 Direct contributions of powerplant to Cmcg and Cmα
2.6.2 Indirect contributions of powerplant to Cmcg and Cmα
2.7 General remarks – slope of lift curve (CLα) and angle of zero lift (α0L) of
airplane
2.7.1 Slope of lift curve (CLα) of the airplane
2.7.2 Angle of zero lift of the airplane
2.8 Cmcg and Cmα of entire airplane
2.9 Stick-fixed neutral point
2.9.1 Neutral point power-on and power-off
2.10 Static margin
2.11 Neutral point as aerodynamic centre of entire airplane
2.12 Longitudinal control
2.12.1 Elevator power
2.12.2 Control effectiveness parameter (τ)
2.12.3 Elevator angle for trim
2.12.4 Advantages and disadvantages of canard configuration
2.12.5 Limitations on forward movement of c.g. in free flight
2.12.6 Limitations on forward movement of c.g. in proximity of ground
2.13 Determination of stick-fixed neutral point from flight tests
References
Exercises

Chapter 2
Lecture 4
Longitudinal stick–fixed static stability and control - 1
Topics
2.1 Introduction
2.1.3 Criteria for longitudinal control and trim in pitch
2.1.5 Alternate explanation of criterion for longitudinal static stability
2.1.7 Effect of elevator deflection on Cmcg vrs α curve
2.1 Introduction
For a gradual development of the stability and control analysis, the subject
has been subdivided into various topics (see subsection 1.3.7 and Fig.1.17). This
chapter deals with longitudinal static stability and control in stick-fixed case. The
following three items from chapter 1 may be recalled.
(a)In static stability analysis, the forces and moments brought about as a result of
the disturbance are considered to examine whether moments tend to bring the
airplane back to the equilibrium state or not.
(b)The longitudinal stability analysis deals with the motions in the plane of
symmetry i.e. along x- and z- axes and about y-axis.
(c) By stick-fixed case, we imply that even after the disturbance is applied, the
control stick is held fixed or the control surface maintains its deflection as in the
undisturbed state.

To analyze the stability, we must consider that the airplane is initially in
equilibrium state i.e. it is moving with constant speed along a straight line. If we
consider the steady level flight, the conditions for equilibrium are:
T-D=0 (2.1)
L-W=0 (2.2)
Mcg = 0 (2.3)
These equations imply that:
(a) the thrust must balance the drag by proper setting of the engine throttle,
(b) the lift must balance the weight by proper choice of the lift coefficient at the
chosen speed and altitude of flight and
(c ) the pitching moment produced by the wing, the fuselage, the tail and other
components must be counterbalanced by the moment produced by the elevator.
Thus, longitudinal control implies the ability to bring Mcg to zero by
suitable control deflection. In order that this is achieved under different flight
conditions, the elevator must have sufficient area and adequate range of
deflections. For longitudinal static stability, we need to primarily examine the
rotation about the y-axis. The moment about the y-axis is the pitching moment (M
or Mcg). A nose up moment is taken as positive (Fig.2.1).
Fig.2.1 Convention for pitching moment

It is convenient to work in terms of pitching moment coefficient (Cmcg), which is
defined as:
Mcg
Cmcg = (2.4)
1 2
ρV Sc
2
where, ρ = ambient density; V = flight velocity; S = wing plan form area;
c = mean aerodynamic chord of wing.
It may be recalled that the mean aerodynamic chord c is defined as:
b/2
1
 c dy
2
c= (2.5)
S -b/2
where, c is the local chord of wing (Fig.2.2) and b is the wing span.
Fig.2.2 Geometric parameters of a wing
For a trapezoidal wing the mean aerodynamic chord is given by the following
expression, the derivation is left as an exercise to the reader.
2 cr (1+λ+λ2 )
c= (2.5a)
3 1+λ
where, λ = taper ratio = ct/cr .

2.1.3 Criterion for longitudinal control and trim in pitch

For equilibrium, Cmcg = 0 (2.6)
When Cmcg is made zero by proper control deflection, the airplane is said to be
trimmed in pitch.
The criterion for longitudinal static stability is that when an airplane is
disturbed in the plane of symmetry, it has a tendency to return to its equilibrium
state. In longitudinal static stability analysis, the effects of perturbations Δu and
Δw are negligible. The change in the angle of attack (Δα) is considered as the
perturbation. Its effect on change in pitching moment, ΔMcg , is examined to
assess the longitudinal static stability. The change in the angle of attack of the
airplane could be due to:
(a) the airplane encountering a vertical gust of velocity (Vgu) or
(b) the pilot deflecting the elevator by a small angle causing a moment and then
bringing the elevator to its position in the undisturbed flight .
The gust would change the direction of relative wind and cause a change in the
angle of attack (Fig.2.3) given by:
Δα = Vgu / V
Fig.2.3 change in angle of attack due to gust
The deflection of elevator by the pilot will also lead to change in the angle
of attack. Note that the convention for Δα is the same as that for the angle of
attack i.e. measured from the relative wind towards the fuselage reference line
(FRL) and taken positive clock wise (Fig.2.4). With the above conventions for
Mcg and Δα, if the airplane is to have static stability, then in response to a
positive Δα caused by the disturbance, the airplane should produce a ΔMcg

which is negative. Similarly, a disturbance causing negative Δα should result in
positive ΔMcg or (dMcg/ dα) should be negative.
2.1.5 Alternate explanation of criterion for a longitudinal static stability
The above argument can be explained in an alternative manner. Consider
that the airplane is flying in level flight at angle of attack α i.e. the c.g. moves
along a horizontal line and the fuselage reference line (FRL) makes an angle α to
the flight direction (Fig.2.4). Now, imagine that the airplane is disturbed and
acquires an additional angle of Δα i.e. its angle of attack becomes (α+Δα). The
airplane in the changed attitude is shown by dotted lines in Fig.2.4. Now, if the
airplane has static stability, then it should produce ΔMcg such that the airplane
returns to the original angle of attack i.e. a disturbance which causes positive Δα,
should result in negative ΔMcg . Similarly, a disturbance that causes negative
Fig.2.4 Airplane in disturbed position
Δα should be accompanied by positive ΔMcg . This again means that

(dMcg / dα) or (dCmcg /dα) should be negative. If (dCmcg / dα) is zero then the
airplane has no tendency to come back and is neutrally stable. If (dCmcg / dα) is
positive then the moment produced as a result of positive Δα is also positive and
would take the airplane to increased Δα. This means that the airplane is
unstable.

Thus, the criterion for longitudinal static stability is:
(dMcg/dα ) < 0 for static stability
> 0 for instability (2.7)
= 0 for neutral stability
Or, dCmcg /dα or Cmα < 0 for static stability
Remark:
The angle Δα in Fig.2.4 is portrayed big for the sake of clarity. In static stability
analysis Δα would be small.
Figure 2.5 shows Cmcg vs α curves for two airplanes A and B. Both
configurations A and B are in trim (i.e. Cmcg = 0) at point P without deflection of
control surface (elevator). However, from stability criterion given in Eq.(2.8), the
configuration A, with Cmα < 0 , is stable and the configuration B, with Cmα > 0, is
unstable. This figure also shows that for airplane A the value of Cm0 (i.e. value of
Cmcg when α is zero) is positive. These factors indicate that, for an airplane to be
both stable and give trim at realistic values of CL , requires that :
(a) Cm0 should be positive and

(b) Cmα should be negative.
Fig.2.5 Cmcg vs α variations for stable and unstable airplanes
2.1.7 Effect of elevator deflection on Cmcg vs α curve

When an elevator is deflected it produces a moment about c.g. Then the
value of Cm0 of the airplane changes and the Cmcg vs α curve is shifted (Fig.2.6).
However, Cmα does not change due to the elevator deflection and the slope of
the curve is same as that with zero elevator deflection (see section 2.12.3 and
example 2.7). This figure also indicates that elevator deflection brings about
change in the value of α at which Cmcg is zero or the airplane is in trim. It may be
pointed out that the elevator deflection is denoted by δe and downward deflection
of elevator is taken positive (see section 2.4.5 for further details).

Fig.2.6 Effect of elevator deflection on trim

When the angle of attack (α) is not near stalling angle, the CL vs α curve of
the airplane is nearly linear (Fig.2.7). In this situation Cmcg can be plotted as
functions of CL and dCm/dCL can be used as criterion for static stability instead of
Cmα .This was the practice in older literature, on stability and control e.g. Ref.1.7.
dCm dCm dCL dCm
Noting that = = CLα
dα dCL dα dCL
yields:
dCm C
= mα (2.9)
dCL CLα

When CL vs α is linear, the longitudinal static stability criterion is:
d Cm / d CL < 0 for static stability
Fig.2.7 CL vs α

Chapter 2
Lecture 5
Longitudinal stick–fixed static stability and control – 2
Topics
2.2 Cmcg and Cmα as sum of the contributions of various component
Example 2.1
Example 2.2
Example 2.3
2.2 Cmcg and Cmα expressed as sum of the contributions of various

components of the airplane
Using wind tunnel tests on a model of an airplane or by Computational
Fluid Dynamics (CFD), the Cmcg vs α curve for the entire airplane can be
obtained. However, CFD has not yet advanced enough to give accurate values of
the moments and these computations are not inexpensive. Wind tunnel tests are
very expensive and are resorted to only at the later stages of airplane design.
Hence, the usual practice to obtain the Cmcg vs α curve is to add the contributions
of major components of the airplane and at the same time take into account the
interference effects. The contributions of individual components are based on the
wind tunnel data or the analyses available in literature. References 1.1,1.8,1.9,
1.12, 2.1 and 2.2 are some of the sources of data.
The contributions to Cmcg and Cmα are due to the wing, the fuselage, the
power plant and the horizontal tail. Figure 2.8 shows the forces and moments
produced by the wing and the horizontal tail. The contributions of fuselage,
nacelle and the power plant are shown as moments about c.g. and denoted by
Mf,n,p. The fuselage reference line is denoted by FRL. It may be recalled that the

angle of attack (α) of the airplane is the angle between free stream velocity (V)
and FRL. The c.g. of the airplane is also shown in the figure. The wing is
represented by its mean aerodynamic chord (m.a.c.). It is set at an angle of
incidence iw to the FRL. Hence, the angle of attack of wing (αw) is α + iw.
Following the usual practice, the lift of the wing (LW) is placed at the aerodynamic
centre of the wing (a.c.) along with a pitching moment (Macw). The drag of the
wing (Dw) is also taken to act at the aerodynamic centre of the wing. The wing
a.c. is located at a distance xac from the leading edge of the m.a.c. The airplane
c.g. is at a distance xcg from the leading edge of the m.a.c.
Fig.2.8 Contributions of major components to Cmcg
The horizontal tail is also represented by its mean aerodynamic chord. The
aerodynamic centre of the tail is located at a distance lt behind the c.g. The tail is
mounted at an angle it with respect to the FRL. The lift, drag and pitching
moment due to the tail are Lt, Dt and Mact respectively. As the air flows past the
wing, it experiences a downwash ε which is shown schematically in Fig.2.8.
Owing to this the angle of attack of the horizontal tail would be (α + it - ε ).
Further, due to the interference effects the tail would experience a dynamic
pressure different from the free stream dynamic pressure. These aspects will be

elaborated in section 2.4.2 and 2.4.3. With this background the pitching moment
about the c.g. can be expressed as:
Mcg = (Mcg )w + (Mcg )f + (Mcg )n + (Mcg )p + (Mcg )t (2.11)
Mcg
Cmcg = = (Cmcg )w + (Cmcg )f,n,p + (Cmcg )t (2.12)
1
ρV2Sc
2
Cmα = (Cmα )w + (Cmα )f,n,p + (Cmα )t (2.13)
Note:
(i) For convenience the derivative of Cmcg with α is denoted as Cmα .
(ii) In Fig.2.8 the angle ‘it’ is shown positive for the sake of indicating the notation;
generally ‘it’ is negative.
The contributions to Cmcg and Cmα of the individual components are described in
the next four sections.

Figure 2.9 schematically shows the forces (lift, Lw and drag, Dw) and the moment
(Macw) due to the wing and the relative locations of the c.g. of the airplane and the
aerodynamic centre of the wing.
The following may be recalled / noted.
i) The angle of attack of the airplane is the angle between the relative wind and
the fuselage reference line (FRL). This angle is denoted by α.
ii) The wing is represented by its mean aerodynamic chord (m.a.c.).
iii) The wing is set at an angle iw to the FRL. This is done so that the fuselage is
horizontal during cruising flight. Thus, αw = α + iw or α = αw – iw.
iv) xac is the distance of the a.c. from the leading edge of the m.a.c..
v) xcg is the distance of the c.g. from the leading edge of the m.a.c..
vi) Zcgw is the distance of the a.c. below c.g.

Fig.2.9 Wing contribution
Taking moment about c.g., gives the contribution of wing (Mcgw) to the moment
about c.g as:
Mcgw = L w cos(α w - iw )[x cg - x ac ] + Dw sin (αw - iw ) [x cg - x ac ]
+ L w sin(αw - iw )Zcgw - Dw cos(αw - iw )Zcgw + Macw (2.14)
Noting that,
Mcgw Lw Dw Macw
Cmcgw= ; CLw= ; CDw= ;Cmacw= , (2.15)
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
ρV Sc ρV S ρV S ρV Sc
2 2 2 2
yields:
x cg x ac x cg x ac
Cmcgw = CLw cos(α w - iw )[ - ] + CDw sin(α w - iw )[ - ]
c c c c
Zcgw Zcgw
+ CLw sin(α w - iw ) - CDw cos(αw - iw ) + Cmacw (2.16)
c c
Remark:
(αw – iw) is generally less than 100.Hence, cos (αw – iw) ≈ 1; and
sin(αw – iw) ≈ (αw– iw) . Further CL >> CD.
Neglecting the products of small quantities, Eq.(2.16) reduces to:

x cg x ac
Cmcgw = Cmacw + CLw [ - ] (2.17)
c c
Now,
CLw = CLαw (α w - α0Lw )
= CLαw (α + iw - α0Lw )
= CLαw (iw - α0Lw ) + CLαw α
= CL0w + CLαw α (2.18)
where, α0Lw is the zero lift angle of the wing and

CL0w = CLαw (iw - α0Lw )
Hence,
x cg x ac x cg x ac
Cmcgw = Cmacw + CL0w [ - ] + CLαw α [ - ] (2.19)
c c c c
Differentiating with respect to α , gives the contribution of wing to Cmα as :
x cg x ac
Cmαw = CLαw [ - ] (2.20)
c c
Remark:
The contribution of wing (Cmcgw) as approximately calculated above and given by
x cg x ac
Eq.(2.19) is linear with α. When the a.c. is ahead of c.g., the term [ - ] is
c c
positive and consequently Cmαw is positive (Eq.2.20). Since, Cmα should be
negative for static stability, a positive contribution to Cmα is called destabilizing
contribution. When the a.c. is ahead of c.g. the wing contribution is destabilizing.
Figure 2.10 shows Cmcgw vs α in this case.

Fig.2.10 Approximate contribution of wing to Cmcg

In the simplified analysis for the contribution of wing to Cmcg , the

contributions of the horizontal components of lift and drag to the moment about
c.g. , have been ignored (compare Eqs. 2.16 and 2.17).Let, the neglected terms
be denoted by Mcgwh. Equation (2.14) gives the following expression for Mmcgwh
Mcgwh = L w sin(α w - iw )Zcgw - Dw cos(αw - iw )Zcgw (2.21)
Dividing by ½ ρV2S c and noting that cos  α w - iw   1 yields :
Zcgw
Cmcgwh = [CLw sin(α w -iw ) - CDw ] ; (2.22)
c
DifferentiatingEq.(2.22) with α gives:
dCLw dCDw Zcgw

Cmαwh = [ sin(αw - iw )+CLw cos(α w - iw )- ] (2.23)
dα dα c
dCLw
Now , sin(α w - iw )  CLαw (α w - iw )
dα

CLαw (α w - iw ) = CLαw (α w - α0L ) - CLαw (iw - α0L ) = CLw - CL0w
Further, CLw cos(α w - iw )  CLw
dCDw dCDw dCL dCDw

and = = CLαw (2.24)
dα dCL dα dCL
dCDw Zcgw
Thus, Cmαwh = [2CLw - CL0w - CLαw ] (2.25)
dCL c
The drag polar of the wing can be assumed as :
C2Lw
CDw = CD0w + ,
πAe
dCDw 2CLw
Then, =
dCL πAe
Substituting this in Eq.(2.25) yields:

2CLw Zcgw
Cmαwh = [2CLw - CL0w - CLαw ]
πAe c
CLαw Z
Cm wh = [2CLw {1 - } - CL0w ] cgw (2.26)
πAe c
The term [1 - (2CLαw / π Ae)] is generally positive. This can be seen as follows.
An approximate expression for CLαw is:
A
CLαw = 2 π ; A = Aspect ratio of wing.
A+2
Hence,
CLαw A 1 2
= 2π = (2.27)
πAe A+2 πAe (A+2)e
2/{(A+2)e} is less than 1 for typical values of A and e. Further, for low wing
aircraft, where the a.c of the wing is below c.g., the term Zcgw / c is positive
(Fig.2.9) . Hence, Cmαwh as given by Eq.(2.26) is positive or destabilizing
(Fig.2.11). For high wing aircraft, Zcgw / c is negative consequently Cmαwh is
negative and hence stabilizing (Fig.2.11).

Fig.2.11 Effect of wing location on Cmcgw
An important aspect of the above derivation may be pointed out here. The
expression for Cmαwh involves CL or the slope of Cmcgw vs α curve depends on CL
or α (see example 2.3) . Hence, Cmcgw become slightly non-linear. The usual
practice, is to ignore the contributions of the horizontal components to Cmαw.
However, the following aspects may be pointed out. (a) A high wing configuration
is slightly more stable than a mid-wing configuration. A low wing configuration is
slightly less stable than the mid-wing configuration. (b) In the simpler analysis
the Cmcgw vs α curve is treated as straight line but the Cmcg vs α curves, obtained
from flight tests on airplanes, are found to be slightly non-linear. One of the
reasons for the non-linearity in actual curves is the term Megwh.

Example 2.1
Given a rectangular wing of aspect ratio 6 and area 55.8 m2. The wing section
employed is an NACA 4412 airfoil with aerodynamic centre at 0.24 c and
Cmac = -0.088.The c.g. of the wing lies on the wing chord, but 15 cm ahead of the
a.c. Calculate the following.
(a) The lift coefficient for which the wing would be in equilibrium (Cmcg = 0). Is this
lift coefficient useful? Is the equilibrium statically stable?
(b) Calculate the position of c.g. for equilibrium at CL = 0.4. Is this equilibrium
statically stable?
Solution:
The given data for the wing are : A = 6, S = 55.8m2, Airfoil: NACA 4412; a.c. at
0.24 c , Cmac = -0.088
Before solving the problem we workout the additional data needed for the
solution.
(dCl/dα) or Clα or a0 of the given airfoil: From Ref.1.7 p.484 a0 is 0.106/degree
For a0 = 0.106 and A = 6, from Fig.5.5 of Ref.1.7, CLαw = 0.081/degree.
Note: Using CLα = (A/A+2) Clα, we would get:
CLα = {6/(6+2)}(0.106) = 0.0795 deg-1
For a rectangular wing, c = S/b
Further A = b2 / S.
Hence, b = (AxS)1/2 = (6x55.8)1/2 = 18.30 m
Consequently, c = 55.8/18.3 = 3.05 m.
Hence, xac = 0.24x3.05 = 0.732 m, xcg = 0.732 - 0.15 = 0.582 m
The configuration is shown in Fig.E2.1

Fig.E2.1 Configuration for example 2.1

(a) For equilibrium
L - W = 0 ; Mcg = - L x 0.15 + ½ ρ V2 S c Cmac = 0
Or – CL x 0.15 + c (- 0.088) = 0
Hence, CL = - 0.088 x 3.05/0.15 = - 1.77
This lift coefficient is not useful.
The equilibrium is stable as c.g. is ahead of a.c.
(b) Calculation of c.g. location for moment equilibrium at CL = 0.4
Cmcg = 0.4 × (x cg - x ac ) + c (- 0.088) = 0
0.088
x cg - x ac = 3.05 + = 0.671m
0.4
x cg x 0.671
or = ac + = (0.24 + 0.22) = 0.46
c c c
This equilibrium is unstable as a.c. is ahead of c.g.
Example 2.2
If the wing given example 2.1 is rebuilt maintaining the same planform, but
using reflex cambered airfoil section such that Cmac = 0.02, with the a.c. still at
0.24 c . Calculate the c.g. position for equilibrium at CL = 0.4. Is this equilibrium
statically stable?

Solution:
For equilibrium at CL = 0.4 with Cmac = 0.02;
Cmcg = 0.4 (x cg - x ac ) + c (0.02) = 0

x cg x ac 0.02
- = - 3.05 = -0.1525 m
c c 0.4
x cg 0.1525
= 0.24- = 0.19
c 3.05
Equilibrium is stable as c.g. is ahead of a.c.
Remark: From the above two examples we draw interesting conclusions about
an airplane which has an all wing configuration. (a) For such a configuration, the
static stability consideration requires that c.g. should be ahead of a.c.. (b) Cmac
should be positive.
Example 2.3
An airplane is equipped with a wing of aspect ratio 6 (Clαw = 0.095) and
span efficiency factor e of 0.78, with an airfoil section giving Cmac = 0.02.
Calculate, for CL between 0 and 1.2, the pitching moment coefficient of the wing
about the c.g. which is located 0.05 c ahead of a.c. and 0.06 c under a.c..
Repeat the calculations when chord wise force component is neglected. Assume
CD0w = 0.008, αoLw = 10, iw = 50.
Solution:
The given data about the wing are: A = 6, Clα = 0.095, e = 0.78, Cmac = 0.02,
αoLw = 10, CD0w = 0.008, iw = 50,
From Fig.5.5 of Ref.1.7, CLαw = 0.074 deg-1 = 4.24 rad-1
CL0w = 0.074 (5-1) = 0.296.
CL2 CL2
CDw = 0.008 + = 0.008 + = 0.008 + 0.068 CL2
πA e 3.14×6×0.78

Fig.E2.3 Schematic of configuration for example 2.3
Combining Eqs.(2.20) and (2.26),

(x cg - x ac ) CLαw Zcgw
Cmαw = CLαw +[2CLw {1-
} - CL0w ] ;
c πAe c
4.24
= - 0.05 × 4.24 + [2CL {1- } - 0.296] (- 0.06)
3.14×6×0.78
= - 0.212 - 0.0854 CL + 0.0178 = - 0.1942 - 0.0854 CL
Hence, Cmcgw = 0.02 + ( - 0.1942 - 0.0854 CL)α
= 0.02 + (- 0.1942 - 0.0854 CL) {(CL - CLow) / 4.24}
= 0.0336 - 0.0399CL - 0.0201 CL2
The values of Cmcgw for different values of CL are presented in table E2.3.
The approximate contribution of wing after neglecting the horizontal component
from Eq.(2.17) is :
x cg x ac
Cmcgw = Cmacw + CLw [ - ]
c c
or (Cmcgw)approximate = 0.02 - 0.05CL. These values are also included in table E2.3.

CL (Cmcgw) without horizontal (Cmcgw) with horizontal

component component
0 0.02 0.0336
0.4 0 0.0141
0.8 -0.02 -0.0112
1.2 -0.04 -0.04314
Table E2.3 contribution of wing to Cmg

Remark:
The c.g. is ahead of a.c , hence the contribution of wing, even without
considering horizontal component, is stabilizing. Further the c.g. is below a.c.
hence the contribution, considering the horizontal component, becomes more
stabilizing.

Chapter 2
Lecture 6
Topics
2.4 Contributions of horizontal tail to Cmcg and Cmα

2.4. Contributions of horizontal tail to Cmcg and Cmα

In this section the contributions of horizontal tail to Cmcg and Cmα and the
related aspects are dealt with. In this chapter and in chapters 3 and 4, the
horizontal tail is simply referred to as tail.
A horizontal tail, as explained in this section, provides stability about
y- axis. Hence, it is called horizontal stabilizer. When the horizontal stabilizer is
behind the wing it is called conventional tail configuration. It is also explained,
later in subsection 2.12.3, that for achieving equilibrium with conventional tail
configuration, the lift on the tail is generally in the downward direction. This
necessicitates that the lift produced by the wing has not only to balance the
airplane weight but also the negative lift on the tail. This can be avoided if a
control surface is located ahead of the wing. Such a configuration is called
canard (see Wright flyer in Fig.1.1). It may be added that a canard, being ahead
of c.g., has destabilizing contribution to Cmα. There are airplanes which neither
have a horizontal tail nor a canard surface. In this case the airplane is called

“Tailless configuration” (See Concorde in Fig.1.4a). Now, the conventional tail
configuration is considered in detail.
The contribution of the tail depends on Lt, Dt and Mact (Fig. 2.8). However, these
quantities depend on the angle of attack of the tail and the dynamic pressure
experienced by the tail. The angle of attack of the tail is not just (α+it). The
downwash behind the wing affects the angle at which the flow reaches the tail.
Further, the wake of the wing and the boundary layer on the fuselage render the
dynamic pressure at the tail different from the free stream dynamic pressure.
These are called interference effects and are discussed here before describing
the contributions of the tail to Cmcg and Cmα.
Wing is the principal contributor to the lift produced by the airplane. While
producing the lift, wing induces an angle of attack on the stream around it. The
induced angle is positive ahead of the wing and is called upwash. Behind the
wing, the induced angle is negative and is called downwash. It may be recalled
that in the lifting line theory, used to calculate flow past a finite wing, a bound
vortex is located along the quarter chord line and trailing vortices behind the
wing. Using this theory the upwash/downwash distribution can be calculated.
Typical distribution is shown in Fig.2.12. Its important features are as follows.
(a) Upwash is zero far ahead of the wing.
(b) Peak in the upwash occurs slightly ahead of the wing.
(c ) There is downwash at the wing quarter chord and the downwash angle (εc/4)
is:
εc/4 = (1+  )(CLw / π Aw) (2.28)
where, CLw is the wing lift coefficient, Aw is the aspect ratio of wing and  depends
on wing parameters like aspect ratio, taper ratio and sweep.

Fig. 2.12 Upwash–downwash field of a wing

(Adapted from Ref.1.12, Chapter 3 with permission from American Institute of
Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc. )
(d) Behind the wing at distances where the tail is located, the downwash angle
(εfb) is approximately twice of εc/4 .
(e) The upwash/downwash decrease when airplane is near ground as compared
to that in free flight.
In a conventional configuration the tail is located behind the wing and would
experience downwash i.e. angle of attack of tail would be reduced by ε or
αt = α+it-ε. The value of ε would depend on wing parameters, wing lift coefficient,
Mach number, tail parameters and location of the tail with respect to the wing.
The common practice is to obtain a value of dε/dα in subsonic flow based on
(a) wing aspect ratio, taper ratio and sweep and (b) location of tail aerodynamic
centre with respect to wing and subsequently apply corrections for Mach number
effect (see Ref.1.12). Appendix „C‟ explains the procedure to calculate dε/dα for a
jet airplane.
Remark:
For an elliptic wing the downwash at the aerodynamic centre of the wing (εc/4 )is:
εc/4 ≈ CLw/πAw (2.29)
Hence, εfb ≈ 2εc/4 = 2 CLw/πAw (2.30)
Therefore the (dε/dα)fb ≈ 2CLαw/ πAw (2.31)
For example if Aw = 8, then CLαw ≈ 2π x 8/(8+2) = 5.08/radian and

(dε/dα)fb = 2 x 5.08 / (π x 8) = 0.4
The tail is generally located far behind the wing and hence the downwash at the
tail (ε) is roughly equal to εfb and Eq.(2.31) can be used to get a rough estimate
of (dε/dα) even for non-elliptic wings.
The dynamic pressure over tail is different from the free stream dynamic
pressure due to the following reasons.
(a) Tail may be in the wake of the wing. In a wake the velocity is lowest at the
centre and gradually reaches the free stream value (Fig.2.13). The difference
between the centre line velocity and the free stream velocity is called velocity
defect. The velocity defect depends on the drag coefficient of the wake producing
body and the distance behind it. Figure 2.13 shows schematically the wing, the
wake centre line and a typical velocity profile of the wake. It is evident that if the
tail lies within the wake of the wing, then the dynamic pressure on the tail will be
lower than the free stream dynamic pressure.
Fig.2.13 Wing, wake centre line and velocity profile of wake - schematic

(b) Some portion of the tail near its root chord is covered by the boundary layer
on the fuselage and as such would experience lower dynamic pressure.
(c ) In airplanes with engine propeller combination the slip stream of the propeller
may pass over the horizontal tail (Fig. 2.14). It may be recalled that the slip
stream of a propeller has higher dynamic pressure than that of the free stream.
Hence, the propeller slip stream passing over the tail may increase the dynamic
pressure over it in comparison to the free stream dynamic pressure.
The ratio of the dynamic pressure experienced by the tail (½ ρVt2) to the free
stream dynamic pressure (½ ρV2) is called tail efficiency and denoted by η i.e.
η = (½ ρVt2) / (½ ρV2) (2.31a)
Fig. 2.14 Effect of propeller slip stream on horizontal tail
It is difficult to accurately estimate the value of η. It is assumed between 0.9 and

1.0. It could be more than 1 when the tail is in the slip stream of a propeller.

With this background the contributions of tail to Cmcg and Cmα can now be
obtained. Figure 2.15 shows schematically, the forces and moment on the tail.
Fig. 2.15 Schematic representation of forces and moment on tail
From Fig.2.15 the angle of attack of the tail is:

αt = α + it - ε = αw - iw - ε + it (2.32)
Taking moment about c.g.

Mcgt = - lt [Ltcos(α-ε) - Dt sin(α-ε)] + Mact - Zcgt [Dtcos(α-ε) - Lt sin(α-ε)] (2.33)
The quantity (α-ε) is generally small and cos (α-ε) is roughly equal to one and
terms involving sin (α-ε) are ignored. Mact is also ignored.
Hence, Mcgt = -lt Lt (2.34)
1
= -lt CLt ρ Vt 2 St (2.35)
2
Consequently,
Mmcgt St lt (1/2)ρVt 2
Cmcgt = = CLt (2.36)
1 2 S c (1/2)ρV 2
ρV Sc
2
The term (St/S)(lt /c) is called tail volume ratio and is denoted by VH. It may be
pointed out that the terms St lt and Sc have dimensions of volume. As

mentioned earlier, the term [(1/2)ρVt2]/[(1/2)ρV2] is called the tail efficiency and
denoted by η.
Thus,
1 2
ρVt
S l
Cmcgt = -VH ηCLt ; VH = t t ; η= 2 (2.37)
S c 1 2
ρV
2
It may be pointed out that typically, (St/S) ~ 0.2 to 0.25 and (lt/c) ~2 to 3. Hence,
VH lies between 0.4 and 0.7.
A tail consists of the fixed portion (stabilizer) and the movable portions
namely elevator and tab (Fig.2.16a). The tab is located near the trailing edge of
the elevator. Its purpose will be explained in chapter 3. The positive deflections of
the elevator (δe) and of the tab(δt)are shown in Fig.2.16b. A positive δe produces
increase in CLt and leads to a negative Mcg. The changes in lift coefficient of tail
due to αt, δe and δt are shown in Fig.2.17.
Fig.2.16a Stabilizer, elevator and tab

Fig. 2.16b Cross-section of tail with elevator and tab deflected
Fig. 2.17 Changes in CLt due to αt, δe and δt
The following may be noted. (a) Generally symmetric airfoils are used on the
control surfaces. Hence, CLt is zero when αt is zero (b) The elevator is like a flap

and a downward (or positive) deflection increases CLt over and above that due to
αt (Fig.2.17). ( c ) A positive deflection of tab increases CLt further (Fig.2.17).
(d) Negative deflections of the elevator and tab would have effects opposite of
the positive deflections. Taking into account the effects of αt , δe and δt, the tail lift
coefficient can be expressed as:
CLt C
CLt = CLαt αt + δe + Lt δt (2.38)
δe δt
Note: The expression in Eq.(2.38) is valid only when CLt vs α curve is linear or
the angle of attack is below αstall for the tail.
Now, αt = α - ε + it = αw - iw - ε + it (2.39)
As noted earlier, ε at a point depends on the wing parameters and location of

the point . However, ε is proportional to CLw i.e. ε = constant x CLW.
Hence,
dε dε dαw
ε = CLw = CLw (2.40)
dCLw dαw dCLw
dε dε
Further, αw = α+iw hence, =
dαw dα
dε 1
Consequently , ε = C
dα CLαw Lw
dε 1
= C (α - α0Lw )
dα CLαw Lαw w
dε
= (α + iw - α0Lw )
dα
dε dε
= (iw - α0Lw )+ α
dα dα
dε dε
= ε0 + α; ε 0 = (iw - α0Lw ). (2.41)
dα dα
Remark:
Reference 1.1 uses the following approximate expression:

2CLw
ε  (2.42)
πA w
which is the downwash far behind an elliptic wing.
Substituting this, Eq.(2.42) gives:
2
ε = CLαw (α + iw - α0Lw )
πA w
2 2
ε = CLαw (iw - α0Lw )+ CLαw α
πA w πA w
2
ε = ε0 + CLαw α
πA w
dε 2CLαw
Hence ,  (2.43)
dα πA w
As mentioned earlier, dε/dα depends on the wing parameters, location of the tail
relative to wing and the Mach number.
CLw
Noting that αw = +α0Lw , αt can be written as:
CLαw
CLw dε CLw
αt = +α0Lw - iw - + it
CLαw dα CLαw
CLw dε
= α0Lw - iw + it + (1- ) (2.44)
CLαw dα
Alternatively, we can write
dε
αt = α-ε 0 - α+it
dα
dε
= it - ε 0 +α(1- ) (2.45)
dα
Putting these together, yields:
dε C C
CLt = CLαt [it - ε 0 +α(1- )]+ Lt δe + Lt δt (2.46)
dα δe δt

Chapter 2
Lecture 7
Topics
2.5.3 Correction to moment contribution of fuselage for non-circular
cross-section
2.5.4 Correction to moment contribution of fuselage for fuselage camber

Substituting for CLt in Eq.(2.37) gives:
dε
Cmcgt = -VHη CLαt [it - ε 0 +α(1- )+  δe + tabδtab ]
dα
dε
=  Cmot - VH η CLαt [α(1- ) +  δe + tab δtab ] (2.47)
dα
CLt CLt CLt CLt
where,  = / ;  tab = / (2.48)
δe α δt α
and Cmot = - VH ηCLαt (it - ε0 ) (2.49)

It may be pointed out that the pilot moves the elevator through the forward
and backward movements of the control stick. Further, depending on the values
of chosen flight speed and altitude, the pilot adjusts the positions of the elevator
to make Cmcg equal to zero. In small airplanes, like the general aviation airplanes,
the pilot continues to hold the stick and maintain the elevator deflection. In this
background the analysis of the static stability of an airplane where the control

deflection remains same even after disturbance is called static stability stick-
fixed.
Hence, to obtain an expression for C mαt in stick-fixed case it is assumed that the
elevator deflection (δe) and the tab deflection (δt ) remain unchanged after the
disturbance. Accordingly when Eq.(2.47) is differentiated with respect to α ,the
derivatives of δe and δt are zero i.e., in this case, (dδe /dα) = (dδt /dα) = 0 and
the following result is obtained:
dε
(Cmαt )stick fixed = - VH η CLαt (1- ) (2.50)
dα
Remarks:
i) Cmαt is negative. To illustrate this, consider typical values as: η = 0.9,
VH = 0.5, CLαt = 4.0 per radian and dε/dα = 0.4. Then,
Cmαt = -0.5 x 0.9 x 4 x (1-0.4) = - 1.08/radian.
ii) VH depends on (St/S) and (lt/ c ). Hence, the contribution of tail to stability
(Cmαt) can be increased in magnitude by increasing (St/S) or (lt/ c ) i.e. by
increasing the area of the horizontal tail or by shifting the tail backwards.
iii) Cm0 is the value of Cmcg when α is zero. It (Cm0) is the sum of terms like
Cmow,Cmot etc. This value (Cm0) can be adjusted by changing Cm0t. In this context
we observe from Eq.(2.49) that:
Cm0t = - VH η CLαt (it - ε0 )
This suggests that by choosing a suitable value of it , the value of Cmo can be
adjusted. This would permit trim, with zero elevator deflection, at a chosen value
of lift coefficient (see Fig.2.6 and example 2.5). The chosen value of CL for this
purpose is invariably the value of CL during cruise. This serves as criterion for
selecting tail setting.
iv) In the beginning of this section a reason for examination of the stick-fixed
stability was given by considering the case of general aviation airplane. However,
the analysis of stick-fixed stability is carried out for all airplanes and the level of
(Cmαt)stick-fixed decides the elevator deflection required in steady flight and in
manoeuvres (see subsections 2.12.3 and 4.2).

Fuselage and nacelle are classified as bodies. The steps for estimating the
contributions of a body to Cmcg and Cmα are based on the descriptions in
chapter 2 , of Ref.1.1, chapter 5 of Ref.1.7 and chapter 3 of Ref.1.12. In this
approach, the contribution of the body to Cmα is estimated based on the slender
body theory and subsequently applying corrections for the effects of (a) finite
fineness ratio, (b) non-circular cross section, (c) fuselage camber and (d)
downwash due to wing.
The potential flow past and an axisymmetric slender body was studied by
Munk in 1924 (see Ref.1.1, chapter 2 for bibliographic details). He showed that a
body at an angle of attack has a pressure distribution as shown in Fig.2.18 and
produces no net force, but a moment. He showed that the rate of change of
moment with angle of attack α, in radians, is given by:
dM 1
= 2q× volume of body ; q = ρV 2
dα 2
Alternatively when α is in degrees,
dM Volume of body × q
= (2.51)
dα 28.7
Fig.2.18 Streamlines and potential flow pressure distribution on an axisymmetric

body; the negative and positive signs indicate respectively that the local pressure
is lower or higher than the free stream pressure

Remark:
In a viscous flow, the pressure distribution about the body changes and it
experiences lift and drag.
Generally the fuselage has a finite length. For such a fuselage Multhopp in
1942 (see Ref.1.1, chapter 2 for bibliographic details) suggested the following
correction to Eq.(2.51).
dM (k 2 -k1 )
= q x volume of body (2.52)
dα 28.7
Where, (k2-k1) is a factor which depends on the fineness ratio (lf /de) of the body;
lf is the length of the body and de is the equivalent diameter defined as:
(π/4)de2 = max. cross sectional area of fuselage.
Figure 2.19 presents variation of (k2-k1) with fineness ratio
Fig.2.19 Correction to moment contribution of fuselage for fineness ratio

(Adapted from Ref.2.2, section 4.2.1.1)
2.5.3 Correction to moment contribution of fuselage for non-circular cross

section
For a fuselage of non-circular cross-section, Eq.(2.52) is modified as:
lf lf
dM (k 2 -k1)q π 2 (k -k )q 2 dx
dα
=
28.7  w dx = 2 1
4 f 36.5  wf (2.53)
0 0

where, wf is the local width of the fuselage.

Hence, the contribution of fuselage to Cmα can be expressed as :
dM
Cmαf = dα (2.54)
1 2
ρV Sc
2
2.5.4 Correction to moment contribution due to fuselage for fuselage
camber and downwash due to wing
In an airplane, the flow past a fuselage is affected by the upwash-downwash
field of the wing (Fig.2.12). Further, the midpoints of the fuselage cross sections
may not lie in a straight line. In such a case the fuselage is said to have a camber
(Fig.2.20). A fuselage with camber would produce a pitching moment coefficient
(Cmof) even when FRL is at zero angle of attack.
Fig.2.20 Fuselage with camber
For a fuselage with camber, Cmcgf is expressed as:
Cmcgf = Cm0f + Cmαf α (2.55)
with
lf
k 2 -k1
Cm0f =
36.5Sc
w x=0
2
f (α0Lf +if )Δx and (2.56)

lf
k 2 -k1 dε
Cmαf =
36.5Sc
w x=0
2
f
dα
Δx (2.57)
where, (a) wf is the average width over a length Δx of fuselage (Fig.2.21) (b) if is
the incidence angle of fuselage camber line with respect to FRL. It is taken
negative when there is nosedrop or aft upsweep (Fig.2.20). (c ) α0Lf is the zero lift
angle of wing relative to FRL i.e. α0Lf = α0Lw + iw and (d) dε/dα is the derivative
with α of the local value of upwash / downwash along the fuselage.
Fig.2.21 Division of fuselage for calculation of Cm0f
Though dε/dα along the fuselage can be calculated from an approach like the
lifting line theory, the following emprical procedure is generally regarded
adequate for evaluating Cmαf .
a) The fuselage is divided into segments as shown in Fig.(2.22).
b) The local value of, dε/dα ahead of the wing is denoted by dεu /dα . It is
estimated from Fig.(2.23). For the segment immediately ahead of the wing
(section 5 in Fig.2.22) the value of dεu /dα varies rapidly and is estimated from
the curve ‘b’ in Fig.2.23 (see example 2.4). For other segments ahead of wing,
the curve ‘a’ in the same figure is used to estimate dεu /dα.
(c) For the portion of the fuselage covered by the wing root (length ‘c’ indicated in
Fig.2.22) dε/dα is taken as zero. Actually, the contribution of this portion is taken
to be zero as, this portion is accounted for under the wing area.

Fig.2.22 Division of fuselage for calculation of Cmαf
Fig.2.23 Upwash field ahead of wing


(d) For the portion of the fuselage behind the wing (segments 6 to 11 in
Fig.2.22), dε/dα is assumed to vary linearly from 0 to {1- (dε/dα)tail} where
(dε/dα)tail is the value of (dε/dα) at a.c. of tail.
dε x dε
Hence, = i [1- ( ) ] (2.58)
dα lt dα tail
The procedure is illustrated in example 2.4 for a low speed airplane and in
Appendix ‘C’ for a jet airplane
Remarks:
i) In Ref.2.2, the quantity dε/dα of Eq.(2.57) is written as (1+ dε/dα ) and values
of dε/dα therein are accordingly lower by one as compared to those in Fig. 2.23
ii) The values in Fig.2.23 are for a CLαWB of 0.0785/deg. CLαWB is the slope of lift
curve of the wing-body combination which is roughly equal to CLαW when the
aspect ratio of the wing is greater than five. For other values of CLαW multiply the
values of dε/dα by a factor of (CLαW /0.0785). Note that CLαW is in deg-1. See
also example 2.4.
The contribution of nacelle to Cmα can be calculated in a manner similar to that for
the fuselage. Generally it is neglected.

Chapter 2
Lecture 8
Topics

2.6.1 Direct contributions of powerplant to Cmcg and Cmα
2.6.2 Indirect contributions of powerplant to Cmcg and Cmα
2.7 General remarks – slope of lift curve (CLα) and angle of zero lift (α0L) of
airplane
2.7.1 Slope of lift curve (CLα) of the airplane
2.7.2 Angle of zero lift of the airplane
2.10 Static margin
2.11 Neutral point as aerodynamic centre of entire airplane

The contributions of power plant to Cmcg and Cmα have two aspects namely direct
contribution and indirect contribution.
2.6.1 Direct contribution of power plant to Cmcg and Cmα
The direct contribution appears when the direction of the thrust vector does not
coincide with the line passing through the c.g.(Fig.2.24). The direct contribution is
written as :
Mcgp = T x Zp (2.59)
where, T is the thrust and Zp is the perpendicular distance of thrust line from
FRL; positive when c.g. is above thrust line.
In non-dimensional form Eq.(2.59) is expressed as:

Cmcgp = Mcgp/(½ ρV2S c ) (2.60)
Fig.2.24 Contribution of thrust to Cmcg

The thrust required varies with flight speed and altitude. Hence, Cmcgp
would vary with flight condition. However, the thrust setting does not change
during the disturbance and hence, there is no contribution to Cmα. This fact is
also mentioned in Ref.1.9. p.506.
The contribution to Cmα comes from another cause. Consider a propeller
at an angle of attack as shown in Fig.2.25. The free stream velocity (V) is at an
angle (α)to the propeller axis. As the air stream passes through the propeller it
leaves in a nearly axial direction. This change of direction results in a normal
force (Np) in addition to the thrust (T).
Fig.2.25 Propeller at angle of attack

Fig.2.26 Contribution to Cmα from normal force due to propeller
Np acts at distance lp from the c.g. (Fig.2.26) and hence, produces a

moment Np x lp. The value of Np depends on the angle of attack of the propeller
and hence the term Np x lp depends on α. This will contribute to Cmα. Cmα due to
normal force depends on many factors like thrust setting, number of blades in the
propeller and advance ratio.
Remarks:
i) It is evident from Fig.2.26 that when the propeller is ahead of c.g., the
contribution to Cmα due to normal force would be positive or destabilizing. In a
pusher airplane, where the propeller is near the rear end of the airplane, the
contribution of normal force to Cmα will be negative and hence stabilizing.
ii) In the case of a jet engine at an angle of attack, the air stream enters the
intake at that angle and its direction has to change as the stream passes through
the engine. This change of direction will also produce a normal force N p and
consequently contribute to Cmα.
2.6.2 Indirect contributions of power plant to Cmcg and Cmα
The effect of propeller on the horizontal tail has been discussed in section
2.4.3. In the case of an airplane with a jet engine, the exhaust expands in size as
it moves downwards and entrains the surrounding air. This would induce an
angle to the flow; the induced angle would be positive in the region below the jet

and negative in the region above the jet. In military airplanes where the engine is
located in rear fuselage the engine exhaust would affect the horizontal tail,
generally located above the rear fuselage, by inducing a downwash in addition
to that due to wing. This effect will also come into picture in case of passenger
airplanes with rear mounted engines. To alleviate this, the horizontal tail is
mounted above the vertical tail (see configurations of Boeing MD-87 and Gulf
stream V in Ref.2.3).
Remarks:
i) The contribution of engine depends also on the engine power setting which in
turn depends on flight condition or CL. Hence, the level of stability (Cmα) will
depend on CL and also will be different when engine is off or on.
ii) It is difficult to accurately estimate the effects of power on Cmα. A rough
estimate would be (Ref.1.7, chapter 5) :
(dCm / dCL)p = 0.04 or Cmαp = 0.04CLα (2.60a)
2.7 General Remarks:

2.7.1 Slope of lift curve (CLα) and angle of zero lift (α0L) of the airplane:
Let, L denote lift of airplane. Then, L = Lwb+Lt .
For airplanes with large aspect ratio wings (A>5), the lift of the wing body
combination is approximately equal to lift produced by the gross wing i.e.. L wb≈ Lw
Noting that Lt = ½ρVt2 St CLαt (α – ε + it) and Lw = ½ ρV2SCLw; the slope of the lift
curve of the airplane (CLα) can be written as :
CLα = CLαw + η (St/S)CLαt {1-(dε/dα)} (2.60b)
Reference 1.8 b gives expressions for corrections to obtain CLαwb from CLαw (see
also Appendix C section 5 ).
2.7.2 Angle of zero lift (α0L) for airplane:
Assuming that the wing is set such that during cruise the angle of attack of
the airplane (αcr ) is zero, the lift coefficient during cruise (CLcr) can be written as :
CLcr = CLα (αcr - α0L) = CLα (0 - α0L)
Hence, α0L = - CLcr / CLα (2.60c)

The important result of the last few sections can be recapitulated as follows.
Cmcg = (Cmcg )w + (Cmcg )f + (Cmcg )n + (Cmcg )p + (Cmcg )ht (2.12)
Cmα = (Cmα )w +(Cmα )f +(Cmα )n +(Cmα )p +(Cmα )ht (2.13)
The wing Contribution is:

xcg xac
Cmcgw = Cmacw + CLw ( - ) (2.17)
c c
CLw = CLαw (α + iw - α0Lw )
(2.18)
= CL0w + CLαw α ; CL0w = CLαw (iw - α0Lw )
xcg xac x x
Cmcgw = Cmacw +CL0w ( - )+CLαw α( cg - ac ) (2.19)
c c c c
xcg xac
Cm0w = Cmacw + CL0w ( - ) (2.19a)
c c
xcg xac
(Cmα )w = CLαw ( - ) (2.20)
c c
The tail Contribution is:
Cmcgt = - VH η CLt (2.37)
CLt = CLαt αt + CLδe δe + CLδt δt (2.38)
αt = α - ε + it = αw - iw - ε + it (2.39)
dε dε
ε = ε0 + α; ε 0 = (iw - α0Lw ) (2.41)
dα dα
 dε 
CLt = CLαt it - ε 0 + α(1- ) + CLδe δe + CLδt δt (2.46)
 dα 
dε
Cmcgt = -VH η CLαt {it - ε 0 + α (1- ) +  δe +  tabδt } (2.47)
dα
CLδe CLδ
 = ;  tab = t
CLαt CLα
t
dε
(Cmαt )stick-fixed = -VH η CLαt (1- ) (2.50)
dα
The contributions of fuselage, nacelle and power are expressed together as:

(Cm )f,n,p = (Cm0 )f,n,p + (Cmα )f,n,p α (2.61)
Substituting various expressions in Eqs.(2.12) and (2.13) gives:

Cmcg = Cm0 + Cmα α + Cmδe δe (2.62)
xcg xac
Cm0 = Cmacw + CL0W ( - ) + (Cm0 )f,n,p -VH η CLαt {it - ε 0 + tab δt } (2.63)
c c
Cmδe = -VH η CLαt  (2.64)
xcg xac dε
(Cmα )stick fixed = CLαw ( - )+(Cmα )f,n,p - VH η CLαt (1- ) (2.65)
c c dα
Typical contributions of the individual components and their sum, namely C mcg for
a low subsonic airplane are shown in Fig.2.27. The details of the calculations are
given in example 2.4.
Fig.2.27 Cmcg vs α for a low subsonic airplane
Following observations can be made in this case.

(a)Cmow has an appreciable negative value.

 x cg x ac 
(b)Cmαw depends on the product of CLαw and  -  . In the case considered
 c c 
in example 2.4, the c.g. is at 0.295 c and the a.c. is at 0.25 c . Since, c.g. is aft of
the aerodynamic centre, the contribution of wing is destabilizing (Fig.2.27).
(c ) Cmof has small negative value and Cmαf has small positive value, indicating a
slight destabilizing contribution from fuselage (Fig.2.27).
(d) Cmot is positive and Cmαt has a large negative value (Fig.2.27).
(e) The line corresponding to the sum of all the contribution ( wing+ fuselage+
power+tail) is the Cmcg vs α curve for the whole airplane. The contribution of
nacelle is ignored. It is seen that the large negative contribution of tail renders
Cmα negative and the airplane is stable.
It may be pointed out that the c.g. of the airplane moves during flight due
to consumption of fuel. Further, the contribution of wing to Cmα depends
xcg xac
sensitively on the location of the c.g. as it is proportional to ( - ) . When
c c
the c.g. moves aft, xcg increases and the wing contribution becomes more and
more positive. There is a c.g. location at which (Cmα)stick-fixed becomes zero. This
location of c.g. is called the stick-fixed neutral point. In this case, the airplane is
neutrally stable. Following Ref.1.1 this location of the c.g. is denoted as xNP. If the
c.g. moves further aft, the airplane will become unstable. The Cm vs. α curves for
the statically stable, neutrally stable and unstable cases are schematically shown
in Fig.2.28.

Fig.2.28 Changes in static stability with movement of c.g. (Schematic)
An expression for xNP can be obtained by putting Cmα = 0 and xcg = xNP, in
Eq.(2.65) i.e.
xNP xac dε
0 = CLαw ( - ) + (Cmα )f,n,p - VH η CLαt (1- ) (2.66)
c c dα
xNP xac 1 dε
Hence, = - {(Cmα )f,n,p - VH η CLαt (1- )} (2.67)
c c CLαw dα
Example 2.4 illustrates the steps involved in arriving at the neutral point.
The contribution of power is generally destabilizing and hence, the
airplane will be more stable when engine is off. In other words, xNP power off is
behind xNP power on.
2.10 Static margin
xNP
Noting the definition of from Eq.(2.67), the Eq.(2.65) can be rewritten as :
c
xcg xNP
(Cmα )stick-fixed = CLαw ( - ) (2.68)
c c

xcg xNP
Thus, (Cmα)stick-fixed is proportional to ( - ) and a term called static margin
c c
is defined as:
xNP xcg
Static margin = ( - ) (2.69)
c c
Consequently, (Cmα)stick-fixed = -CLαw x (static margin) (2.70)
 dCm 
and   = -(static margin)
 dCL stick-fixed
1
= (Cmα )stick-fixed (2.71)
CLα
It may be noted that static margin, by definition, is positive for a stable airplane.
2.11 Neutral point as the aerodynamic centre of entire airplane
To explain the above concept, the derivation of the expression for neutral
point in the Ref.1.10. chapter 2 is briefly described. The wing contribution (Cmcgw)
is expressed as:
xcg xac
Cmcgw = Cmacw +αw CLαw ( - )
c c
The contributions of fuselage and nacelle are accounted for by treating them as
changes in the following quantities: (a) pitching moment coefficient is changed
from Cmacw to Cmacwb , (b) the angle of attack is changed from αw to αwb , (c) the
slope of the lift curve is changed from CLαw to CLαwb and (d) aerodynamic centre
is change from xac to xacwb . The suffix ‘wb’ indicates combined effects of wing
body and nacelle. Consequently,
xcg xacwb
Cmcgwb = Cmacwb +αwb CLαwb ( - )
c c
The contribution of power is expressed as Cmcgp.
The contribution of the horizontal tail is expressed as :
Cmcgt = - V H CLt ; note η = 1.0 (assumed)
St lt
Where, V H =
S c
l t = distance between the aerodynamic centre of the wing-body-nacelle

combination (xacwb) and the aerodynamic centre of the horizontal tail.
It is assumed that the CL and CLα of the airplane are approximately equal to CLwb
and CLαwb respectively. The expression for Cmcg can now be written as:
xcg xacwb
Cmcg = Cmacwb +CL ( - ) - V H CLt +Cmcgp (2.62a)
c c
xcg xacwb
or Cmα = CLα ( - )- V H CLαt +Cmαp (2.65a)
c c
The neutral point, xNP , is given by:
xNP xacwb 1
= - (Cmαp - V H CLαt ) (2.67a)
c c CLα
xcg xNP
or Cmα = CLα ( - ) = - CLα  (static margin) (2.70a)
c c
It may be recalled that the aerodynamic centre of an aerofoil is the point about
which the pitching moment is constant with angle of attack. Similarly, the
aerodynamic centre of the wing (xac), by definition, is the point about which Cmacw
is constant with angle of attack. With this background, the quantity xacwb can be
called as the aerodynamic centre of the wing - body - nacelle combination.
Further, when the c.g. is at neutral point, Cmα is zero or Cmg is constant with α.
This may be the reason Ref.1.10, chapter 2 refers the neutral point as the
aerodynamic centre of the entire airplane.
Remark:
There are some differences in the expressions on the right hand sides of
Eq.(2.67) and (2.67a) and Eq.(2.70) and (2.70a). These differences are due to
slight difference in treatment of the contributions of individual components. The
differences in Eq.(2.70) and (2.70a) can be reconciled by noting that for airplanes
with large aspect ratio wings , CLα ≈ CLαw . Reference 1.12, chapter 3 also
mentions of this approximation to CLα . It may be recalled that expression for
slope of lift curve of the airplane is obtained in subsection 2.7.1.
Reference 1.8b also expresses
dCm
Cmα = ( )CLα
dCL

where, CLα is the slope of the lift curve of the airplane and
dCm xcg x ac
= -
dCL c c
where, xac is the location of neutral point. Thereby treating neutral point as the
aerodynamic centre of the airplane (see Appendix C section 5.3).

Chapter 2
Lecture 9
Topics
Example 2.4
Example 2.4
Reference 2.4 describes the stability and control data for ten airplanes.
This includes a general aviation airplane called “Navion”. It seems an appropriate
case to illustrate the static stability, dynamic stability and response of an airplane
without the complications of compressibility effects. This airplane is dealt with in
this chapter and also in chapters 8,9 and 10. The three-view drawing of the
airplane is shown in Fig.2.29. The geometrical and aerodynamic data and the
flight condition are given below. Some additional data given in Ref.1.1, chapter 2
are also included therein. Remaining data are deduced by measuring dimensions
from the three-view drawing. Though references 1.1 and 2.4 use FPS units, data
are converted to SI units for the sake of uniformity.
Fig.2.29 Three views of a general aviation airplane

(Adapted from Ref.2.4, section 10)

Wing:
Area (S) = 17.09 m2, Span (b) = 10.18 m,
Root chord (cr) = 2.16 m, Tip chord (ct) = 1.21 m,
Taper ratio (λ) = 0.56, Aspect ratio (Aw) = 6.06,
Mean aerodynamic chord ( c ) = 1.737 m,
iw = 10 (Ref.1.1, chapter 2):
Characteristics of airfoil used on wing (deduced from Ref.1.1, chapter 2):
Cmac = -0.116, Clαw = 0.097 deg-1 = 5.56 rad-1, αolw = - 60,
a.c. location = 0.25 c .
Fuselage:
Length (lf) = 8.23 m,
Width of fuselage at maximum cross section = 1.4 m,
Height of fuselage at maximum cross section = 1.6 m,
The widths at different locations along the length of fuselage are shown in
Tables E 2.4.1 & E 2.4.2.
Horizontal tail:
Area (St) = 4.73 m2, Span (bt) = 4.01 m,
Root chord (crt) = 1.54 m, Tip chord (crt) = 0.82 m.
Aspect ratio of tail (At)= 3.4,
Distance between quarter chord of the mean aerodynamic chords of wing and
tail = 4.63 m, Distance lh as shown in Fig.2.22 is 3.17 m.
Characteristics of the airfoil used on tail (deduced from Ref.1.1, chapter 2):
Cmac = 0, Clαt = 0.1 deg-1= 5.73 rad-1, it = -10.
Flight condition:
Weight = 12232.6 N.
Altitude : sea level, ρ = 1.225 kg/m3, speed of sound = 340.29 m/s.
flight velocity = 53.64 m/s ; Mach no. (M) = 0.158.
W 12232.6
Lift coefficient = CL = = = 0.406;
1 2
ρV S 0.5×1.225×53.642 ×17.09
2
Ref.2.4 gives :
CL = 0.41 , c.g. location: 0.295 c .

(CLα)airplane = 4.44 , (Cmα) airplane = -0.683.
Obtain : (i) Contributions of wing, horizontal tail, fuselage and power plant to the
moment about c.g. (ii) Cmα of the airplane (iii) location of the neutral point and
(iv) static margin.
Solution:
i) Slopes of lift curve for wing, tail and airplane
From Ref.1.8b, the slope of lift curve for unswept wing at low subsonic Mach
number is given by :
2πA Clα
CLα = ;K =
A2 2π
2+ +4
K2
where, Clα is the lift curve slope of the airfoil.
For wing:
2π×6.06
CLαw = = 4.17rad-1
2
6.06
2+ +4
(5.56/6.28)2
For horizontal tail:
2π×3.4
CLαt = = 3.43rad-1
2
3.4
2+ +4
(5.73/6.28)2
The slope of lift curve of the airplane (CLα) is obtained using Eq.(2.60b):
St dε
CLα = CLαw + η CLαt (1- )
S dα
η = 0.9 is assumed.
dε/dα is estimated by the approximate method i.e.
dε 2CLαw 2×4.17
= = = 0.438
dα πA w 3.14×6.06
Hence,
4.73
CLα = 4.17+0.9×  3.43(1-0.438) = 4.65rad-1
17.09
This estimated value of CLα is only 4.7%higher than the actual values of
4.44 rad-1 given in Ref.2.4. Thus, the values of CLαw, CLαt, dε/dα and η are
considered to be reasonably accurate (see also Appendix C).

II) Wing contribution:
Following the simplified approach, the wing contributions to Cm0 and Cmα are
obtained from Eqs.(2.19) and (2.20):
x cg x ac
Cm0w = Cmacw + CL0w ( - )
c c
x cg x ac
Cmαw = CLαw ( - )
c c
{1-(-6)}
CLow = CLαw (iw - α0Lw ) = 4.17 = 0.51
57.3
x x 
Cmow = Cmacw + CLow  cg - ac  = - 0.116 + 0.51(0.295 - 0.25) = - 0.093
 c c 
 x cg x ac  -1
Cmαw = CLαw  -  = 4.17 (0.295-0.25) = 0.1887 rad
 c c 
Remark:
For this particular airplane and for the given configuration, the wing contribution
to Cmα is positive or destabilizing (Note: c.g. is behind a.c.).
III) Horizontal tail contribution:
The tail contributions to Cm0 and Cmα are obtained from the following equations:
Cm0t = η VH CLαt (it - ε 0 )
dε
(Cmαt )stick-fixed = - η VH CLαt (1- )
dα
The tail volume ratio is given by:
St lt 4.73 4.63
VH = = × = 0.738
S c 17.09 1.737
As estimated earlier : dε/dα = 0.438
dε
ε0 = (iw - α0lw ) = 0.438 {1-(- 6)} = 3.070
dα
dε
Cmαt = - VH ηCLαt (1- ) = 0.738×0.9×3.43×(1-0.438) = -1.28 rad-1
dα
-1- 3.07
Cm0t = - VH ηCLt (it - ε 0 ) = -0.738×0.9×3.43( ) = 0.162
57.3

IV) Fuselage contribution:
The contributions of fuselage to Cm0 and Cmα are obtained using the
method explained in section 2.5.3 and 2.5.4. To obtain Cmof we divide the
fuselage into nine equal divisions as shown in Fig. 2.30.
Fig.2.30 Subdivisions of fuselage for calculating Cmof
Table E 2.4.1 presents Δx and wf at various stations along the fuselage. The
quantity α0Lf is iw + α0Lw which equals 1-6 = -50. As the fuselage has no camber if
is taken as zero. Hence, α0Lf + if equals -50 .The quantity wf2(αoLf + if)Δx is given
in the last column of the table E 2.4.1. The sum  w 2f (α0Lf + if )Δx is - 47.155.
Station Δx (m) wf (m) α0Lf + if wf2(α0Lf + if) Δx

1 0.914634 1.097561 -5 -5.497689383
2 0.914634 1.402439 -5 -8.983337807
3 0.914634 1.402439 -5 -8.983337807
4 0.914634 1.402439 -5 -8.983337807
5 0.914634 1.25 -5 -7.141328478
6 0.914634 0.945122 -5 -4.08075913
7 0.914634 0.70122 -5 -2.2387498
8 0.914634 0.457317 -5 -0.963512572
9 0.914634 0.243902 -5 -0.283386051
if = 0 at every station Sum= -47.15543884
Table E 2.4.1 Estimation of Cm0f

To obtain the term (k2-k1) from Fig.2.19, requires the fineness ratio of the
fuselage which is obtained below.
The area of the maximum fuselage cross section (Afmax) is :
Afmax = 1.4 x 1.6 = 2.24 m2
Hence, equivalent diameter (de) is:
de = A fmax /(π/4) = 2.24/(π/4) = 1.69m
Consequently, fineness ratio = lf/de = 8.23/1.69 = 4.87. From Fig.2.19, (k2-k1)

corresponding to fineness ratio of 4.87 is 0.82. Substituting various values , Cm0f
is given as:
k 2 -k1 lf 0.82×(- 47.155)
Cm0f = 
36.5Sc x=0
w f 2 (α0Lf +if )Δx =
36.5×17.07×1.737
= -0.0357
To obtain Cmαf the fuselage is subdivided as shown in Fig. 2.31. The portion of
the fuselage ahead of the root chord is divided into four equidistant portions each
of length 0.4573 m. These subdivisions are denoted as 1, 2, 3 and 4. The portion
of fuselage aft of the root chord is divided into five equidistant sections each of
length 0.8841m and denoted as 5,6,7,8 and 9. The root chord (Fig.2.31) has
length c = 1.98 m. Thus, the total fuselage length of 8.23 m is thus divided as:
(0.4573 x 4 +1.98 + 0.8841x 5). The length lh as shown in Fig.2.22 is the
distance of the aerodynamic centre of horizontal tail behind the root chord of the
wing. It is 3.17m. The calculations of the quantities needed to obtain Cmαf are
shown in Table E2.4.2. The second column shows Δx which is the length of each
subdivision of the fuselage. The third column gives the width of the fuselage in
the middle of the subsection (see Fig.2.22). The fourth column gives the distance
x for the section 4 as defined in Fig.2.22. For rows 3, 2 and 1 of this column the
distance is xi is as defined in Fig.2.22. For rows 5 to 9 of this column the distance
xi is as shown in Fig.2.22. The fifth column shows x / c for the fourth row and
xi/ c for other rows. The sixth column is dε/dα – the upwash and downwash at the
subdivision. For row four the upwash value is based on curve „b‟ of Fig.2.23. For
rows 3, 2 and 1 the upwash value is based on curve „a‟ of Fig.2.23.

Fig.2.31 Subdivisions of fuselage for estimating Cmαf
Station Δx (m) wf (m) xi or x (xi or x)/c dε/dα* wf2(dε/dα)Δx
1 0.4573 0.914634 1.60061 0.808 1.20 0.4591

2 0.4573 1.036585 1.14329 0.577 1.34 0.6584
3 0.4573 1.158537 0.68598 0.346 1.56 0.9575
4 0.4573 1.280488 0.45731 0.231 3.20 2.4023
5 0.8841 1.158537 0.44207 0.223 0.078 0.0921
6 0.8841 0.945122 1.32622 0.667 0.2341 0.1843
7 0.8841 0.70122 2.21036 1.114 0.3910 0.1715
8 0.8841 0.457317 3.09451 1.561 0.548 0.1011
9 0.8841 0.243902 3.97865 2.008 0.7048 0.03632
c =1.98m lh =3.17m Sum = 5.061
*For CLαW = 0.0785/deg-1. See Remarks (ii) at the end of section 2.5.4
Table E2.4.2 Estimation of Cmαf

The rows 5 to 9 of this column show the downwash for the corresponding
subdivisions. As given in Fig.2.22 and by Eq.(2.58) , dε/dα at the subdivisions
behind the root chord is given by:
dε xi dε
= [1 - ( )tail ]
dα lh dα
We note that dε/dα at tail is 0.438 for this airplane. Using values of xi and lh the
values of downwash are tabulated in column 6. The last column shows values of
wf2(dε/dα)Δx. The sum , Σwf2(dε/dα)Δx is 5.061.
Since, CLαW = 4.17/rad = 0.0728/degree, the actual value of the sum is (see
Remark (ii) at the end of section 2.5.4):
5.061 x (0.0728/0.0785) = 4.694.
Finally,
k 2 -k1 lf dε 0.82×4.694×57.3
Cmαf = 
36.5Sc x=0
wf2
dα
Δx =
36.5×16.56×1.72
= 0.212 rad-1
V) Contribution of power plant:

It is difficult to estimate this contribution accurately. As mentioned in Remark (ii)
in section 2.6.2, this contribution is taken as 0.04 CLα = 0.04 x 4.65 = 0.186.
VI) Cm0 and Cmα
The contributions to Cm0 and Cmα from the wing, the horizontal tail, the fuselage
and the power plant are shown in Table E 2.4.3. The values of Cm0 and Cmα for
the entire airplane are the sums of the values for the components. These are
also shown in Table E 2.4.3.
Item Cm0 Cmα

Wing -0.093 0.1877
Fuselage -0.0357 0.212
Power - 0.186
H.tail 0.162 -1.28
Airplane 0.0333 -0.694
Table E 2.4.3 Cm0 and Cmα due to components and for the entire airplane

Figure 2.27 shows the contributions graphically. Cmcg and Cmα for the airplane
are:
Cmcg = -0.093 + 0.1877α – 0.0357 + 0.212α + 0.186α + 0.1620 – 1.28α
= 0.0333 – 0.694 α
Hence, (Cmα)stick-fixed = -0.694
It is very interesting to note that the value of Cmα given in Ref.2.4 is -0.683. Thus
the estimates of the contributions of various components to static stability can be
considered to be reasonably accurate.
VII) Neutral point location:
The neutral point is given by:
xNP xac 1 dε
= - {(Cm )f,n,p - VH η CL t (1- )}
c c CL w dα
xNP
Substituting various values, is given as:
c
xNP 1
= 0.25 - {0.212 + 0.186 - 1.28}
c 4.17
= 0.25 + 0.2115 = 0.4615
VIII) The static margin:
The static margin when c.g. is at 0.295 c is :
xNP xcg
- = 0.4615 -0.295 = 0.1665.
c c
Hence, (dCm/ dCL) = -(static margin) = -0.1665
Cmα = CLαw (dCm / dCL) = 4.17 x (-0.1665) = -0.694 as it should be.

Chapter 2
Longitudinal stick–fixed static stability and control
Lecture 10
Topics
Example 2.5
Example 2.6
2.12.1 Elevator power
2.12.2 Control effectiveness parameter (τ)
2.12.5 Limitations on forward movement of c.g. in free flight
2.12.6 Limitations on forward movement of c.g. in proximity of ground
Example 2.5
A sailplane has the following characteristics. CD = 0.02 + 0.025 CL2,
CLαw = 0.093, α0Lw = - 4, iw = 0, a.c. location = 0.24 c , St = S / 7, lt = 4 c ,
ε = 0.4α, CLαt = 0.05 and η = 0.9. All the angles are in degrees. Neglect the
contribution of fuselage. Find the c.g. location for which the equilibrium is
reached with zero lift on the tail at the lift coefficient corresponding to the best
guiding angle. Calculate the tail setting. Is the sailplane stable?
Solution:
The airplane prescribed in this exercise is a sailplane. A sailplane is a high
performance glider. There is no power plant in a glider. Further, the contribution
of fuselage is prescribed as negligible. Hence, the terms (Cmcg)f,n,p and (Cmα)f,n,p
are zero in the present case.
The given data is as follows.
CD = CD0 + KCL2 = 0.02 + 0.025 CL2

Wing: CLw = 0.093 (αw +4), CLαw = 0.093 deg-1 = 5.329rad-1, Cmac = -0.08, iw = 0,
a.c. at 0.24 c .
Tail: St = S / 7, ε = 0.4 α or dε/dα = 0.4, η = 0.9, CLαt = 0.05 deg-1 = 2.865 rad-1.
For the best gliding angle (CD/CL) should be minimum.
This happens when CL = CLmd and CLmd = CD0 / K
In the present case CLmd = 0.02 / 0.025  0.895

When the airplane is flying at CL = CLmd, the lift on tail is prescribe to be zero or
αt = 0.
Now, αt = αw - iw – ε + it,
At CL = CLmd, αw = (0.895/ 0.093) - 4 = 5.620, ε = 0.4 α = 0.4 (αw - iw)
At CL = CLmd, ε = 0.4 (5.62 - 0) = 2.250
Since, αt is zero at CL = CLmd, gives the following result.
0 = 5.62 - 2.25 + it
or it = - 3.370
To examine static stability, the quantity (Cmα)stick-fix is calculated. It is noted that:
Cmcg = Cm0 + Cmα α
x cg x ac
Cmcg = Cmac + CLw ( - )+(Cmcg )f,n,p + Cmcgt
c c
x x dε
(Cmα )stick-fix = CLαw ( cg - ac )+(Cmα )f,n,p -η VH CLαt (1- )
c c dα
x cg x ac
To evaluate the expression for Cmα the quantity ( - ) is needed. This can be
c c
obtained using the following steps.
When the airplane is flying at CL = CLmd, the contributions of tail, fuselage,
nacelle and power are zero. Hence, the expression for Cmcg reduces to
xcg xac
Cmcg = CLw ( - ) + Cmac
c c
For equilibrium Cmcg must be zero at CLmd i.e. :

x cg x ac
0 = 0.895( - ) - 0.08
c c
x cg x ac 0.08
- = = 0.089
c c 0.895
x
or cg = 24+ 0.089 = 0.329
c
St lt 4
Further, VH = =
S c 7
4
Finally, Cmα = 5.329(0.329 -0.24)-0.9× ×2.865×(1-0.4)
7
= 0.47428 -0.88406 = -0.4098 rad-1
Cmα is negative and hence the sailplane is stable.
Example 2.6
The contribution of wing fuselage combination to the moment about the
c.g. of an airplane is given below.
CL 0.28 0.488 0.696 0.9

(Cmcg)w,f - 0.0216 - 0.006 0.0064 0.0156
(i) If the wing loading is 850 N/m2, find the flight velocity at sea level when the
airplane is in trim with zero lift on the tail. (ii) Investigate the stability of the
airplane with the following additional data: CLαw = 0.08 deg-1, CLαt = 0.072 deg-1,
dε/dα = 0.45 , lt = 2.9 c , St = S/7, η=1.0. Assume the contributions of power to
Cmcg and Cm to be negligible.
Solution:
i) To answer the first part, the value of CL at which the airplane is in trim with zero
lift on tail needs to be obtained. In this case:
Cmcg = (Cmcg)w,f = 0
The prescribed variation of (Cmcg)w,f with CL is slightly non-linear. Hence, the
given data are plotted and the value of CL at which (Cmcg)w,f is zero is obtained
from the plot. The plot is shown in Fig. E2.6. When (Cm)w,f is zero, CL equals
0.585 .

In level flight: L = W = ½ ρV2SCL
or V = 2W/SCL
Substituting various values, the desired velocity is:

2×850
V= = 48.7ms-1
1.225×0.585
ii) To examine the static stability Cmα needs to be calculated.
(Cmcg)w,f
0.02
0.015
0.01
0.005
0 CL
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
-0.005
-0.01
-0.015
-0.02
-0.025
Fig.E2.6 (Cmcg)w,f vs CL
dCm dε
Cmα = CLαw ( )w,f - VH η CLαt (1- )
dCL dα
1
CLαw = 0.08,CLαt = 0.072, VH = ×2.9 = 0.414
7
dε
= 0.45
dα
From graph in Fig.E2.6 at CL = 0.585 we obtain, the slope of the curve as:

(dCm /dCL )w,f = 0.0615
Hence, Cmα = 0.08 × 57.3 × 0.0615 - 0.414 × 1 × 0.072 × 57.3 × (1 - 0.45)
= 0.2819 - 0.9394 = - 0.6575 rad-1
Since, Cmα is negative the airplane is stable.
An airplane is said to be trimmed at a given flight speed and altitude, when
the moments are made zero by suitable deflection of control surfaces. For the
longitudinal motion, the trim or Cmcg = 0 is achieved by suitable deflection of
elevator. The convention regarding the elevator deflection is that a downward
deflection of elevator is taken as positive (Fig.2.16b). For the conventional tail
configuration, this deflection increases lift on tail and produces a negative
moment about c.g..
Let ΔCL and ΔCmcg be the incremental lift and pitching moment due to the
elevator deflection i.e.
CL
ΔCL = ΔCLt = CLδe δe ; CLδe = (2.72)
δe
Cmcg
ΔCmcg = ΔCmcgt = Cmδe ×δe ; Cmδe = (2.73)
δe
Hence, when the elevator is deflected, the lift coefficient (CL) and moment
coefficient about c.g. (Cmcg) for the airplane are :
CL = CLα (α-α0L ) + CLδe δe (2.74)
Cmcg = Cm0 + Cmα α + Cmδe δe (2.75)
Where CL, CLα and α0L refer respectively to the lift coefficient, slope of the lift
curve and zero lift angle of the airplane.
Note: In this section Cmα will mean (Cmα)stick-fixed .
2.12.1 Elevator power (Cmδe)
The quantity Cmδe is called elevator power. An expression for it has been
hinted in Eq.(2.64). It can be derived as follows.
Let, ΔLδe be the change in the airplane lift due to elevator deflection which is also
the change in the lift of the horizontal tail i.e.

1
ΔLδe = (ΔL t )δe = ρ Vt2 St (ΔCLt ) δe
2
ΔLδe S S CLt
ΔCLδe = = η t (ΔCLt )δe = η t δe (2.76)
1 2
ρV S S S δ e
2
CL S CLt
Hence, =CLδe = η t (2.77)
δe S δe
1 2
ΔMδe = ΔL δelt = ρVt S t (ΔCLt )δelt
2
1 2
ρVt
ΔMδe 2 S t lt
ΔCmδe = = (ΔCLt )δe
1 2 1 2 S c
ρV Sc ρV
2 2
C
Or ΔCmδe = -VH η (ΔCLt )δe = -VH η Lt δ e
δe
Cm CLt
Hence, = Cmδe = - VH η = - VH η CLαt ;  = CLδe /CLαt (2.78)
δe δe
2.12.2 Control effectiveness parameter ()

The quantity ‘’ is called elevator effectiveness parameter. The value of 
depends on the geometrical parameters of the tail and the elevator. However, it
mainly depends on (Se / St) where Se is the area of the elevator. References
1.12 and 2.2 give a detailed procedure for estimating it. However, Fig.2.32 can
be used for an initial estimate.

Fig.2.32 Control effectiveness parameter

(Reproduced from Refs.1.1, chapter 2 with permission from
McGraw-Hill book company)

The following steps are followed to get the elevator angle for trim (δetrim).
From Eq. (2.75)
Cmcg = Cm0 +Cmα α+Cmδe δe
For trim Cmcg = 0.

Hence,
0 = Cm0 + Cmα αtrim + Cmδe δtrim
-1
Or δtrim = [Cm0 + Cmα αtrim ] (2.79)
Cmδe
From Eq.(2.74)
CLtrim = CLα (αtrim - α0L ) + CLδe δtrim (2.80)
1
Or αtrim = {CLtrim - CLδe δtrim + CLα α0L }
CLα
Hence,
-1 C
δtrim = [Cm0 + mα {CLtrim - CLδe δtrim + CLα α0L }] (2.81)
Cmδe CLα
[Cm0 CLα + Cmα (CLtrim +CLαα0L ) - Cmα CLδe δtrim ]
Or Cmδe δtrim = -
CLα

[CLα (Cm0 + Cmα α0L ) + Cmα CLtrim ]
Simplifying, δtrim = - (2.82)
[Cmδe CLα - Cmα CLδe ]
Differentiating with CL ,
dδtrim Cmα
=- (2.83)
dCLtrim [Cmδe CLα -Cmα CLδe ]
Following may be noted.

(i) The quantities Cmδe , CLα and CLδe depend on the airplane geometry. Further,
for a given c.g. location, Cmα is also known and hence the term (dδetrim/dCLtrim) in
Eq.(2.83) is a constant. Hence, in the simplified analysis being followed here, it is
observed that for a given c.g. location δtrim is a linear function of CL. Further the
term Cmα CLδe is much smaller than Cmδe CLα . Consequently, δtrim as a function
of CL can be written as:

1 dCm
δtrim = δeoCL - ( )stick-fixed CL (2.84)
Cmδe dCL
where,
CLα (Cm0 + Cmα α0L )
δe0CL = -
[Cmδe CLα -Cmα CLδe ]
Similarly, using Eq.(2.79), δtrim as a function of αtrim can be expressed as:

Cm0 Cmα
δtrim = - - αtrim (2.85)
Cmδe Cmδe
Typical curves for the variations of δtrim with CL are shown in Fig.2.33 for different
locations of c.g.. From Eq.(2.85) it is seen that at CL = 0 the value of δtrim is
positive as Cm0 is positive and Cmδe is negative. For a stable airplane
(dCm/dCL)stick-fixed is negative and hence the slope of δtrim vrs CL curve is
negative.

Fig.2.33 Elevator angle for trim
(ii) In light of the above analysis, consider a case when the airplane is trimmed at
a chosen CL by setting the elevator at corresponding δtrim. Now, if the pilot wishes
to fly at a lower speed which implies higher CL, he would need to apply more
negative elevator deflection or the incremental lift on the tail ( L t ) would be
negative. This is what is implied when in section 2.4.1 it is mentioned that “… for
achieving equilibrium with conventional tail configuration, the lift on the tail is
generally in the downward direction“. An alternate explanation is as follows.
When the pilot wishes to increase the angle of attack by  , a statically stable
airplane produces a moment - ΔMcg .To counterbalance this moment, the elevator
must produce  ΔMcg . This requires  L t and inturn   e .
(iii) Military airplanes which are highly maneuverable, sometimes have the
following features.

(a) An all movable tail in which the entire horizontal tail is rotated to achieve
higher ΔMcg . (b) Relaxed static stability wherein Cmα may have a small positive
value. Such airplanes need automatic control (section 10.3). See section 6.1 of
Ref.1.13 for further details.
In light of the above discussion the advantages and disadvantages of the
canard configuration can now be appreciated.
Advantages:
(a) The flow past canard is relatively free from wing or engine interference.
(b) For an airplane with Cmα < 0, the lift on the horizontal stabilizer located behind
the wing (i.e. conventional configuration) is negative when the angle of attack
increases. Thus, for a conventional tail configuration, the wing is required to
produce lift which is more than the weight of the airplane. If the surface for
control of pitch, is ahead of the wing (canard), the lift on such horizontal control
surface is positive and the lift produced by the wing equals the weight of the
airplane minus the lift on canard. Thus, the wing size can be smaller in a canard
configuration.
Disadvantages:
(a) The contribution of the canard to Cmα is positive i.e. destabilizing.
(b) As the wing, in this case, is located relatively aft, the c.g. of the airplane
moves aft and consequently the moment arm for the vertical tail is small.
Topics for self study:
1. From Ref.2.3 study the airplanes with canard and obtain rough estimates
of (St / S) and (lt / c). Two examples of airplanes where canard is used are
SAAB Viggen and X-29A.
2.12.5 Limitations on forward moment of c.g. in free flight
As the c.g. moves forward, the airplane becomes more stable and hence
requires larger elevator deflection for trim at a chosen C L. It is seen that as CL
increases, more negative elevator deflection is required (Fig. 2.33). Further, each
airplane has a value of CLmax which depends on the parameters of the wing.
However, equilibrium at CLmax can be achieved only if the airplane can be

trimmed at this lift coefficient. Further, the maximum elevator deflection is limited
to approximately about 250(negative). Hence, there would be a forward c.g.
location at which the maximum negative elevator deflection would be just able to
permit trim at CLmax. This brings about a limitation on the forward movement of
c.g. from control consideration. It may be recalled that the rearword movement of
c.g. is limited by the stability consideration.
2.12.6 Limitations on forward movement of c.g in proximity of ground
As the airplane comes in to land, the lift coefficient is generally the
highest. It is achieved using flaps and this makes Cmacw more negative. Further,
due to the proximity of ground, following changes in CLαw and  dε / dα  are
observed.
(a) The slope of lift curve of the wing, i.e. CLαw increases slightly. The actual
amount of increase in CLαw depends on the ratio of the height of the wing above
the ground and its span (see Ref.1.7, chapter 5). There is no significant change
in CLαt.
(b) The downwash due to wing decreases considerably (Fig.2.12) and
consequently the tail contribution to stability (Cmαt) becomes more negative
(Eq.2.50) or the airplane becomes more stable.
The net effect is that the airplane requires more negative elevator
deflection. This imposes further restrictions on the forward movement of c.g..
Figure 2.34 shows the restrictions on c.g. travel based on factors discussed so
for. Additional restrictions on the movement of c.g. would be pointed out after
discussions in chapters 3 and 4.

Fig.2.34 Restrictions on c.g. movement from stick fixed stability and control
considerations (schematic)

Chapter 2
Lecture 11
Topics
Example 2.7
Example 2.7
An airplane has elevator power (Cmδ = - η VH  CLαt) of -0.010 per degree.
The c.g. is placed such that the static margin is 10% of m.a.c. Further, the tail
setting (it) is such that the airplane is in trim, with zero elevator deflection, at
CL = 0.5. Plot the curves of Cmcg vs. CL for constant elevator angles of δe = -200,
-100, 00, +100 and 200. Cross plot these curves to obtain the curve corresponding
to δtrim vs. CL. Note CLmax = 1.5.
Solution:
The given data is:
Cmδe = - 0.01deg-1
static margin = 0.1, hence, dCmcg /dCL =  0.1
CL
Now , δe = δe0CL -(dCmcg /dCL ) (E 2.7.1)
Cmδe
Noting that, δe = 0 at CL = 0.5,enables calculation of δe0CL as:
(- 0.1)
0 = δe0CL - ×0.5
(- 0.01)
or δe0CL = 50
Cmcg = Cm0 +Cmα α+Cmδeδe
Similarly, Cmcg = (Cmcg )CL=0 + (dCm /dCL )CL + Cmδe δe
Since, airplane is in equilibrium with zero elevator deflection at CL= 0.5, gives the
following result.

0 = (Cmcg )CL = 0 - 0.1×0.5+0
Or (Cmcg )CL = 0 = 0.05
Hence, Cmcg = 0.05 - 0.1CL - 0.01×δe
Then,for
δe = -200 :Cmcg = 0.05 - 0.1CL - 0.01×(- 200 ) = 0.25 - 0.1CL
δe = -100 :Cmcg = 0.05-0.1CL - 0.01(- 100 ) = 0.15 - 0.1CL
δe = 00 :Cmcg = 0.05-0.1CL - 0.01(00 ) = 0.05 - 0.1CL
δe = +100 :Cmcg = 0.05-0.1CL - 0.01(+ 100 ) = - 0.05 - 0.1CL
δe = +200 :Cmcg = 0.05-0.1CL - 0.01(+ 200 ) = - 0.15 - 0.1CL
The variations of Cmcg with CL for above values of δe are shown in Fig.E2.7a.
Note: All the curves in Fig.E2.7a have same slope as static margin or (dCm / dCL)
is same for all of them.
The cross plot, δtrim vs. CL is shown in Fig.E2.7b.
Note: Alternatively from Eq.(E2.7.1) and δe0CL = 50 yield δtrim in degrees as:
δtrim = 5 - 10 CL.
Fig. E2.7a Cmcg vs CL with δe as parameter; static margin = 0.1

Fig.E2.7b Variation of δtrim with CL ; static margin = 0.1

It is risky to test an airplane in flight with c.g. at the neutral point. Hence,
there should be a way to obtain the neutral point by extrapolation of results from
flight tests conducted when the aircraft is stable. A method is suggested by the
following equations which have been derived earlier.
[CLα (Cm0 + Cmα α0L ) + Cmα CLtrim ]
δtrim = - (2.82)
[Cmδe CLα - Cmα CLδe ]
dδtrim Cmα
=- (2.83)
dCLtrim [Cmδe CLα - Cmα CLδe ]
Equation (2.83) shows that Cmα is proportional to dδtrim/dCL. Hence, when
dδtrim/dCL is zero, Cmα is also zero. This fact suggests the following way to obtain
the neutral point.
(a) Choose a c.g. location for which the airplane is stable. Obtain δtrim at various
values of CL.
(b) Obtain dδtrim/ dCL at this c.g. location.
(c ) Change the c.g. location and conduct the tests again and obtain δtrim vs CL
and dδtrim/dCL.
(d) Plot dδtrim/ dCL vs. c.g. location. Extrapolate the curve and obtain the c.g.
location for which dδtrim/ dCL is zero.

The flight test procedure to determine the neutral point could be as follows.
1.Calibrate the instrumentation for measurement of elevator deflection during
flight.
2.Obtain the weight and c.g. of the airplane on ground.
3.Take the airplane to a suitable height and attain a steady flight. Note the flight
velocity, flight altitude and elevator deflection. Repeat the measurements at
various flight speeds. Apply corrections, if required, to the various readings.
4.From the weight and the flight velocities the values of CL are obtained as :
1
CL = W / { ρ0 Ve2 S}; Ve = equivalent speed.
2
5. Plot δtrim vs CL.
6. Repeat the tests at different locations of c.g.. The change in c.g. is generally
achieved by changing the weight of the ballast in the cargo compartment. Obtain
δtrim at various speeds and plot δtrim vs CL (Fig.2.35).
7. Obtain dδtrim/dCL for the various cases and plot the variation of dδtrim / dCL with
c.g. location. Extrapolate the line. The point where the line cuts the x-axis is the
neutral point (Fig.2.36).
Fig.2.35 Schematic of δtrim vs CLtrim at different c.g. locations

Fig.2.36 Determination of neutral point from flight test data (schematic based on
linear portions in Fig.2.35)
Remark:
The above description is based on the simplified treatment of stability
analysis wherein the δtrim vs CLtrim curves for different c.g. locations are straight
lines and pass through the same point at CL = 0 (Fig.2.33). However, the data
from actual flight test (Ref.2.5) shows that δtrim vs CLtrim curves for different c.g.
locations do not pass through the same point and may not be perfect straight
lines. This indicates a weak dependence of the neutral point location on C L .
Figure 2.37, based on data in Ref.2.5 shows that xNP at higher values of CL may
move forward by a few percent of m.a.c.

Fig.2.37 Dependence of stick-fixed neutral point on lift coefficient

Chapter 3
(Lectures 12, 13 and 14)
Longitudinal stick–free static stability and control
Keywords : Hinge moment and its variation with tail angle, elevator deflection
and tab deflection ; floating angle of elevator ; stick-free static stability and stick-
free neutral point; stick force and stick force gradient and their variations with
flight speed ; determination of stick-free neutral point from flight tests.
Topics
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Hinge moment
3.2.1 Changes in hinge moment due to αt and δe
3.3 Analysis of stick-free static stability
3.3.1 Floating angle of elevator (δefree )
3.3.2 Static stability level in stick-free case (dC'm / dα)stick-free
3.3.3 Neutral point stick-free (x′NP / c )

3.3.4 Shift in neutral point by freeing the stick
3.4 Stick force and stick force gradient
3.4.1 Dependence of stick force on flight velocity and airplane size
3.4.3 Tab deflection for zero stick force
3.4.4 Requirement for proper stick force variation
3.4.5 Feel of the stability level by the pilot
3.5 Determination of stick-free neutral point from flight tests
Reference
Exercises

Chapter 3
Lecture 12
Longitudinal stick–free static stability and control – 1
Topics
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Hinge moment
3.2.1 Changes in hinge moment due to αt and δe
3.3.1 Floating angle of elevator (δefree )
3.3.2 Static stability level in stick-free case (dC'm / dα)stick-free
3.3.3 Neutral point stick-free (x′NP / c )
3.1 Introduction
In the analysis of stick-fixed longitudinal static stability it is assumed that the
elevator deflection remains constant even after the disturbance. The analysis of
the longitudinal static stability when the elevator is free to rotate about its hinge
line is called stick-free stability. The flight condition in which this may occur is
explained below.
To fly the airplane at different speeds and altitudes, appropriate values of
lift coefficient (CL) are needed, e.g. in level flight, L = W = (1/2) ρ V2 S CL or
CL = 2W / {(1/2)ρV2S}
As seen in section 2.12.3, different values of δtrim are needed to bring the
airplane in equilibrium at each CL. To hold the elevator at this δtrim, the pilot has
to exert a force called stick force (F) at the control stick. F = GHe where He is the
hinge moment at the control surface hinge and G is the gearing ratio which
depends on the mechanism between stick and the control surface. Figure 3.1
shows a schematic arrangement of the control surfaces and stick.

Fig.3.1 Schematic arrangement of elevator and stick Hinge moment and stick
force are also shown
To relieve the pilot of the strain of applying the stick force (F) all the time, tab is
used to bring the hinge moment to zero. To appreciate the action of a tab note its
location as shown in Figs.2.16 a and b. It is observed that by deflecting the tab in
a direction opposite to that of the elevator, a lift ΔLtab would be produced. This
would slightly reduce the lift due to the elevator, ΔLδe, but can make the hinge
moment zero. This type of tab is called a trim tab. After applying an appropriate
tab deflection, the pilot can leave the stick, i.e. stick is left free as hinge moment
is zero. The analysis of stability when the stick is free or the elevator is free to
move after the disturbance, is called stick-free stability analysis. It will be
explained later that this analysis also facilitates study of aspects like stick force
and stick force gradient.
The difference between stability when the stick is fixed and when the stick
is free can be explained as follows.
(1) When an airplane flying at an angle of attack α encounters a disturbance, its
angle of attack changes to (α+Δα). Consequently, the angle of attack of the tail
also changes along with that of the airplane. Now, the pressure distribution on
the elevator depends on the angles of attack of tail (αt) , elevator deflection (δe)
and tab deflection (δt). Hence, the moment about the elevator hinge line also
depends on these three parameters viz. αt ,δe and δt. Thus, when αt changes as
a result of the disturbance, the hinge moment also changes. In stick-free case,

the elevator is not restrained by the pilot, and it automatically takes a position
such that the hinge moment is zero (see item 2 below).
(2) It may be pointed out here, that a surface which is free to move about
a hinge will always take such a position that the moment about the hinge is zero.
For example, consider the rod OB which is hinged at O and attached to another
rod OA resting on a table (Fig.3.2). When left to itself, the rod OB will take the
vertical position. In this position, the weight of the rod passes through the hinge
and the moment about the hinge is zero. If the rod is to be held in another
position OB′ (shown by dotted lines in Fig.3.2), then a force „F‟ has to be applied
to overcome the moment about the hinge which is due to the weight of the rod.
However, an important difference between the motion of the rod and that of the
elevator must be noted. In the case of the rod the moment about the hinge is due
to the weight of the rod. Whereas the moment about the elevator hinge is mainly
aerodynamic in nature i.e. due to the pressure distribution on the elevator which
depends on αt, δe and δt. The influence of the weight of the elevator on stability is
discussed in stick free dynamic stability (section 8.15).
(3) Finally, the deflection of an elevator, which is free to move, depends on
the disturbance viz. Δα. This would produce change in the tail lift and
consequently, moment about c.g.. Thus, an additional change in Cmcg is brought
about when the elevator is free. This also results in change in Cmα and hence the
longitudinal static stability.
The expression for the hinge moment in terms of αt, δe and δt , is obtained in
section 3.2. The changes in longitudinal static stability are discussed in
section 3.3.

Fig.3.2 Equilibrium positions of a hinged rod
3.2 Hinge moment

To analyze stick-free stability, the dependence of the hinge moment, on αt,
δe and δt needs to be arrived at. As mentioned earlier, the hinge moment (He) is
the moment about the control surface hinge due to the pressure distribution on it
(control surface). The Hinge moment coefficient (Che) is defined as:
1
He = ρ V 2 Se ce Che (3.1)
2
He
Or Che = (3.2)
1
ρ V 2 Se c e
2
where, Se is the area of elevator aft of the hinge line and ce is the m.a.c. of the
elevator area aft of the hinge line. By convention, nose up hinge moment is taken
as positive (Fig.3.1).
3.2.1 Changes in the hinge moment due to αt and δe
To examine the effects of αt and δe, consider the changes in pressure
distribution on the tail due to these two angles. Figure 3.3a shows the distribution
of pressure coefficient (Cp) in potential flow past a symmetric airfoil at zero angle
of attack. It may be recalled that Cp is defined as:
p - p
Cp = (3.3)
1
ρ V2
2

where, p = local static pressure, p = free stream static pressure and
(1/2) ρ V2 = free stream dynamic pressure.
Fig.3.3 Changes in distribution of pressure coefficient with αt and δe

(Adapted from “Dommasch, D.O., Sherby, S.S., Connolly, T.F. “Airplane
aerodynamics”, Chapter 12 with permission from Pearson Education,
Copyright C 1967)
Since, the airfoil used for the tail is symmetric, the Cp distribution, at α = 0,
is symmetric both on the airfoil and the elevator. Hence, there is no force on the
elevator and no hinge moment about the elevator hinge. Figure 3.3b shows the
same airfoil at a positive angle of attack (αt). The distribution of Cp shows that it is
negative on the upper surface and positive on the lower surface of the elevator.
This results in a positive ΔLe on the elevator and a nose down (i.e. negative)
hinge moment. The hinge moment becomes more negative as αt increases. Note
that α < αstall. Figure 3.3c shows the changes in Cp distribution due to positive
elevator deflection. This also causes Cp to be negative on the upper surface and

positive on the lower surface of the elevator, resulting in positive ΔLe and
negative hinge moment. The effect of the deflection of tab (δt) on Che is similar in
trend as that due to the elevator.
Typical variations of Che with αt and δe are shown in Fig.3.4. Note that
when α > αstall the curves become non-linear.
In the linear region of the curves, Che can be expressed as:
Che = Ch0 + Chαt αt + Chδe δe + Chδt δt (3.4)
Ch0 is zero for a symmetric airfoil and is omitted in subsequent discussion;

Chαt = ∂Che / ∂αt; Chδe = ∂Che / ∂δe; and Chδt = ∂Che / ∂δt.
The quantities Chαt, Chδe and Chδt depend on the shape of the control surface,
area behind the hinge line and the gap between the main surface and the control
surface. They are generally negative. Discussion on Chαt and Chδe is taken up in
chapter 6 after lateral static stability is also covered.The discussion is common
for elevator, rudder and aileron.
Fig.3.4 Variation of hinge moment coefficient with αt and δe

For the analysis of static stability with stick free, it is assumed that as
soon as the disturbance is encountered, the elevator takes such a position such
that the hinge moment is zero. As pointed out earlier, whenever a surface is free
to rotate about a hinge line, it takes such a position such that the hinge moment
is zero.
3.3.1 Floating angle of elevator (δefree)
The elevator deflection when the hinge moment is zero is called the
floating angle and is denoted by δefree. It can be obtained by equating l.h.s. of
Eq.(3.4) to zero. i.e.
0 = Chαt αt + Chδe δefree + Chδt δt (3.5)
Chαt αt + Chδt δt
δefree = - (3.6)
Chδe
3.3.2 Static stability level in stick-free case (dCmcg/dα)stick-free
Assuming the elevator to have attained δefree, the lift on the tail becomes:
CL CL
CLt = CLαt αt + δefree + δt
δe δt
= CLαt {αt + δefree + tab δt } (3.7)
CL
( )
δt
 tab = (3.8)
CLαt
Substituting for δefree, Eq.(3.7) becomes:
Chαt αt + Chδt δt
CLt = CLαt (αt - +  tab δt )
Chδe
Chαt C
= CLαt αt (1-  ) - CLαt ( hδt  - tab δt ) (3.9)
Chδe Chδe
Substituting αt from Eq.(2.45) in Eq.(3.9) gives:
Chαt dε C
CLt = CLαt (1 -  )(α - ε 0 - α + it ) - CLαt ( hαt δt -  tab δt ) (3.10)
Chδe dα Chδe
Denoting the moment about c.g. by the tail, in the stick-free case, by C′mcgt it can
be expressed as :
C‟mcgt = - VH η CLt

Substituting for CLt from Eq.(3.10) gives:
dε
C'mcgt = VH η CLαt (ε 0 - it ) - VH η CLαt [α (1- )+  tab δt ]
dα
 dε
- [Chαt { α - ε 0 - α + it } + Chδt δt ]
Chδe dα
Chαt dε C
Or C'mcgt = VH η CLαt (ε 0 -it -  tab δt )(1- )- VH η CLαt α(1- )(1- hαt ) (3.11)
Chδe dα Chδe
Differentiating Eq.(3.11) with α and denoting the contribution, of tail to stick-free
stability, by C′mαt gives:
dε C
C'mαt = -VH η CLαt (1- )(1- hαt )
dα Chδe
dε
Noting that Cmαt = -VH η CLαt (1- ) , yields :
dα
dε
C'mαt = - VH η CLαt (1- )f = Cmαt f (3.12)
dα
Chαt
f = (1- ) (3.13)
Chδe
„f‟ is called free elevator factor.
The contributions of wing, fuselage, nacelle and power do not change by freeing
the stick, hence,
dε
(Cmα )stick-free = C'mα = (Cmα )w + (Cmα )f,n,p - VH η CLαt (1- )f
dα
xcg xac dε
C'mα = CLαw ( - ) + (Cmα )f,n,p - VH η CLαt (1- )f (3.14)
c c dα
dCm 1 xcg xac 1 C dε
( )stick-free = C'mα  -  (Cmα )f,n,p  VH η Lαt (1- )f
dCL CLαw c c CLαw CLαw dα
dCm C C dε
( )stick-fixed + hαt Lαt VH η (1- ) (3.14a)
dCL Ch e CLαw dα
3.3.3 Neutral point stick-free (X‟NP / c )

In the stick free case, the neutral point is denoted (Ref.1.1, chapter 2) by
x‟NP. It is obtained by setting C‟mα = 0

'
xNP x (C ) C dε
Or = ac - mα f,n,p - Lαt VH η(1- )f (3.15)
c c CLαw CLαw dα

Chapter 3
Lecture 13
Topics
Example 3.1
Example 3.2

The shift in neutral point by freeing the stick is given by :
'
xNP xNP C dε
- = (1 - f) Lαt VH η(1 - ) (3.16)
c c CLαw dα
Example 3.1
Obtain the shift in the neutral point for the airplane in example 2.4. The
values of some of the parameters are: VH = 0.738, η = 0.9, CLαw = 4.17 rad-1,
CLαt = 3.43 rad-1, dε/dα = 0.438. Assume  = 0.5, Chδe = - 0.005 deg-1,
Chαt = - 0.003 deg-1. Substituting various values in Eq.(3.16) yields:
-0.003
f = 1- 0.5( ) = 1- 0.3 = 0.7 and
-0.005
'
xNP xNP 3.43
- = (1 - 0.7)× × 0.738× 0.9 (1 - 0.438) = 0.0921
c c 4.17
Remarks:
i) In this case, by freeing the stick, the neutral point has shifted forward by
0.0921 c or the static margin has decreased by 0.0921. In other words
Cmα - Cmα = - 0.0921CLα

Chαt
ii) If Chαt is positive and Chδe is negative then (1-  ) can become more that
Chδe
one and stability will increase on freeing the stick. It is explained in
subsection 3.4.4 that for proper variation of stick force gradient, Chδe should have
a small negative value. Control of Chαt within narrow limits is difficult and
generally Chαt and Chδe have small negative values.
Example 3.2
An airplane has the following characteristics.
CLαw = 0.085 deg-1, CLαt = 0.058 deg-1, dCL/dδe = 0.032, Chαt = -0.003 deg-1,Chδt =
-0.0055, iw = 0, α0L = -20 , it = -10, ε = 0.5 α, St = 0.25 S, lt = 3 c , W/S =1500 N/m2 ,
a.c. location = 0.25 c , η = 1.0, (Cmα)f,n,p = 0.37 rad-1.
Obtain
i) Stick-fixed neutral point
ii) Stick-free neutral point
iii) Stick -free neutral point when Chαt is changed to 0.003.
Solution:
The given data is:
CLαw = 0.085, CLαt = 0.058, dCLt /dδe = 0.032
Chδe = - 0.0055,Chαt = -0.003
iw = 0, α0L = - 20 ,it = - 10 , ε = 0.5 α,
St = 0.25S, lt = 3 c, a.c. at 0.25 c,
η = 1.0, (Cmα )f,n,p = 0.37 rad-1

CLαw = 0.085 deg-1 = 4.87rad-1
CLαt = 0.058 deg-1 = 3.323 rad-1
dε S l
= 0.5, VH = t t = 0.25×3 = 0.75
dα S c
 = CLδe / CLαt = 0.032 / 0.058 = 0.552
(i) Stick-fixed neutral point:

xNP x ac 1 C dε
= - (Cmα )f,n,p + η VH Lαt (1 - )
c c CLαw CLαw dα
1 3.323
= 0.25 - ×0.37+ 1.0 × 0.75 × (1 - 0.5)
4.87 4.87
= 0.25 - 0.0759 + 0.256 = 0.4301
(ii) Stick-free neutral point:
xNP xac 1 C dε C
= - (Cmα )f,n,p + η VH Lαt (1- )(1- hαt )
c c CLαw CLαw dα Chδe
-0.003
= 0.25 - 0.0759 + 0.256 {1- 0.552 ( )}
-0.0055
= 0.25 - 0.759 + 0.181 = 0.355
(iii) Stick-free neutral point when Chαt = 0.003
x'NP 0.003
= 0.25 - 0.0759 + 0.256 {1-0.552 ( )}
c -0.0055
= 0.25 - 0.0759 + 0.331 = 0.5051
Figure 3.1 shows the schematic of the control surface, the control stick,
the hinge moment (He) due to pressure distribution and the stick force (F). As
mentioned earlier, a nose up hinge moment is taken as positive. The convention
for the stick force is that a pull force at the stick is taken as positive.
The relation between F and He is given by :
1 2
F = GHe = G ρV η Se c e Che (3.17)
2
where, G is the gearing ratio. It may be pointed out that G is not dimensionless; it
has the dimension of m-1.
Recall that:
Che = Chαt αt + Chδe δe + Chδt δt (3.4)
CL dε
αt = α0Lw + it - iw + (1- ) ; CL  CLW (2.44)
CLαw dα
dCm 1
( )stick-fix = (Cmα )stick-fix (2.71)
dCL CLαw

1 dCm
δtrim = δe0CL - ( )stick-fix CL (2.84)
Cmδe dCL
Substituting from Eqs.(2.44),(2.71)and (2.84) in Eq.(3.4) yields :
CL dε C dCm
Che =Chαt {α0Lw + it -iw + (1- )}+ Chδt δt + Chδe δe0CL - hδe ( )stick-fixCL (3.19)
CLαw dα Cmδe dCL
Rearranging yields:
Chδe dC
Che = [Chαt (α0Lw + it - iw )+ Chδe δe0CL ] + Chδt δt - CL [( m )stick-fix
Cmδe dCL
Cmδe Chαt dε
- (1- )] (3.20)
Chδe CLαw dα
Substituting Cmδe = -VH ηt CLαt  , gives :
dCm C C dε
( )stick-fix - mδe hαt (1- )
dCL Chδe CLαw dα
dCm C 1 dε
=( )stick-fix + VH ηt CLαt  hαt (1- ) (3.21)
dCL Chδe CLαw dα
dCm
From Eq.(3.14a) the r.h.s of Eq.(3.21) is ( )stick-free
dCL
Substituting from Eq.(3.21) in Eq.(3.20) gives:
Chδe dC
Che = A + Chδt δt - CL ( m )stick-free (3.22)
Cmδe dCL
where, A = Chαt (α0Lw + it - iw ) + Chδe δe0CL (3.23)
W
Substituting, from Eq.(3.22) in Eq.(3.17) and noting CL = , yields :
1 2
ρV S
2
1 C W dC
F=G ρ V 2 η Se c e {A + Chδt δt - hδe ( m )stick-free }
2 Cmδe 1 ρV 2S dCL
2
1 W Chδe dCm
Or F = K ρV 2 {A + Chδt δt } - K ( )stick-free (3.24)
2 S Cmδe dCL
where, K = G η Se c e (3.25)
F C dC 1
Or = G η Se c e {A + Chδt δt - hδe CL ( m )stick-free }; q = ρ V 2 (3.26)
q Cmδe dCL 2

d( F ) C dC
q
Hence, = - GηSe c e hδe ( m )stick-free (3.27)
dCL Cmδe dCL

The first term in Eq.(3.24) depends on V2 and hence, the stick force
increases rapidly with flight speed. The constant K in Eq. (3.24) involves the
product Se c e in it. The quantities c e and Se are roughly proportional to the linear
dimension of the airplane and its square respectively. Thus, the product Se c e is
proportional to the cube of the linear dimension of the airplane. Hence, the
control force which depends on Se c e could be very large for large airplanes.
Manual control is not possible in such cases (see section 6.12).

In section 3.1 it was noted that the stick force can be made zero by proper
tab deflection. An expression for this deflection is obtained below.
Consider the second term in Eq.(3.24). Noting that (a) Chδe is generally
negative (see section 3.4.4), (b) Cmδe is negative and (c) (dCm / dCL)stick-ree is
negative for a stable airplane, the second term in Eq.(3.24) is positive for a stable
airplane. Further, the first term in Eq.(3.24) depends on V and δt. Hence, at a
given V, the stick force can be reduced to zero by proper choice of δt (Fig.3.5).
The operation of making stick force zero by proper tab deflection, is called
trimming the stick. Equating r.h.s. of Eq.(3.24) to zero yields (δt)trim for chosen
Vtrim i.e.
1 W Chδe dCm
0=K ρ Vtrim
2
{A + Chδt (δt )trim } - K ( )stick-free
2 S Cmδe dCL
W
1 Chδe S ( dCm )
Or (δt )trim =- {A - stick-free } (3.28)
Chδt 1
Cmδe ρV 2 dCL
trim
2
Differentiating Eq.(3.28) with CL yields :

d(δt )trim Chδe 1 dCm
= ( )stick-free (3.29)
dCL Chδt Cmδe dCL
Substituting δtrim from Eq.(3.28) in Eq.(3.24) , the stick force becomes:
W Chδe dCm V2
F=K ( )stick-free ( 2 -1) (3.30)
S Cmδe dCL Vtrim
Fig.3.5 Variation of stick force with velocity for different tab deflections-schematic
3.4.3 Stick force gradient

The stick force gradient is defined as dF/dV. Differentiating Eq.(3.30) with
V gives:
dF W Chδe dCm V
= 2K ( )stick-free 2 (3.31)
dV S Cmδe dCL Vtrim
dF
When V = Vtrim, the stick force gradient, ( )trim , is :
dV
dF W Chδe dCm 1
( )trim = 2K ( )stick-free (3.32)
dV S Cmδe dCL Vtrim
Figure 3.5 shows the variation of the stick force with V and the gradient (dF/dV)
at V = Vtrim. See example 3.3.

Chapter 3
Lecture 14
Topics
Example 3.3

The stick force variation is called proper, when (i) a pull force is needed to
reduce the flight speed below the trim speed and (ii) a push force is needed to
increase the speed above the trim speed. This requirement is due to the
following reasons.
When the pilot wishes to reduce the speed below the trim speed, he
knows that the lift coefficient and hence the angle of attack should increase or
the nose should go up. For proper feel he should pull the stick or apply a pull
force. When he wishes to increase the flight speed above the trim speed, a lower
angle of attack is needed.Then, he should push the stick forward. Thus, for
proper variation of stick force, the gradient (dF/dV) should be negative. In
Eq.(3.31) it is observed that Cmδe is negative and (dCm/dCL)stick-free is also
negative for a stable airplane. Hence, for (dF/dV) to have a small but negative
value, Chδe should have a small negative value.
The pilot feels the stability of the airplane through (dF/dV). If (dF/dV) is
high, he feels that the airplane is stiff and hence very stable. However, if (dF/dV)
is very low then artificial means are employed for proper feel. Friction in the
control deflection linkage masks the feel and hence, it needs to be kept low.

Example 3.3
From the following additional data for the airplane in example 3.2,
calculate and plot the stick-force required versus equivalent airspeed for tab
settings of 00, 50, 100 and 150, Assume (dCm/dCL) stick-free = - 0.15. Cross plot
these curves to give tab setting for zero stick force versus equivalent airspeed
(100 to 300 kmph). Se = 1.8 m2, c e = 0.6m,G = 1.6 per meter, α0Lw = -
20, δe0CL = + 40.
Solution:
The data given are:
CLαw = 0.085 deg-1 , CLαt = 0.058 deg-1, dCLt / dδ = 0.032 deg-1,
Chαt = - 0.003 deg-1, Chδe = - 0.0055 deg-1 , Chδt = - 0.003 deg-1, iw = 0, it = -10,
α0Lw = -20, St = 0.25 S , lt/ c =3, a.c. at 0.25 c, η =1.0, (Cmα)f,n,p = 0.37/ rad.
Se = 1.8 m2, c e = 0.6m, G = 1.6/ m . δe0CL = 40 , (dCm/dCL)stick-free = - 0.15,
W/S = 1500 N/m2
From Eq.(3.24) :
1 W Chδe
F = K ρ V 2 {A + Chδt δt } - K (dCm /dCL )stick-free
2 S Cmδ
K = G Se c e η; A = Chαt {α0Lw - iw + it )+ Chδe δe0CL
K =1.6 × 1.8 × 0.6 ×1 = 1.728
A = - 0.003 {-2 - 0 -1} +(- 0.0055)(+ 40 )
= 0.009 - 0.022 = - 0.013
dCLt
Cmδ = - VH η CLαt  = - 0.25 × 3 × 1.0 × 0.032 × 57.3 = -1.3752rad-1; note CLαt  
dδe
W Chδe dCm  -0.0055×57.3 
K ( )stick-free = 1.728×1500   (- 0.15) = - 89.1
S Cmδ dCL  -1.3752 
1 2 1
ρV = ρ0 Ve2 ; ρ0 = 1.225 kg/m3
2 2
1
F = 1.728 × ρ0 Ve2 {- 0.013+(- 0.003)δt } + 89.1 (E 3.3.1)
2
= 1.059 Ve2 {- 0.013 - 0.03δt } +89.1;
For δt = 0: F = 89.1 - 0.01377 Ve2

The values of F for different values of Ve with δt equal to 00, 2.50, 50, 7.50 and 100
are tabulated in Table E3.3a.The values are plotted in Fig. E3.3a.
Ve Ve F(N)
(kmph) (m/s) From Eq. (E 3.3.1)
δt = 0 2.50 50 7.50 100

0 0 89.1 89.1 89.1 89.1 89.1
100 27.78 78.47 72.35 66.22 60.01 54.0
150 41.07 65.19 51.4 37.52 23.81 10.0
200 55.56 46.59 22.08 -2.43 -26.97 -51.5
250 69.44 22.7 -15.58 -53.87 -92.2
300 83.33 -6.52 -61.65
Table E3.3a F vs Ve with δt as parameter
F (N)
100
80
60
40
20
δ t = 00
0 Ve(kmph)
0 100 200 300 400
-20 0
δt =2.5
-40
δt =100
-60 δ t = 50
-80
δt =7.50
-100
Fig. E3.3a Variations of stick force vs equivalent airspeed with tab deflection as
parameter

Cross plotting the data in Fig.E3.3a gives the values of (δt)trim for different
values of equivalent airspeed. Alternatively, from Eq.(E3.3.1), (δt)trim can be
evaluated as:
0 = 1.059 Ve2 {- 0.013 - 0.03(δ t )trim } + 89.1
28045
Or (δt )trim = - 4.33 + with Ve in m/s
Ve2
363463
= - 4.33 + with Ve in kmph
Ve2
The values of (δt)trim at different equivalent airspeeds are tabulated in Table
E3.3b and plotted in Fig.E3.3b. Since, the wing loading is given as 1500 N/m2 we
can calculate the lift coefficient in level flight (CL) can be calculated as:
2W 2449 W
CL = 2
= 2
for = 1500N / m2 and ρ0 = 1.225kg / m3
ρ0SVe Ve S
The values of CL are also shown in Table E3.3b. The plot of (δt)trim vs CL is
shown in Fig. E 3.3 c.
Ve (kmph) Ve (m/s) CL (δt)trim (degrees)

150 41.67 1.41 11.82
200 55.56 0.793 4.76
250 69.44 0.508 1.49
289.7 80.47 0.378 0
300 83.33 0.352 -0.29
Table E3.3b Tab deflection for trim at different equivalent airspeeds

and lift coefficients

(δt)trim (degrees)
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0 Ve(kmph)
-2 0 100 200 300 400
-4
Fig. E3.3b Tab deflection for trim at different equivalent airspeeds
(δt)trim in degrees
14
12
10
CL
0
0 0.5 1 1.5
-2
-4
Fig. E3.3c Variation of (δt)trim with CL

Remark:
The (δt)trim vs CL curve in Fig. E3.3c is linear as the non-linear terms in the
expression for Cmα have been ignored. For actual airplanes the curves from flight
tests will be slightly non-linear. See Ref.2.5 chapter 3 and Ref.1.7, chapter 6.

In section 2.13, a procedure was explained to obtain the stick-fixed neutral
point (xNP) from flight tests. It was based on the fact that when c.g. is at xNP then
dδe /dCL is zero. Similarly to obtain stick-free neutral point from flight tests, two
ways are suggested by Eqs. (3.27) and (3.29). Equation (3.27) suggests that
d(F/q) / dCL is zero when (dCm/dCL)stick-free is zero and Eq.(3.29) suggests that
(dδt/dCL) is zero when (dCm/dCL) stick-free is zero. Thus, by measuring either F or δt
during the flight tests at different flight velocities and at different c.g. locations,
d(F/q) /dCL or (dδt/dCL) can be obtained for these c.g. locations. Extrapolating
these curves gives the neutral point stick-free. For details see Ref.1.7 chapter 6.
Remark:
It may be recalled that (a) the exact contribution of wing is slightly non-linear and
(b) the contribution of power changes with CL. Hence, the δt vs CL and (F/q) vs CL
curves from flight tests show slight non- linearity. Consequently, the stick free
neutral point location also shows slight dependence on the lift coefficient similar
to that shown in Fig.2.37.

Chapter 3
Exercises
3.1 Answer the following.
(a) Define hinge moment coefficient and explain its variation with horizontal
tail angle of attack (αt) and elevator deflection (δe).
(b) Explain the term stick-free neutral point. How can it be determined by flight
tests?
(c) Derive an expression for stick force gradient (dF/dV) and explain the
requirement for proper stick force variation.
3.2 The hinge moment characteristics of the horizontal tail of an airplane are :
αt δe αt
Ch = - 0.003 deg-1, Ch = - 0.0055 deg-1 , Ch = - 0.003 deg-1. Obtain the floating
angle of elevator ( δefree ) for αt = 5o and 10o . Assume δt = 4o .
[ Ans : δ efree = - 4.91 o for α t = 5 o and δ t = 4 o
δ efree = - 7.64 o for α t = 10o and δ t = 4 o ]
3.3 An airplane has the following characteristics. Obtain the movement of the
neutral print on freeing the stick.
Wing: S = 39 m2, CL w = 4.6 rad-1
Tail: St = 4.6 m2, lt = 7.6 m, VH = 0.55
δ α
ε
dCLt -1 d
= 1.9 rad , = 0.39 , η = 0.98 ,
d e d
αt
Ch = - 0.008 deg-1, Ch e = - 0.013 deg-1
[Ans: 0.138 m forward]
3.4 Show that the stick force is proportional to the difference between the
elevator deflection required, (δe)reqd , and the floating angle(δefree).
(Hint: F is proportional to Che. Write an expression for Che. Using the definition of
δefree eliminate (Chα tαt + Chδt δ) and get the result. An answer from physical point

of view would be to observe that the elevator would on its own attain the
deflection δefree. Hence, the stick force is needed only to take it from δefree to
(δe)reqd.
3.5 For the airplane in example 3.3, obtain the value of (dF/dV)trim at
V = 200 kmph at sea level. Assume that the tab had been used to trim the stick at
the chosen flight speed.
[Answer : (dF/dV)trim = - 3.207 Ns/m ]

Chapter 4
Longitudinal static stability and control – Effect of
acceleration
(Lecture 15)
Keywords : Elevator required in pull-up; stick-fixed maneuver point; stick
force gradient in pull-up; maneuver point stick-free; overall limits on c.g.
travel.
Topics
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Additional elevator deflection in a pull-up
4.3 Elevator angle per g
4.4 Stick-fixed maneuver point (xmp)
4.5 Stick force gradient in pull-up
4.6 Maneuver point stick-free (x‟mp)
4.7 Limits on stick force gradient per g
4.8 static stability and control in a turn
4.9 Overall limits on c.g. travel
4.10 Remark on determination of xmp and x‟mp from flight tests
Exercises

Chapter 4
Lecture 15
Longitudinal static stability and control - Effect of acceleration-1
Topics
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Additional elevator deflection in a pull-up
4.3 Elevator angle per g
Example 4.1
4.6 Maneuver point stick-free (x‟mp)
Example 4.2
4.8 static stability and control in a turn
4.10 Remark on determination of xmp and x‟mp from flight tests
Example 4.3
4.1 Introduction
An accelerated flight occurs when an airplane (a) has acceleration or
deceleration along a straight line (accelerated level flight or climb) or (b) performs
maneuvers like loop and turn. In the case of accelerated flight along a straight
line, the stability and control equations are the same as those for the
unaccelerated flight. However, the engine thrust would be different in accelerated
and unaccelerated flights. This difference in engine thrust would result in slightly
different contribution of power to Cmo and Cmα. Significant changes in stability
and control take place when an airplane goes through a maneuver.
Remark:
In European books, the word maneuver is spelt as “manoeuvre”.

4.2 Additional elevator deflection in pull-up

Consider an airplane at the bottom of a loop as shown in Fig.4.1.
Note : For an undistorted view of this figure, use the screen resolution of
1152 x 864 or 1024 x 768 pixels.
Fig. 4.1 Airplane in a loop
Let, the flight velocity, load factor and the radius of the loop be V, n and r
respectively. Now, L = n W. Further, let ΔL be the excess of lift over that in level
flight. Then, ΔL = (n-1) W.
The equations of motion in the plane of symmetry are:
T–D=0 (4.1)
L – W = (W/g)(V2/r) = (W/g) Vω (4.2)

where, ω is the angular velocity.
Equation (4.2) gives ω = (n - 1) g / V (4.3)
Remarks:
Following three important points need to be noted.
i) As the airplane goes round the loop once, it also goes once around its c.g. To
explain this, Fig.4.2 shows the airplane at different points during the loop. It is
evident that while completing the loop the airplane has gone around itself once.
Thus q, the angular velocity about y-axis, is equal to ω i.e.
q = ω = (n-1)g / V (4.4)
Note : For an undistorted view of this figure, use the screen resolution of
1152 x 864 or 1024 x 768 pixels.
Fig. 4.2 Airplane attitude at different points in a loop
ii) As the airplane rotates with angular velocity q, the tail which is located at a
distance of lt from c.g., is subjected to a downward velocity Δvw = q lt (Fig.4.3).

Thus, the tail is subjected to a relative wind in the upward direction of magnitude
q lt. This causes a change in the angle of attack of the tail (Fig.4.3) by Δαt given
by:
q lt ql
Δ αt = = 57.3 t in degrees (4.5)
V V
Fig.4.3 changes in αt in pull-up
iii) This change in Δαt results in lift ΔLt on tail and negative ΔCmcgt about the c.g.
To balance this ΔCmcgt, an additional elevator deflection is needed. Since, the
effect of going through a loop is to cause a resisting moment; this effect is called
damping in loop. Let, Δδe be the additional elevator deflection needed to balance
Δαt. Then
-Δαt (n-1)g lt
Δδe = = - 57.3 (4.6)
 V 2
The other components of the airplane also experience changes in angle of attack
due to the angular velocity in loop. The net effect is approximately accounted for
(Ref.1.7, chapter 7) by multiplying Eq.(4.6) by 1.1 i.e.
Δδe = 1.1x (- 57.3)(n-1)g lt / ( V2  ) = - 63(n-1) g lt / ( V2 τ) (4.7)

The pull-up flight can be considered as a part of a loop. Hence, combining
Eqs.(2.84)and (4.7) , the elevator deflection in pull-up (δe)pullup is given by:
dCm
( )
dCL stick-fixed 63 (n-1) g lt
(δe )pull-up = δeoCL - CL - (4.8)
Cmδ  V2
In a pull-up with load factor of n, L = n W. Hence,
CL = 2nW
ρV 2S
dCm
( )
2nW dCL stick-fixed 63 (n-1)g lt
Hence, (δe )pull-up = δeoCL - 2 - (4.9)
ρV S Cmδ  V2
4.3 Elevator angle per g:
The derivative of (δe)pull-up with „n‟ is called elevator angle per g and from Eq.(4.9)
it is given by:
dCm
( )
dδ 1 2W dCL stick-fixed 63 glt
( e )pull-up = 2 {- - } (4.10)
dn V ρS Cmδ 
Remark:
In level flight, (dδe /dCL) is zero when (dCm/dCL)stick-fixed is zero. From Eq.(4.10) it
is seen that (dδe /dn) is not zero when (dCm/dCL)stick-fixed is zero. This is because
the damping produced in a pull-out makes the airplane apparently more stable.
From Eq.(4.10) (dδe /dn) is zero when (dCm/dCL)stick-fixed has the following value:
dCm 63 g lt ρ Cmδ
( )stick-fixed = - (4.11)
dCL 2 ( W )
S
The c.g. location for which (dδe/dn)pull-up is zero is called stick-fixed
maneuver point and denoted by (xmp). From Eq.(4.11) and noting that
(dCm/dCL)stick-fixed is zero when c.g. is at xNP, the following expression is obtained
for xmp.
xmp xNP 63 g lt ρ Cmδ
= - (4.12)
c c W
2  
S
Using Eq(4.12) in (4.10) gives :

 dδe  C  x cg xmp 
  =- L  -  (4.12a)
 dn pull-up Cmδ  c c 
Example 4.1
Consider an airplane with W = 22500 N, S = 15 m2, aspect ratio = 6, c = 2.50 m,
lt = 3 c = 7.5m, Cmδ = -0.01 deg-1 and τ = 0.5. Calculate the difference between
maneuver point stick-fixed and neutral point stick-fixed.
Solution:
Substituting the given values in Eq.(4.12) and assuming sea level conditions i.e.
ρ = 1.225 kg/m3 gives:
xmp xNP - 63 ×9.81×7.5×1.225×(-0.01)
- = = 0.0378
c c 2 ×0.5(22500 /15)
The stick force (F) is given by :
1
F=G ρ V 2 η ce Se {Chαt αt + Chδe δe + Chδt δ t }
2
Substituting for αt and δe yields:
1
F=G ρ V 2 η c e Se [Chαt (α0Lw + it - iw ) + Chδe δe0CL + Chδt δt
2
2n( W ) 57.3 g lt (n-1) C

- S C ( dCm ) { Chαt -1.1 hδe }]
stick-free + (4.13)
ρV Cmδ
2 hδe
dCL V 2

Hence,
W
Gη c e Se ( ) Chδe
 dF  S dC ρ C
   ( m )stick-free + 57.3GηSe c e g lt {Chαt -1.1 hδe } (4.14)
 dn pull-up Cmδ dCL 2 
The quantity dF/dn is called the stick force gradient per g.
4.6 Maneuver point stick-free
The c.g. location for which (dF/dn) equals zero is called maneuver point
stick -free. It is denoted by x′mp . Recalling that the stick-free neutral point is
denoted by x′NP, the following expression is obtained for x′mp :

x'mp x'NP 57.3 g lt ρ Cmδ C

= + {Chαt - 1.1 hδe } (4.15)
c c W
2( )Chδe 
S
 dF 
Using Eq(4.15) in Eq(4.14) gives   stick-force gradient per g as :
 dn pull-up
 dF  C  xcg x'mp 
  = - G ce Se η  W/S  hδe  -  (4.16)
 dn pull-up Cmδ  c c 
Example 4.2
For the airplane in example 4.1 assume further that Chαt = - 0.003 deg-1
and Chδe = - 0.005 deg-1. Obtain the difference between stick-free maneuver
point and stick-free neutral point.
Substituting various quantities in Eq.(4.15) gives:
x'mp x'NP 57.3×9.81×7.5×1.225×(-0.01) 1.1×(-0.005)
- = {(- 0.003)- } = 0.0275
c c 2×1500 (-0.005) 0.5
x'mp x'NP
= + 0.0275
c c
Remark:
x′mp lies behind x′NP because the airplane has acquired apparent increase in
stability in a pull up.
The stick force gradient per g or (dF/dn) indicates ease or difficulty in
carrying out a maneuver. Hence it should lie within certain limits. Reference 1.7
gives the limits as 3 lbs/g to 8 lbs/g or 14 N/g to 36 N/g for fighters and the upper
limit of 156 N/g for bombers and cargo airplanes. As (dF/dn) depends on c.g.
location, these limits impose restrictions on c.g. travel (see section 4.9).
4.8 Static stability and control in a turn
References 1.7 and 1.12 consider, in addition to pull up, the stability and
control in a turning flight. However, the requirements in this flight are less critical
than those in a pull up.

Taking into account various considerations discussed in chapters 2, 3 and
4, the limits on c.g. travel are shown in the Fig.4.4. It is to be noted that generally,
c.g. travel should be limited to about 8% of m.a.c. for a general aviation airplane
and about 15% of m.a.c. for a passenger airplane. The stringent nature of
limitations on c.g. travel can be gauged from the following case. For an airplane
of length =10 m, b = 10 m and aspect ratio = 10, the value of c would be around
one metre. Thus, a permissible c.g. travel of 8% implies just 8 cm of c.g
movement for a fuselage of 10 m length.
Note: The symbols A,B… , I indicate limitations on c.g. movement due to the
following considerations.
Limits on aft c.g. movement: A: (xNP )power off ; B: (dF/dn) = 0; C: (xNP)poweron;
D: (dF/dn)minimum ; E: (x′NP)poweron .
Limits on forward c.g. movement:
F: δe for CLmax in free flight with n=1; G:δe for CLmax in free flight with n = nmax;
H: δe for CLmax with ground effect; I: (dF/dn)max .
Fig.4.4 Summary of limits on c.g. travel due to various considerations- schematic
4.10 Remark on determination of xmp and x′mp from flight tests

In sections 2.13 and 3.5 the flight test techniques for determination of xNP and
x′NP are mentioned. The procedure to determine xmp and x′mp can be briefly
described as follows.
(i) Choose a c.g. location,
(ii) Choose a flight speed,

(iii) Fly the airplane in a pull-up or a steady turn at chosen load factor (n). During
the test, the values of average altitude, flight speed, elevator deflection, control
force and load factor are noted. Corrections to the readings are applied for any
errors. Carry out the tests at different flight speeds and load factors.
(iv) Repeat tests at different c.g. locations.
(v) From the flight tests for a chosen c.g. location but at different values of n, plot
δe vs n and F vs n. Calculate dδe /dn and dF/dn.
(vi) Obtain dδe /dn and dF/dn at different c.g. locations.
(vii) Plot ( dδe /dn ) vs c.g. location. Extrapolate the curve. The c.g. location for
which ( dδe /dn ) equals zero is the maneuver point stick-fixed (xmp).
(viii) Plot dF/dn vs c.g. location. Extrapolate the curve. The c.g. location for which
(dF/dn) equals zero is the maneuver point stick-free (x′mp). For further details, see
chapter 4 of Ref.2.5.
Example 4.3
Given an airplane with the following geometric and aerodynamic
characteristics:
S = 19.8 m2, b = 10.5 m, CLαw = 0.078 deg-1, c = 2.2 m; lt = 5.0 m, iw = 20,
dε / dα = 0.48, St = 3.6 m2, span of tail plane (bt) = 4.0 m, CLαt = 0.058 deg-1,
it = 10, Se = 1.08 m2, c e = 0.28 m; η = 0.9; Chαt = -0.004 deg-1, Chδe = -0.009 deg-1,
G = 1.6 m-1, W = 40,000 N, (xNP) = 0.35 c . Calculate stick force gradient in

pull-up at sea level for c.g. location of 0.20 c , 0.26 c and 0.37 c . Plot these
values versus c.g. position and by graphical interpolation or extrapolation
determine stick-free maneuver point. If it is required that the airplane has stick
force per g between 36 N/g and 14 N/g . What would be the c.g. limits? Assume
that the tab is always used to trim out stick force at n =1.
Solution:
i) Calculation of (dF/dn)pull-up.

St lt 3.6 5.0
VH = = = 0.4132
S c 19.8 2.2
dF G ηSe c e (W/S) dC ρ 1.1Chδ
( )pull-up = - Chδ ( m )stick-free + 57.3G η Se c e g lt (Chα - )
dn Cmδ dCL 2 
Se /St = 1.08 / 3.6 = 0.3; hence ,  = 0.5 (Fig. 2.32)
Cmδ = - VH η CLαt  = -0.4132×0.9 × 0.058 × 0.5 = -0.0108 deg-1
W/S = 40000/19.8 = 2020N/m2
xNP = 0.35c
CLαt dε Chαt
x'NP = xNP - VH η (1- )
CLαw dα Chδe
x'NP 0.058 (-0.004)
= 0.35 -0.4132×0.9 ×  (1- 0.48)  0.5  = 0.35 -0.032 = 0.318
c 0.078 (- 0.009)
G ηSe c e (W/S)Chδ 1.6×0.9×1.08×0.28×2020  (- 0.009)

= = - 733.02
Cmδ (- 0.0108)
ρ 1.1Chδ
57.3×G η Se c e g lt (Chα - )
2 
1.225 (- 0.009)
= 57.3×1.6×0.9×1.08×0.28×9.81×5.0× {- 0.004 -1.1× } = 11.85
2 0.5
dF
( )pull-up = - 733.02 (dCm /dCL )stick-free +11.85 (E 4.3.1)
dn
(dCm/dCL)stick-free for different location of c.g. are given in table E4.3. Further using
Eq. (E4.3.1), the values of (dF/dn)pull-up are also given in the same table.
c.g. (dCm/dCL) stick-free (dF/dn)pull-up

0.2 c -0.118 98.34
0.26 c -0.058 48.66
0.37 c 0.052 -26.25
Table E4.3 (dCm/dCL)stick-free and (dF/dn) pull-up for different locations of c.g.
(ii) Maneuver point stick-free : This is the c.g. location for which (dF/dn)pull-up is
zero. From Eq.(E4.3.1):

0 = -733.02(dCm / dCL )stick-free + 11.85
or (dCm /dCL )stick-free at maneuvre point stick - free = 11.85 / 733.02 = 0.016
Hence, maneuvre point stick free is:
= ( 0.318 + 0.016 ) c = 0.334 c
(iii) c.g. limits for dF/dn between 14 to 36 N/g can be obtaining using
corresponding (dCm/dCL)stick-free.
14 = -733.02 (dCm /dCL )stick-free1 + 11.85
(dCm /dCL )stick-free1 = -2.15 / 733.02 = - 0.00293
36 = - 733.02(dCm /dCL )stick-free2 + 11.85
- (36 -11.85)
(dCm /dCL )stick-free2 = = - 0.0329
733.02
Hence, c.g. limits are (0.318-0.0329) c & (0.318-0.0029) c i.e. 0.285 c &
0.315 c .
Remark:
In this particular example, the c.g. limits for proper dF/dn seem to be too
narrow; the limits on (dF/dn) perhaps correspond to a fighter airplane.

Chapter 4
Exercises
(a) Define the term maneuver point stick-fixed and maneuver point stick-free.
(b) For a given value of CL the elevator deflection required in pull-up is more
than that in a steady level flight. Explain.
4.2 Obtain (dδe /dn)pull-up for the airplane in example 4.1 when it is flying at sea
level at a speed of 60 m/s. Assume that the c.g. is at 0.25 c and the
stick-fixed neutral point is at 0.35 c
 dδ 
[Answer :  e  = - 9.374 degrees /g]
 dn pull-up
4.3 Obtain  dF/dn pull-up for the airplane in examples 4.1 and 4.2 with the following
additional data.
G = 1.6 m-1 , Se = 0.74 m2 , c e = 0.23 m , η = 0.9 the stick free neutral point is at
0.315 c and c.g. at 0.25 c .
 dF 
[Answer :   = 17 N/g ]
 dn pull-up

Chapter 5
Directional static stability and control
(Lectures 16,17 and 18)
Keywords : Sideslip and yaw ; criteria for equilibrium and static stability about
z-axis ; contributions of wing, fuselage, power and vertical tail to Cnβ ; desirable
level of Cnβ ; critical case for directional control ; rudder lock ; dorsal fin.
Topics
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Criteria for equilibrium and static stability about z-axis
5.2.1 Sideslip and yaw
5.2.2 Yawing moment and its convention
5.2.3 Criterion for equilibrium about z-axis
5.2.4 Criterion for directional static stability
5.3 Contribution of wing to Cnβ
5.4 Contribution of fuselage to Cnβ
5.5 Contribution of power to Cnβ
5.6 Contribution of vertical tail to Cnβ
5.6.1 Influence of wing-body combination on contribution of vertical tail

(Cnβv )
5.6.2 Expression for (Cnβv )
5.7 Directional static stability

5.7.1 Pedal-fixed static directional stability
5.7.2 Weather cock effect
5.7.3 Pedal-free static directional stability
5.7.4 Desirable level of Cnβ
5.8 Directional control

5.8.1 Adverse yaw and its control
5.8.2 Control in cross wind take-off and landing

5.8.3 Control in asymmetric power, steady flight after engine failure and
minimum control speed
5.8.4 Control for spin recovery
5.9 Need for rudder deflection in a coordinated turn
5.10 Effect of large angle of sideslip, rudder lock and dorsal fin
Exercises

Chapter 5
Directional static stability and control - 1
Lecture 16
Topics
5.1 Introduction
5.2.2 Yawing moment and its convention
Example 5.1
5.1 Introduction
Chapters 2,3 and 4 dealt with longitudinal static stability. In this case, the
motion of the airplane takes place in the plane of symmetry i.e. along x- and z-
axes and about y- axis. This chapter and the next one, deal with the motions
along y-axis and about x- and z-axes. These motions lie outside the plane of
symmetry. The translatory motion along y-axis is sideslip and rotations about x-
and z-axes are the rolling and yawing respectively. The directional stability and
control, deal with the equilibrium and its maintainability about the z-axis. The
lateral stability and control, deal with the equilibrium and its maintainability about
the x-axis. However, the lateral and directional motions cannot be separated
completely because a change in one of them leads to change in the other. For
example, when an airplane has a rate of roll, the unequal changes in the drag of
the two wing halves create a yawing moment (see subsection 5.8.1). Besides the
rolling and yawing motions, the sideslip also creates forces and moments
affecting lateral and directional motions. The six effects caused by rolling, yawing
and sideslip are listed below.

i.Rolling moment due to rate of roll. It is called damping in roll.
ii.Yawing moment due to rate of yaw. It is called damping in yaw.
iii.Rolling moment due to rate of yaw. It is called cross effect.
iv. Yawing moment due to rate of roll. It is called adverse yaw.
v. Rolling moment due to sideslip. It is called dihedral effect.
vi.Yawing moment due to sideslip. It is called weathercock effect.
The directional static stability and control are considered in this chapter.
In an equilibrium flight, the airplane flies in the plane of symmetry with
sideslip and yawing moment both being zero. Before discussing the criteria for
equilibrium and static stability about z- axis, it is useful to recapitulate a few
relevant concepts.
Sideslip is the angle between the plane of symmetry of the airplane and
the direction of motion. It is taken as positive in the clockwise sense (Fig.5.1a,
see also Fig.1.15). It is denoted by ‘β’. It may be recalled that the tangent to the
flight path is the direction of motion. It may be further pointed out that a positive β
is due to a positive sideslip velocity which is the component of airplane velocity
along the y-axis.
Angle of yaw is the angular displacement of the airplane center line, about a
vertical axis, from a convenient horizontal reference line. It is measured from the
arbitrarily chosen reference direction and taken as positive in the clockwise
direction. It is denoted by ‘  ’(Fig.5.1a).

(a) Curved flight path
Fig.5.1 Slide slip and yaw
Remarks:
i) The sideslip angle and the yaw angle are not equal. For example in a 360º
turn, the airplane yaws through 360º, but there may not be any sideslip if the
airplane axis is aligned with the tangent to the flight path at all points during the
turn.
ii) If the flight path is a straight line (Fig.5.1b) and the arbitrary axis chosen to
measure the yaw is taken as the direction of flight, then yaw and sideslip angles
are equal in magnitude, but opposite in sign (Fig.5.1b).
iii) In wind tunnel tests, the models of airplane are tested by rotating the airplane
center line with respect to the air stream and the angle between the plane of
symmetry of the airplane and the air stream is called the angle of yaw. The
results are reported as variations of yawing moment with  .
iv) In flight test work however, sideslip angle β is generally used.

In the subsequent analysis, the case of straight flight path is considered. Even if
the flight path is curved, the analysis can be carried out by taking into
consideration a small segment of the path; however, the damping due to angular
velocity will need to be taken into account. Following Ref.1.1, the subsequent
analysis is carried out in terms of β.
5.2.2 Yawing movement and its convention
The moment about z-axis i.e. yawing moment is denoted by N.
Considering contributions from major components of the airplane, N can be
written as:
N = (N)w + (N)f + (N)n + (N)p + (N)vt (5.1)
Where, the suffixes w, f, n, p and vt indicate contributions from wing, fuselage,

nacelle, power and vertical tail.
Equation 5.1 is expressed in non-dimensional form as:
N
Cn = = (Cn )w + (Cn )f,n,p + (Cn )vt (5.2)
1 2
ρV Sb
2
Remarks:
i) Convention
The yawing moment (N) is taken positive when the right wing goes back
(see Figs.5.1a and 1.8). Recalling the convention for pitching moment, it is
observed that in stability analysis a moment is taken positive in a clockwise
direction when looking along the axis under consideration.
ii) In Eq.(5.2), the wing span (b) is used as the reference length for non-
dimensionalization of yawing moment, whereas the mean aerodynamic chord ( c )
is used as the reference length for non-dimensionalization of pitching moment.
To explain this difference in choice of reference length, it may be recalled that a
moment is the product of a force and the distance perpendicular to the axis.
Hence, reference length for non-dimensionalization of a moment should be a
representative length perpendicular to the axis under consideration.

The criteria for equilibrium about z-axis is that the yawing moment should
be zero i.e. for equilibrium, Cn = 0. (5.3)
Figures 5.1a and b show the conventions for positive yawing moment and
sideslip (β). Consider that in equilibrium flight, the airplane is flying with β = 0.
Now, let a disturbance cause the airplane to develop positive sideslip of Δβ. It is
observed that to bring the airplane back to equilibrium position i.e. β = 0, a
positive yawing moment (ΔN) should be produced by the airplane. Similarly, a
disturbance causing a negative Δβ should result in – ΔN i.e. for static directional
stability, dCn / dβ or Cnβ should be positive. Hence,
Cnβ > 0 for static directional stability
= 0 for neutral directional stability and (5.4)
< 0 for directional instability.
Differentiating Eq.(5.2) yields:
Cnβ = (Cnβ )w + (Cnβ )f,n,p + (Cnβ )v t (5.5)
Remark:
It may be recalled that Cmα should be negative for longitudinal static
stability whereas Cnβ should be positive for directional static stability. This
difference in sign is due to conventions used for α and β. Compare Figs.1.14 and
1.15b. However, it may also be pointed out that when α is positive, the ‘w’
component of flight velocity is along positive z- direction and when β is positive,
the sideslip velocity ‘v’ is along positive y-axis (see Fig.1.15).
The contributions of major components to cn and cnβ are discussed in the
next four sections.
For straight (or unswept) wings, there is no significant contribution of wing
to Cnβ. However, for swept wings, there is a small contribution. Reference.3.1
chapter 15, explains this contribution based on certain simplifying assumptions.
This approach is explained below.

The explanation is based on the argument that for a swept wing, the component
of the free stream velocity normal to the quarter chord line mainly decides the
aerodynamic forces. Consider an airplane with wings which have sweep Λ. When
this wing is subjected to sideslip β, the components of the free stream velocity
normal to the quarter chord line on the two wing halves will be unequal i.e. V cos
(-) on the right wing and V cos (+) on the left wing. Consequently, even if
the two wing halves are at the same angle of attack, they would experience
unequal effective dynamic pressures and their drags will be different. This will
cause a yawing moment. The contribution of a swept wing to C nβ can be derived
in the following manner.
Fig.5.2 Swept wing with sideslip
In general, the chord of the wing and the span wise lift distribution varies
with the span wise coordinate (y). However, for the sake of explanation let y be
the span wise location of the resultant drag on the right wing. Similarly let – y
be the location of the resultant drag on the left wing. Then, the yawing moments
due to the right and the left wing halves (Nw)r and (Nw)l are:
1 S
(Nw )r = ρ V 2 CD y cos2 (Λ-β) (5.6)
2 2

1 S
(Nw )l = - ρ V 2 CD y cos2 (Λ+β) (5.7)
2 2
Consequently, total yawing moment due to the wing is:
1 S
Nw = ρ V 2 CD y {cos2 (Λ-β)-cos2 (Λ+β)}
2 2
1 S
= ρ V 2 CD y {4cosΛ sinΛ cosβsinβ} (5.8)
2 2
For small β, sin β = β and cos β = 1. Hence,
1 β
Nw = CD S y ρ V2 sin2Λ; β in degrees. (5.9)
2 57.3
Nw y β
Hence, (Cn )w = = CD sin 2Λ (5.10)
1 2 b 57.3
ρV Sb
2
Differentiating Eq.(5.10) with β yields :
y 1
(Cnβ )w = CD sin2Λ (5.11)
b 57.3
Remarks:
i) As mentioned earlier Eq.(5.11) is an approximate estimate. Reference 1.12,
based on DATCOM (Ref.2.2), gives a more accurate formula for Cnβw due to
sweep. The formula shows that Cnβw depends also on the wing aspect ratio and
the distance between the a.c. and c.g.. Further the contribution is proportional to
CL2 and would be small during cruise.
ii) A wing with a dihedral also contributes to Cnβw. See section 6.5.1.
iii) It may be noted that the contribution of wing to Cnβ is positive. Since, Cnβ
should be positive for directional static stability, a positive contribution to Cnβ is
called stabilizing contribution.

In subsection 2.5.1 it is shown that a fuselage at an angle of attack
produces a pitching moment and also contributes to Cmα . Similarly, a fuselage in
sideslip produces a yawing moment and contributes to Cnβ of the airplane.

However, in an airplane, the flow past a fuselage is influenced by the flow past

the wing. Hence, instead of an isolated fuselage, the contributions of wing and
fuselage to Cnβ are estimated togather. It is denoted by Cnβwf . Based on Ref.2.2,
section 5.2.3, the following formula is presented for Cnβwf .
Sfs lf
Cnβwf = -k n kRl deg-1 (5.12)
Sw b
where, kn is the wing body interference factor which depends on the following
fuselage parameters.
(a) Length of fuselage ( l f ). (b) Projected side area of fuselage (Sfs).
(c) Heights (h1 and h2) of fuselage at l f /4 and 3 l f / 4 . (d) Distance, from nose, of
the station where the height of fuselage is maximum (xm).

Figure 5.3 illustrates the procedure to obtain kn when xm / l f = 0.586, lf2 / Sfs= 10,
(h1/h2)1/2 = 1.0 and h / wf = 1.0.

The quantity kRl is an empirical factor which depends on the Reynolds number of
the fuselage (Rlf = Vρ l f /µ) (see Fig.5.4).
Appendix ‘C’ illustrates the procedure to obtain Cnβwf.
Fig.5.3 Wing body interference factor


Fig.5.4 Correction factor for Reynolds number

(Adapted from Ref.2.2, section 5.2.1)
Example 5.1
A fuselage has the following dimensions. Obtain its contribution to Cnβ at
sea level at a speed of 100 m/s.
lf = 13.7 m, xm = 8.0m, wf = 1.6m, Sfs = 15.4 m2
h =1.6 m, h1 = 1.6 m, h2 = 1.07,
Wing: area = 26.81 m2, span =13.7 m.
Solution:
(I) (h1/h2)1/2 = 1.223, xm / lf = 8/13.7 = 0.584
lf 2/ Sfs = (13.7)2/15.4 = 12.19; h / wf = 1.6/1.6 =1.0
Using these parameters, Fig.5.3 gives:
kn = 0.0017
(II) Flight speed is 100 m/s at sea level
Hence, Rlf = 100x13.7/ (14.6x10-6) = 93.83x106
From Fig.3.4 kRl = 1.96
Sfs l f
Cnβwf = -k n kRl deg-1
Sw b

= - 0.0017 x 1.96(15.4/26.81)(13.7/13.7) = - 0.00191 deg-1.
Remark:
As the flight speed changes Rlf also changes. The effect of this change
can be assessed as follows.
Let, Vmin = 60 m/s, Vmax = 250 m/s.
Then, the range of Rlf at sea level would be 56.3 x 106 to 235 x 106. The value of
kRl (from Fig.5.4) would be between 1.75 to 2.16 and Cnβwf would be change from
0.00017 to 0.00217.

Chapter 5
Lecture 17
Topics
5.6 Contribution of vertical tail to Cnβ

(Cnβv )
5.6.2 Expression for (Cnβv )

5.7.1 Pedal-fixed static directional stability
5.7.2 Weather cock effect
5.7.3 Pedal-free static directional stability
Example 5.2
5.8 Directional control

Figure 5.5 shows a tractor propeller in sideslip. It produces a side force Y p
and yawing moment Yplp. Since, the moment depends on angle of sideslip, there
is a direct contribution to Cnβ. It is denoted by Cnβp. It is seen that the contribution
is negative and hence, destabilizing. If the airplane has a pusher propeller, then
the contribution is positive and stabilizing. A jet engine in sideslip will also
produce Cnβp whose value will depend on the engine location.
A propeller also has an indirect contribution to Cnβ. The slipstream of a
propeller in sideslip would be asymmetric (Fig.5.6). It is observed that for a
positive value of β, the left wing will have a larger region influenced by the

propeller slipstream than the right wing. Since, the dynamic pressure in the
slipstream is higher than the free stream dynamic pressure, the left wing, with
larger region influenced by slip stream, will have higher drag than the right wing.
This would result a slight destabilizing contribution to Cnβ.
Fig.5.5 Propeller and vertical tail in sideslip

Fig.5.6 Slip stream of a propeller in sideslip
Remark:
An accurate estimate of Cnβp is difficult due to the influence of various factors.It is
generally small and ignored during initial estimate of Cnβ.
5.6 Contribution of vertical tail
In subsection 2.4.4. it is shown that the horizontal tail at an angle of attack
produces lift Lt and a pitching moment Mcgt. Similarly, a vertical tail at an angle of
attack (αv) would produce a side force (Yv) and a yawing moment (Nv) (See
Fig.5.5).The side force Yv is perpendicular to the velocity Vvt as shown in Fig.5.5.
However, the angle αv is small and Yv is taken perpendicular to FRL.
Now,
1
Yv = - CLαv  v ρ Vvt2 Sv (5.13)
2
Note that as per convention Yv is positive in the direction of y-axis. Hence,
positive β gives negative Yv. The yawing moment due to vertical tail is given as:
1
Nv = CLαv  v ρ Vvt2 Sv lv (5.14)
2

1
CLαv  v ρ Vvt2 Sv lv
and Cnv = 2 (5.14a)
1
ρ V2 S b
2
The wing body combination has the following influences.
(a) The angle of attack (αv) at vertical tail is different from  and (b) The dynamic
pressure (½ ρV2vt) experienced by it (vertical tail) is different from (½ ρV2)
(Figs.5.5, 5.7). The angle of attack is modified as:
αv = β + σ ; (5.15)
where, σ is called side wash.

The dynamic pressure experienced by tail is expressed as:
½ ρV2vt = ηv (½ ρV2) (5.16)
Fig.5.7 Side wash on vertical tail

5.6.2 Expression for CnβV
Taking into account the interference effects Eq.(5.14a) becomes:

1
CLαv (β+σ) ρ Vvt2 Sv
Cnv = 2
1
ρ V 2 Sb
2
= Vv ηv CLαv (β+σ) (5.17)
where,
1
ρ Vvt2
Sv lv
Vv = and ηv = 2 ; (5.18)
S b 1
ρV 2
2
Differentiating Eq.(5.17) by β gives :
dσ
Cnβv = Vv ηv CLαv (1+ ) (5.19)
dβ
As mentioned earlier, the wing and fuselage influence σ and ηv (Fig.5.7). Based
on Ref.2.2, the following empirical formula gives the influence of wing-body
combination.
Sv
dσ S z
ηv (1+ ) = 0.724 + 3.06 + 0.4 w + 0.009 A w (5.20)
dβ 1+cos Λc/4w d
where zw is the distance, parallel to z-axis , between wing root quarter chord
point and the FRL ; d is the maximum depth of the fuselage; and cos c / 4w is
sweep of wing quarter chord line.

Remark:
The slope of lift curve of the vertical tail (CLαv) can be calculated by
knowing its effective aspect ratio (Aveff) and using methods similar to those for
estimation of the slope of lift curve of the wing. The aspect ratio of the vertical tail
(Av) is b2
v / Sv , where bv is generally the height of vertical tail above the centre
line of the portion of the fuselage where the vertical tail is located and S v is the
area of the vertical tail above the aforesaid centre line. The effective aspect ratio

(Aveff) of the vertical tail is much higher than Av and depends on the interference
effect due to fuselage and horizontal tail. For details see appendix ‘C’, and
Ref.1.8b, Ref.1.12 , chapter 3 and Ref. 1.7, chapter 8.
Having obtained the contributions of various components to Cnβ , various
aspects of directional static stability are discussed below.

5.7.1 Pedal-fixed static stability
As regards the action of pilot to effect the movement of control surfaces,
the following may be pointed out.
(a) The elevator is moved by the forward or backward movement of the control
stick. (b) The ailerons are operated by the sideward movement of the control
stick. (c) The rudder is moved by pushing the pedals.
In longitudinal static stability analysis the stick-fixed and stick-free cases
were considered. These deal with the elevator-fixed and elevator-free cases
respectively. Similarly, in directional static stability, rudder-fixed and rudder-free
stability is considered. These cases are also referred to as pedal-fixed and pedal-
free stability analyses.
In the analysis of directional static stability carried out so far the
contributions of wing, fuselage, nacelle, power and vertical tail to C nβ have been
considered. Noting that for the pedal-fixed stability, the rudder deflection is
constant, (Cnβ )pedal-fixed is given by adding these individual contributions i.e.
dσ
Cnβ = (Cnβ )w + (Cnβ )f,n,p + VV ηv CLαv (1+ ) (5.21)
dβ
5.7.2 Weathercock effect
Whenever an airplane, originally flying with zero sideslip, develops a
sideslip (β), the vertical tail tends to bring it back to the original position of zero
sideslip. This effect is similar to that of the vane attached to the weathercock
which is used to indicate the direction of wind and is located on top of buildings in
meteorological departments and near airports (Fig.5.8). When the vane is at an
angle of attack, it produces lift on itself and consequently a moment about its
hinge. This moment becomes zero only when the vane is aligned with the wind

direction. Hence, the vane is always directed in a way that the arrow points in the
direction opposite to that of the wind. The action of vertical tail on the airplane is
also similar to that of the vane and helps in aligning the airplane axis with wind
direction. Hence, the directional stability is also called weathercock stability.
Fig.5.8 Weathercock or weather vane

(Source:www.pro.corbis.com )
5.7.3 Pedal-free static directional stability:

As noted in section 3.1 the hinge moment on the elevator is made zero by
suitable deflection of the elevator tab. Similarly, the hinge moment of the rudder
is also brought to zero by suitable deflection of the rudder tab. The analysis of
static stability when rudder is left free to move is called rudder-free or pedal-free
stability.
The equation for hinge moment about rudder hinge (Chr) can be expressed as:
Chr = Chαv v + Chδr δr + Chδrtab δrt (5.22)
Where, δr is the rudder deflection and δrt is the deflection of the rudder tab. The
floating angle of rudder, δrfree is obtained when Chr is zero i.e.

(Chαv αv + Chδrtab δrt )
δr free = - (5.23)
Chδr
dδr free C dαv C dσ
Hence, = - hαv = - hαv (1+ ) (5.24)
dβ Chδr dβ Chδr dβ
Remarks:
i) Convention for rudder deflection
A rudder deflection to left is taken as positive. It is a general convention
that a positive control deflection produces negative moment. This is consistent
with the convention that rotation is taken positive clockwise when looking along
the axis about which the rotation takes place.
ii) Chαv and Chδr and level of static direction stability with rudder free
Noting the convention for β, and with the help of pressure distribution
shown in Fig.3.3, it is observed that a positive value of β would produce a
negative force on the rudder and hence a positive hinge moment. Consequently,
Chαv is positive. In a similar manner it is observed that a positive rudder deflection
would produce a positive side force and hence, negative hinge moment. Thus,
Chδr is negative. Hence, from Eq.(5.24), (dδr)free / dβ is negative. Thus, when a
disturbance produces positive β, the rudder will take such a position that the
rudder deflection is negative. The result is a negative change in yawing moment
or reduced static stability. Thus, the level of static directional stability will be
reduced when the pedal is free.
In longitudinal static stability, the shift of c.g. has a profound effect on the
level of stability ( Cm ) as the contribution of wing to Cm depends directly on
(xcg - xac ) . Thus, the shift in the position of c.g, during flight, almost decides the
area of the horizontal tail. However, a shift of c.g. does not cause a significant
change in Cnβ because such a change may only have a secondary effect by way
of slightly affecting lv. Hence, to arrive at the area of the vertical tail, a criterion to
prescribe a desirable value of Cnβ is needed. Reference 1.7, Chapter 8 gives:
W 12
(Cnβ )desirable = 0.005 ( ) deg-1 (5.25)
b2

where, W is the weight of the airplane in lbs and b is the wing span in feet.
Reference 1.1, Appendix ‘B’ gives characteristics of seven airplanes. It is
observed that for the subsonic airplanes Cnβ lies between 0.0013 to 0.0026 deg-1.
However, the final value of Cnβ is decided after the dynamic stability analysis.
From lateral dynamic stability analysis (chapter 9) it will be observed that a large
value of Cnβ leads to some unacceptable response of the airplane to the
disturbance.
Example 5.2
A model of an airplane is tested in a wind tunnel without the vertical tail.
Contributions of various components give Cnβ = -0.0012 deg-1. If the vertical tail is
to be positioned at a point on the aft end of the fuselage giving a tail length of
4.8 m, How much vertical tail area is required to give an overall
Cηβ = 0.0012 deg-1? Assume that the vertical tail would have an effective aspect
ratio of 2, the wing area is 18 m2, wing span is 10.6 m and the wing is set at the
middle of the fuselage.
Solution:
Cnβ = (Cnβ)w + (Cnβ)f,n,p + (Cnβ)vt
Given: (Cnβ)w + (Cnβ)f,n,p = -0.0012
(Cnβ)required = 0.0012
Hence, (Cηβ)vt = 0.0012 - (- 0.0012) = 0.0024
From Eq.(5.19),
dσ
(Cnβ )v = Vv ηv CLαv (1+ )
dβ
I) Estimation of CLαv :
Aveff = 2.
The expression for CLαv is (Ref.1.8b):
2πA
CLα = in rad-1
A β (1+tan Λ c/2 )
2 2
M
2
2+ +4
K2 β2
where, βM = (1-M2)1/2, K = lift curve slope of airfoil / 2π.

Λ c/2 = sweep of mid chord line

As Mach number is low subsonic βM ≈ 1. Let K =1, Λ c = 0
w
4
Consequently,
2πA
CL =
2+ A 2 +4
2π×2
For A Veff of 2.0, CLαv = = 2.60 rad-1 = 0.0454 deg-1
2
2+ 2 +4
2
10.6
Aw = = 6.24
18
Remark:
Reference 1.7, Fig.8.8 gives CLαv=0.044 deg-1 for Aveff of 2.0.
dσ
II) Estimation of ηv (1+ )
dβ
dσ
The expression for ηv (1+ ) as given by Eq.(5.20) depends on Sv / S but Sv / S
dβ
is not known at this stage. Hence, as a first approximation it is assumed that
Sv / S = 0.12. The quantity zw/d can be taken as zero for the mid wing
configuration.
dσ 0.12
Hence, ηv (1+ ) = 0.724 + 3.06 ( ) + 0 + 0.009 × 6.24 = 0.964
dβ 1+1
Consequently, the first estimation of Vv is:
0.0024 = Vv ×1× 0.0454 × 0.964 or Vv = 0.05484
Sv lv 10.6
Noting that, Vv = , gives Sv = 0.05484 × 18 × = 2.18 m2
S b 4.8
To improve the estimation of Sv,its value in the previous step is substituted in the
dσ
expression for ηv (1+ ) i.e.
dβ
dσ 2.18 / 18
ηv (1+ ) = 0.724 + 3.06 ( ) + 0 + 0.009 × 6.24 = 0.9655
dβ 1+1
The second estimation of Vv is:

0.0024
Vv = = 0.05475
0.9655 × 0.0454
Or Sv = 2.176 m2
Since, the two estimates are close to each other, the iteration is terminated and
Sv = 2.176 m2 is taken as the answer.
5.8 Directional Control

Control of rotation of the airplane about the z-axis is provided by the
rudder.
The critical conditions for design of rudder are:
(a) Adverse yaw,
(b) Cross wind take-off and landing,
(c) Asymmetric power for multi- engined airplanes and
(d) Spin
When an airplane is rolled to the right, the rate of roll produces a yawing
moment tending to turn the airplane to the left. Similarly, a roll to left produces
yaw to right. Hence, the yawing moment produced as a result of the rate of roll is
called adverse yaw. To explain the production of adverse yaw, consider an
airplane rolled to right, i.e. right wing down. Let, the rate of roll be ‘p’. The rate of
roll produces the following two effects.
a) A roll to right implies less lift on the right wing and more lift on the left wing.
This is brought about by aileron deflection – in the present case an up aileron on
the right wing and a down aileron on the left wing. Since, CL on the right wing is
less than CL on the left wing, the induced drag coefficient (CDi) on the right wing
is less than CDi on left wing. This results in a yawing moment causing the
airplane to yaw to left.
b) Due to the rolling velocity (p) a section on the down going wing at a distance y
from the FRL experiences a relative upward wind of magnitude ‘py’. At the same
time a section on the up going wing at a distance y from FRL experiences a
relative downward velocity of magnitude ‘py’. This results in the change of

direction of the resultant velocity on the two wing halves (Fig.5.9). Now, the lift
vector, being perpendicular to the resultant velocity, is bent forward on the down
going wing and bent backwards on the up going wing.Consequently, the
horizontal components of the lift on the two wing halves produce a moment
tending to yaw the airplane to left. An approximate estimate of the effect of
adverse yaw is (Ref.1.1, chapter 3):
CL pb
(Cn )adverseyaw  - (5.27)
8 2V
where, p = rate of roll in radians per second; b = wing span and V = flight
velocity .
Fig.5.9 Effect of rate of roll
An airplane is generally designed for a specific value of (pb/2V). For example,

Ref.1.7 Chapter 9 prescribes that up to 80% of Vmax the airplane should have:
pb / 2V = 0.07 for cargo/ bomber
pb / 2V = 0.09 for fighter
Hence, one of the criteria for rudder design is that it must be powerful enough to
counter the adverse yaw at prescribed rate of roll.
An Airplane sometimes encounters side winds during take-off and landing.
As regards control during this eventuality, the following three points may be
noted.
(1) When an airplane flying at a velocity ‘V’, encounters a side wind of velocity ‘v’,
the resultant velocity vector makes an angle Δβ to the plane of symmetry;
Δβ = v/V.

(2)The tendency of an airplane possessing directional static stability, is to align
itself with the wind direction (weather cock effect).
(3) During take-off and landing the pilot has to keep the airplane along the
runway. Hence, when a cross wind is present the airplane is side-slipping with
angle Δβ.
Thus, another criterion for the design of the rudder is required. It must be able to
counteract the yawing moment due to sideslip produced by the cross wind
(Cnβ x Δβ). This criterion becomes more critical at lower speeds because (a) the
effectiveness of the rudder, being proportional to V 2, is less at lower flight speeds
and (b) Δβ being proportional to 1/V, is high at low flight speeds.
According to Ref.1.1, chapter 2 the rudder must be able to overcome
v = 51 ft / s or 15 m/s at the minimum speed for the airplane. It may be pointed
out that on a rainy day, with heavy cross winds, the landing on the airport may be
refused if the cross wind is more than that permitted for the airplane.

Chapter 5
Lecture 18
Topics
Example 5.3
5.10 Effect of large angle of sideslip, rudder lock and dorsal fin
Control of the airplane in asymmetric power condition is critical for the
design of rudder in multi-engined airplanes. The following changes take place
when one of the engines of such an airplane fails (Ref.2.5, chapter 5).
(a) The engine that is operating causes a yawing moment T x yp (Fig.5.10 a).
(b) In the case of engine propeller combination the drag (De) of the propeller will
be large if it is held in the stopped condition. Generally the pitch of the propeller
is adjusted so that it does wind milling. This change of pitch is called feathering of
the propeller. In this situation, the drag due to propeller is small.

Fig.5.10a Airplane with one engine failure
(c) In the case of airplanes with jet engines, the failed engine is held in idling
condition. The drag due to the failed engine causes a yawing moment which
reinforces the yawing moment due to the operating engine. If the engine on the
right wing has failed then the yawing moment due to the operating and the failed
engines would cause a positive yawing moment (Fig.5.10 a).
Ne = ΔT x yp (5.28)
where, ΔT= thrust of live engine + drag of dead engine.

Ne
Or Cne = (5.29)
1
ρ V 2 Sb
2
(d) The engine failure may cause a small rolling moment in the case of engine
propeller combination. The cause is as follows.
When the engines are on, a portion of the wing on the two wing halves is affected
by the propeller slip stream. This effect (of slip stream) will be absent on the wing
half with failed engine. Noting that the slip stream has a higher dynamic
pressure, it is evident that when the engine on the right wing fails, the lift on it
(right wing) will be slightly lower than that on the left wing.Then the airplane
would experience positive (right wing down) rolling moment. The rolling moment
coefficient due to engine failure can be denoted by C′le.
(e) In the case of the engine failure on the right wing, Cne and C′le would both be
positive. These cause the airplane to have a positive rate of yaw (turning to right)
and positive rate of roll (right wing down). Consequently, the airplane sideslips
towards the live engine (β < 0) and banks towards the dead engine (Φ>0). The
sideslip and the roll rate tend to increase the angle of bank (see sections 6.4 to
6.8 for rolling moment due to sideslip, C′lβ). If aileron is used to reduce the bank,
it may cause more sideslip due to the effect of adverse yaw (see section 5.8.1).
Hence, the usual practice is to counter the yawing motion by appropriate rudder
deflection. Then, the ailerons are deflected to reduce the angle of bank which
had developed in the meanwhile. Reference 2.5, chapter 5 may be consulted for
details.
Steady flight after engine failure

Reference 2.5, chapter 5, gives various ways of achieving steady flight
after engine failure. Two ways to achieve steady flight are described below.
a) The flight takes place with wings level (Φ = 0). In this case, the airplane
sideslips (Fig.5.10b). The side force due to the sideslip needs to be counteracted
by side force from the rudder. As both the yawing moment due to engine failure
(Cne) and that due to sideslip (Cnβ β) are in the same direction (Fig.5.10 b), fairly

large rudder deflection is required. Reference 2.5, chapter 5, states that required
β would be around 50.
Fig.5.10 b Equilibrium with one engine failure and with wings level
b) In the second flight technique, the sideslip angle β is zero. In this case the side
force is to be produced by banking the wing (live engine down). Thus, the side
force on the vertical tail due to rudder is countered by the lateral component of
airplane weight. The required angle of bank is within 30. Reference 2.5,

chapter 5, recommended this procedure as it is favorable from the point of view
of airplane performance.
Minimum control speed
The maximum yawing moment coefficient due to the rudder would be
Cnδr(δr)max. This remains almost constant with speed. However, from Eq.(5.29) it
is seen that the yawing moment due to engine (Cne) increases as flight speed (V)
decreases. For a jet engined airplane, if T is assumed to be nearly constant with
V, then Cne would increase as V2. For an engine propeller combination when
THP is nearly constant with speed, the thrust T would be proportional to 1 / V.
Hence, Cne would be proportional to V3. These facts viz. (Cnδ(δr)max) being
constant and Cne increasing as V decreases, indicate that there is a speed (Vmc)
below which the full rudder deflection (δr)max would not be able to control the
airplane in the event of engine failure. This speed is referred to as minimum
control speed (Vmc). Example 5.3 illustrates the procedure to calculate Vmc.
Example 5.3
Obtain the minimum control speed in the event of an engine failure for the
following airplane:
S = 65 m2, Sv = 6.5 m2, lv = 10.5 m, BHP = 880 kW (per engine),
propeller efficiency = 75%, yp = 4.2 m, dCLv / dδr = 0.02 deg-1, (δr)max = 25º.
Solution:
Under equilibrium condition, the yawing moment due to rudder balances the
moment which is due to failure of engine. Neglecting the yawing moment due to
feathered propeller, the yawing moment due to operating engine is:
T x Yp = ηp (BHP) yp / V ;
where, ηp= propeller efficiency.
1 dCLv
Yawing moment due to rudder = ρ V 2 ηv Sv lv δr
2 dδr
For equilibrium:
1 dCLv
ηp(BHP) yp / V = ρ V 2 ηv Sv lv δr (5.30)
2 dδr

It is assumed that (a) flight is under sea level conditions (ρ = 1.225 kg / m3),
(b) ηp is constant, (c) δrmax = 250 and (d) ηv =1.0. From Eq.(5.30), Vmc is obtained
as :
880×1000 1 2
0.75 × ×4.2 = × 1.225 Vmc × 1× 6.5×10.5(-0.02)25
Vmc 2
Or Vmc = 41.64 m/s or 149.9 kmph.
Remark:
In the above calculations, Vmc has been obtained in free flight. However, engine
failure is more critical in take-off and landing conditions especially in the
presence of the cross wind. Consequently, Vmc would be higher than that in the
free flight. See Ref.2.5, chapter 5 for details.
Spin is a flight condition in which the airplane wings are stalled and it
moves downward rapidly along a helical path. The only control that is still
effective is the rudder. The way to come out of the spin is to stop the rotation, go
into a dive and pull out. The rudder must be powerful enough to get the airplane
out of spin. Refer to section 10.1. for more information.
When an airplane performs a steady level turn it is going around a vertical
axis with angular velocity  = V/R, where V is the flight velocity and R is the
radius of turn. Figure 5.11 shows the flight when the airplane is turning to left. It is
seen that a section on right wing at a distance „r‟ from c.g. is moving forward with
velocity  (R+r) or (V+  r).

Fig.5.11 Adverse yaw during turn

Similarly, a section at a distance „r‟ from c.g. on the lift wing is moving with
velocity  (R-r) or (V-  r). Thus, the section on the right wing experiences more
dynamic pressure than that on the left wing. Hence, the drag of the right wing is
more than that of the left wing and the airplane experiences a yawing moment.
To prevent the airplane from side slipping or to execute a coordinated turn,
rudder needs to be deflected. Thus, in a coordinated turn the aileron and rudder
would have the following deflections.
(a) The bank angle of the wing is constant and it would appear that the ailerons
should be brought to neutral after attaining the desired angle of bank. However,
to compensate for the rolling moment due to yaw, the ailerons are given a small
deflection.
(b) The rudder is deflected adequately to prevent sideslipping of the airplane.
5.10 Effect of large angle of side slip, rudder lock and dorsal fin
In order to understand the phenomenon of rudder lock, the following three points
may be noted.

(1) At high values of β (greater than about 15o), the vertical tail begins to stall and
the following changes occur.
a) Chβ and Chδ change in such a way that δfree is more positive than before
(Fig.5.12).
b) Contribution of fuselage to Cn becomes nonlinear.
(2) The yawing moment coefficient(Cn) can be expressed as :
Cn = Cnβ β + Cnδr δr (5.31)
Cn CLv / δr

where, Cnδr = = -Vv ηv  r CLαv , r = (5.31a)
δr CLv / αv
Thus, the rudder deflection required to make Cn equal to zero or (δr)reqd is:
Cnβ
 δr reqd = β (5.32)
Cnδr
Note that Cnβ is positive and Cnδr is negative. Hence,  δr reqd increases with β.
(3) It may be recalled from exercise 3.3 that, the control force is proportional to
the difference between the control deflection required and the floating angle
(δfree).
Figure 5.12 shows the variations of (δr)reqd and (δr)free as functions of β. When β
is greater than about 150, (δr)free increases rapidly. It ((δr)free) equals (δr)reqd at
β = βrl and then exceeds (δr)reqd (Fig.5.12). In this situation, the pedal force would
be reverse in direction. This phenomenon is called rudder lock as rudder may go
to the mechanical stop to rudder deflection and get locked there (Ref.1.7, chapter
8).

Fig.5.12 Rudder lock
Prevention of rudder lock

The rudder lock is prevented by adding a small extension, at the beginning
of the vertical tail, as shown in Fig.5.13. It is called the dorsal fin (Fig.5.13). The
way a dorsal fin prevents rudder lock can be explained as follows (Ref.3.1,
chapter 15).
Fig.5.13 Dorsal fin

When wind tunnel tests were carried out on fuselage attached with fins at the
rear, the following effects were observed.
(a) There was a change in Cnf vs β curve at high values of β (Fig.5.14).
(b) The stalling of the vertical tail was also delayed by dorsal fin. Reference 1.4,
chapter 14 points out that the dorsal fin acts as a vertical slender delta wing
which generates a strong vortex and delays separation of flow on the vertical tail.
Thus, with dorsal fin added, the contribution of the fuselage plus tail does not
change sign even at β values as high as 300 (Fig.5.14).
Fig.5.14 Effect of dorsal fin attached to vertical tail

(Adapted from “Dommasch, D.O., Sherby, S.S., Connolly, T.F. “Airplane
aerodynamics” , Chapter 15 with permission from Pearson Education, Copyright
C 1967 )

The schematic variations of pedal force with and without dorsal fin are shown in
Fig.5.15. As an application of dorsal fin, Fig. 5.16 shows a passenger airplane
with dorsal fin.
Fig. 5.15 Variation of pedal force with β (schematic)
Fig.5.16 Airplane with dorsal fin

(Adapted from drawing of SARAS airplane supplied by
National Aerospace Laboratories, Bangalore, India)

Chapter 5
Exercises
(a) Distinguish between sideslip and yaw
(b) In a variable sweep airplane the wing sweep angle (  ) changes during
the flight as the airplane goes from subsonic to high subsonic and then to
supersonic speed (see Ref. 2.3 and on internet the details of airplanes like
F-111 and TU 160). What changes occur in longitudinal and lateral stability,
when  changes from zero at low subsonic speed to 350 at high subsonic
speed?
(c) What is the purpose of a dorsal fin and how is it achieved?
(d) What are the critical cases for design of a rudder ?
5.2 An airplane with the following characteristics is coming in to land at sea level
at a speed of 1.2 times the stalling speed. What would be the amount of
rudder deflection required if cross wind of 10 m/s is encountered by the
airplane?
W/S = 1500 N/m2, Vv = 0.05, CL v = 2.87 rad-1 , Cnβ = 0.071 rad-1,
CLmax = 1.8, ηv = 1.0 , τ rudder = 0.5.
[Ans: δr = 12.590 ]
5.3 Explain how adverse yaw is brought about in an airplane. The wind tunnel
tests on an airplane model indicate that full aileron deflection to right
introduces an adverse yaw causing Cn = -0.008. How many degrees of
rudder must be applied to keep the sideslip zero during the roll? Given that
S = 16.4 m2,Sv = 2.1 m2, lv = 5.5 m, b = 9.8 m, ηv = 0.95 , CLαv = 0.045 deg-1,
τ rudder = 0.5.
[Ans: δr = 5.20 ]

Chapter 6
Lateral static stability and control
(Lectures 19,20 and 21)
Keywords : Dihedral effect ; criterion for stable directional effect ( Clβ );
contributions of wing, fuselage, vertical tail and power to Clβ ; choice of dihedral
angle; aileron, differential aileron and spoiler aileron ; rolling moment due to
aileron deflection ; damping moment ; aerodynamic balancing ; trim tab, balance
tab and servo tab.
Topics
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Static stability of motion about x-axis – dihedral effect
6.3 Rolling moment and its convention
6.4 Criterion for stabilizing dihedral effect
6.5 Contribution of wing to C′lβ
6.5.1 Contribution of wing dihedral angle to C′lβ
6.5.2 Contribution of wing sweep to C′lβ
6.6. Contribution of fuselage to C′lβ
6.7 Contribution of vertical tail to C′lβ
6.8 Contributions of propeller and flaps to C′lβ
6.9 Selection of dihedral angle
6.9.1 Wing with anhedral
6.10 Roll control
6.10.1 Aileron, diferential aileron and spoiler aileron
6.10.2 Rolling moment due to aileron
6.10.3 Damping moment
6.10.4 Rate of roll achieved
6.10.5 Aileron power
6.10.6 Control force due to aileron
6.11 General discussions on control surface
6.11.1 Aerodynamic balancing

6.11.2 Set back hinge or over hang balance
6.11.3 Horn balanace
6.11.4 Internal balance or internal seal
6.11.5 Frise aileron
6.11.6 Tabs – introductory remark
6.11.7 Trim tab
6.11.8 Link balance tab
6.11.9 Servo tab
6.12 Power boosted and power operated controls and fly-by-wire
6.13 miscelleneous topics
6.13.1 Mass balancing of controls
6.13.2 All movable tail
6.13.3 Elevons
6.13.4 V– tail
6.13.5 Configuration with two vertical tails
Reference
Exercises

Chapter 6
Lateral static stability and control - 1
Lecture 19
Topics
6.1 Introduction
6.3 Rolling moment and its convention
6.5.2 Contribution of wing sweep to C′lβ
6.6. Contribution of fuselage to C′lβ
6.8 Contributions of propeller and flaps to C′lβ
6.1 Introduction
Chapters 2 to 4 dealt with the static stability and control of motion about
the y-axis. Subsequently, chapter 5 dealt with the static stability and control of
motion about the z-axis. In this chapter, the static stability and control of motion
about the x-axis are discussed. However, as mentioned in section 5.1, the lateral
and directional motions are interlinked and this aspect is highlighted when
needed.
The lateral stability analysis deals with the motion about x-axis. In this
context the following three points may be noted.
(a) The rotation about x-axis leads to the bank angle Φ (Fig.1.12).
(b) A disturbance would change the bank angle from Φ to (Φ + Δ Φ).

(c) For static stability about x-axis, an airplane should develop, a rolling moment
to bring the airplane to the original bank angle.
To examine the lateral static stability,consider an airplane in a steady,
level flight. In this flight the x-axis coincides with the velocity vector (V) and Φ= 0.
Let the airplane be given a bank angle Φ gently so that the rate of roll is
negligible. It is noticed that even in the banked position the aerodynamic field
remains symmetric about the plane of symmetry. Hence, no restoring rolling
moment is produced. Thus, the airplane is neutrally stable about x-axis. The
restoring moment is brought about in the following manner.
(1) when an airplane acquires a bank angle a component of the weight,
W sinΦ, acts in the y-direction and the airplane begins to sideslip. Consider a roll
to right, i.e. right wing down. Due to W sinΦ, the airplane begins to sideslip to
right or experiences a relative wind from right to left. This produces a positive β.
(2) If the airplane is rolled to right with an angular velocity ‘p’ then, as pointed out
in subsection 5.8.1 (on adverse yaw), the airplane develops yaw to left. Which
results again in a positive β.
(3) When an airplane has a sideslip it produces both rolling moment and yawing
moment. If the rolling moment so produced, tends to restore the airplane to the
original attitude of Φ = 0, then it can be considered as a stabilizing effect.
Rolling moment due to sideslip is called dihedral effect.
Remark:
Some books (e.g. Ref.1.5) do not discuss static stability about x-axis.
However, continuing with Ref.1.1, chapter 2, Ref.1.7, chapter 8 and Ref.1.12,
chapter 3, this topic is treated in this chapter.
6.3. Rolling moment and its convention
Rolling moment is denoted as L′ to distinguish it from lift which is denoted
by L. This notation is also used in Ref.3.1.
Rolling moment coefficient is denoted as C’l i.e.
' L'
C =
l (6.1)
1
ρ V 2Sb
2

Convention for rolling moment
A rolling moment which causes roll to right or right wing down, is taken as
positive. It may be recalled that a moment is positive in clockwise direction when
looking along the positive direction of the axis.
As mentioned earlier, a bank to right produces positive β. This β should
produce a negative L′ to bring the airplane back to zero roll. Hence, for stabilizing
effect, C′lβ should be negative.
The contribution to C’ lβ can be expressed as:
C'lβ = (C'lβ )w +(C'lβ )f,n,p +(C'lβ )vt (6.2)

The contributions of wing to C'lβ are due to the dihedral angle ( Γ ) and the
sweep (Λ).
A wing is said to have a dihedral, when the tips of the wing are at a higher
level than the root of the wing (Fig.6.1). The contribution to C′lβ due to dihedral
angle ( Γ ) can be calculated with the following steps.
(a) Assume that the airplane rolls to right.
(b) It develops positive β.
(c) Vsin β is the sideward component of the relative velocity (side wind).
(d) The component of the side wind (V sin β) perpendicular to the wing is
V sin β sin Γ. But, it is upward on the right wing and downward on the left wing
(Fig.6.1).
(e) Δα, the magnitude of the change in the angle of attack on the two wing
halves, is:
V sinβ sinΓ v
Δα = Γ β = Γ
V V
v = Vsin β is the sideward velocity.

Fig 6.1 Contribution of dihedral angle to C’l
(f) However, Δα on the right wing = βΓ and Δα on the left wing = -βΓ. Hence, the
lifts on the two wing halves are unequal and a rolling moment is produced.
Rolling moment due to Δα on the right wing is:
b/2
1 dCL
L'wr = - ρ V 2
2 dα
Δα  c y dy
0
Note: ΔCL = Δα (dCL/dα)
Rolling moment due to Δα on the left wing is:

b/2
1 dCL
L'wl = - ρ V 2 Δα  c y dy Note: Δα is negative on left wing.
2 dα 0
Finally ,
b/2
1 dCL
(L'w )Γ = -2 ρ V 2 Δα  c y dy
2 dα 0
2 b/2
Substituting Δα = β Γ and y=  c y dy , gives :
S 0

1 dCL S
(L'w )Γ = -2 ρ V2 Γβ y (6.3)
2 dα 2
1 dCL y
Or (C'l w )Γ = (L'w )Γ / ( ρ V 2 S b) = - Γ β (6.4)
2 dα b
dCL y
Hence, (C'lβ ) = - Γ (6.4a)
dα b
Remarks:
i)It may be noted that the contribution of dihedral to Clβ' is negative.Since, Clβ'
should be negative for static stability, the contribution of dihedral to Clβ' is called
a stabilizing contribution.
ii)For a wing with taper ratio λ, Eq.(6.4a) gives:
dCL  2(1+2λ) 
(Clβ' )Γ =-0.25 Γ per radian (6.5)
dα  3(1+λ) 
iii) Reference 1.12 chapter 3 and Ref.2.2, section 5.1.2 give refined estimates of
(Clβ' )Γ .
6.5.2 Contribution of wing to sweep to C′lβ

While discussing the contribution of wing sweep to Cnβ, it was pointed out
in section 5.3 that for a wing with sideslip, the normal components of free stream
velocity (V) are different on the two wing halves (Fig.5.2). This gives rise to
different drags on the two wing halves and contributes to yawing moment.
Similarly, the difference in normal velocity components would result in the lift on
the two wing halves being different in this case. This would give rise to a rolling
moment. The contribution of sweep to C′lβ is obtained by the following steps.
The contributions of the right wing and left wing to the rolling moment are:
S 1
(L'wr )Λ = - CL ρ V2 y cos2 (Λ - β) (6.6)
2 2
S1
(L'wl )Λ = CL ρ V2 y cos2 (Λ + β) (6.7)
22
S1
Hence,(L' w )Λ = - CL ρ V2 y {cos2 (Λ - β) - cos2 (Λ + β)}
22

S 1
= - CL ρV2 y {4cosΛ cosβ sinΛ sinβ} (6.8)
2 2
where, y is the location of the resultant lift on the wing half.
Since, β is small,
1
(L' w )Λ = - CL ρ V2 S y β sin 2Λ (6.9)
2
y
(Clβw )Λ = - CL β sin 2Λ (6.10)
b
y
(Clβw )Λ = - CL sin2Λ (6.11)
b
Remarks:
i) The contribution due to sweep back is negative and hence stabilizing. Note
that it is proportional to CL.
ii) Reference 1.12 gives an improved estimate of (Clβw )Λ . The value of (Clβw )Λ
given by this reference, increases monotonically with  .

6.6 Contribution of fuselage to C’lβ
The contribution of fuselage to C′lβ arises due to the interference effect.
Consider an airplane having positive β or the sideward velocity component
(v = V sinβ) from right to left. Figure 6.2 shows the displacement of streamlines
for high wing and low wing configurations. It is observed that for the high wing
case the change in angle of attack, Δα, is positive on the right wing and negative
on the left wing. This would result in a negative rolling moment which is a
stabilizing contribution. For a low wing configuration the effect would be opposite
and a destabilizing contribution. References 1.8b and 1.12, give elaborate
methods of estimating effect of wing fuselage interference. Reference 1.7
chapter 9 gives the following approximate estimates for high wing, mid-wing and
low wing cases.
ΔC′lβ = - 0.0006 deg-1 for high wing,

= 0.00 for mid-wing and
= +0.0006 deg-1 for low wing configuration.

Fig 6.2 Effect of wing location on C′lβ

It is shown in section 5.6 that a vertical tail with a positive β causes a
negative side force. This side force generally acts above the c.g and would
contribute a negative rolling moment (Fig.6.3).
Fig.6.3 Contribution of vertical tail to C′lβ

The contribution of vertical tail can be expressed as:
L ' = - Yv Zv (6.12)
1 2 dC
=- ρV ηv Sv ( L )v βZ v
2 dα

Sv Z v
Hence, (C'lβ )v = - ηv CLαv (6.13)
S b
Remarks:
i) When the airplane has an angle of attack (α) the height Zv will depend on the
tail length lv and the angle of attack α. The example presented in appendix ‘C’
takes into account this correction.
ii) Generally (C′lβ)v is small.
6.8 Contributions due to propeller and flaps to C’lβ
Figure 5.6 shows a propeller in positive sideslip. As pointed out in section
5.5 the slipstream is rendered asymmetric due to sideslip. A larger portion of the
left wing is influenced by the slipstream as compared to that on the right wing.
Hence, the left wing will experience a higher dynamic pressure and consequently
will produce more lift as compared to the right wing. This causes a positive rolling
moment. Hence, C′lβ is positive, i.e. a destabilizing contribution. This influence
worsens when the flaps are deflected (Fig.5.6). However, the contributions due to
propeller and flap to C′lβ are small.
As noted earlier (Exercise 2.6 and Example 5.2), the levels of
longitudinal and directional static stability (Cmα and Cnβ) can be adjusted by
changing the areas of the horizontal tail (St) and the vertical tail (Sv) respectively.
The level of C′lβ, can be adjusted by choosing an appropriate dihedral angle. To
arrive at the dihedral angle needed for an airplane, the contributions due to wing
sweep, fuselage, power plant and vertical tail are first calculated. Then, the
difference between the sum of these contributions and the desirable level of C′lβ
is provided by choosing an appropriate dihedral angle.
Reference 1.7 chapter 9, provides a rough guideline as:
(C′lβ )desirable = - (Cnβ /2) (6.14)
However, the data on seven airplanes given in appendix ‘B’ of reference
1.1 indicates that Eq.(6.14) may be approximately valid for military airplanes. For
other airplanes, C′lβ could be equal to or higher than Cnβ. Actual values of C′lβ and

Cnβ are arrived at after carrying out the lateral dynamic stability analysis (refer to
chapter 9).
As mentioned earlier, C′lβ should not be too high. When an airplane has
highly swept wings and in addition has high wing configuration then the
contributions due to these factors may be large. Sometimes, such airplanes have
negative dihedral which is called anhedral (Fig.6.4).
Fig.6.4 An airplane with anehedral

(Note: swept and high wing configuration)

Chapter 6
Lecture 20
Topics
6.10 Roll control
6.10.1 Aileron, diferential aileron and spoiler aileron
Example 6.1
Example 6.2
Example 6.3
6.10 Roll control

A control in roll is needed to give a desired rate of roll (p).It may be
recalled from section 5.8.1 that pb/2V = 0.07 and 0.09 are desirable for cargo
and military airplanes respectively. The desired rate of roll is provided by the
ailerons.
6.10.1 Aileron, differential aileron and spoiler aileron
Roll control is achieved in the following ways:
(a) The deflections of the left and right ailerons are same in magnitude but
opposite in direction (±δa).
(b) Differential aileron: In this case the deflections of the right and the left ailerons
are unequal. This avoids adverse yaw. The up going aileron moves through a
larger angle than the down going aileron.
(c) The spoiler ailerons, on the two wing halves, are shown in Fig.1.16. When a
spoiler is deployed, it disturbs the flow on the upper surface of that wing half.

This causes loss of lift on that wing half and a rolling moment is produced. The
spoilers are generally used at high speeds on large airplanes to counter the loss
of effectiveness due to aileron reversal. For further discussion on spoiler aileron
see Ref.1.13, chapter 6.The phenomenon of aileron reversal can be briefly
explained as follows.
Though the airplane is assumed to be rigid in the present discussion, the
structure of an actual airplane is elastic. It deflects and twists under loads. When
an aileron is deflected down it increases the lift on that wing half but, it also
makes Mac more negative. Consequently, the wing twists and the angle of attack
decreases. The twist increases with flight speed. There is a speed, called aileron
reversal speed, at which the reduction in the angle of attack due to twist will
nullify the increase in the lift due to deflection of aileron. Beyond this speed a
downward deployment of aileron would actually decrease the lift. This is called
aileron reversal. It may be added that the interaction between aerodynamic and
elastic forces is discussed under the topic “Aeroelasticity”.
Remarks:
i) See section 6.11.5 for frise aileron.
ii) To calculate the rate of roll when the ailerons are deflected, the following two
aspects need to be discussed.
(a) The rolling moment due to aileron deflection.
(b) The damping in roll i.e. opposite rolling moment caused due to rolling motion.
The final rate of roll will be the balance between these two effects which are
estimated in the next two subsections.
The deflections of ailerons cause changes in the lift distributions on the
two wing halves which produce a rolling moment. The changes in the lift
distributions can be calculated using wing theory. However, this is a complicated
task and a simple method called „Strip theory‟ is used for preliminary estimates.
In this theory, it is assumed that the change in the lift distribution is confined to
the portion of the wing span over which the aileron extends. Further, the change
in local lift coefficients (ΔCl) is given by:

ΔCl = (Cl /δa )δa
Where, δa is the aileron deflection and
Cl
Cl /δa =  ail ;  ail = aileron effectiveness parameter.
α
Fig.6.5 Strip theory
Rolling moment due to aileron from a strip of width Δy (Fig.6.5) is:

1
ΔL'= ρ V 2 c dy y ΔCl ; c being the local chord (6.15)
2
1
ρ V 2c dy y ΔCl
ΔC'l = 2 ;
1
ρ V 2 Sb
2
cy C
= a0  ail δa dy; a0 = l of theairfoil (6.16)
Sb α
Hence, integrating over the portion of span where aileron extends, gives the
rolling moment coefficient due to both ailerons as:
b
k2
2a0  ail δa 2
(C'l )aileron =
Sb  c y dy
b
(6.17)
k1
2

Note that the aileron extends from (k1b/2) to (k2b/2).
To apply correction for the effect of finite aspect ratio of the wing, the slope of the
lift curve of the aerofoil (a0) in Eq.(6.17) is replaced by the slope of the lift curve
of wing „a‟ (Ref.1.7, chapter 9). Note: a = CLαw
b
k2
2a  ail δa 2
Hence, (C'l )aileron =
Sb  c y dy
b
(6.18)
k1
2

As the airplane rolls in flight, it produces an opposite rolling moment or a
damping moment. The explanation for this is as follows.
Consider an airplane rolled to right i.e. positive rolling motion with the right
wing going down and the left wing going up. Let, the angular velocity be „p‟. Now,
a wing section at a distance „y‟ from the c.g. experiences, on the right wing, a
downward velocity of magnitude „py‟ or a relative wind of „py‟ in the upward
direction (Fig 5.9). Similarly, a section at a distance „y‟ on the up going left wing
experiences a downward relative wind of „py‟ (Fig.5.9). Thus, the section on
down going wing experiences an increase in angle of attack of Δα = py / V. The
section on the up going wing experiences a decrease in angle of attack
Δα = -py / V. These changes in angles of attack would produce changes in the lift
on the two wing halves and hence a rolling moment of positive sign is produced.
However, this positive moment in present only when there is a rolling velocity „p‟.
Hence, it is called damping moment. It should be noted that the change in angle
of attack, though dependent on „py‟, takes place over the entire wing span.
Again, using strip theory, the rolling moment due to a strip of length Δy is:
(ΔL′)damp = ½ ρV2 c dy (ΔCl)damp y
1
ρ V 2 c dy (ΔCl )damp y
Or (ΔC'l )damp = 2 (6.19)
1
ρ V 2 Sb
2
py
Noting (ΔCl )damp = a0 Δα = a0 ,
V

c (ΔCl )damp y dy a0 pc y 2 dy
(ΔC'l )damp =  (6.20)
Sb VSb
Integrating over both the wing halves and noting that the rolling moment on both
the two wing halves reinforce each other, yields:
b/2
2a0 p
 cy
2
(C'l )damp = dy (6.21)
V Sb 0
To apply correction for the effect of finite aspect ratio of the wing, the slope of the
lift curve of the aerofoil (a0) is replaced again by the slope of the lift curve of
wing (a) i.e
b/2
2ap
cy
2
(C'l )damp = dy (6.22)
V Sb 0

The airplane would attain a steady rate of roll when the moment due to the
aileron deflection equals the moment due to damping i.e.
b
k2
2a ail δa 2 b/2
2ap
  cy
2
c y dy = dy (6.23)
Sb b V Sb 0
k1
2
Simplifying,
b
k2
2
 c y dy
b
k1
p =  ail V δa b/2
2
(6.24)
 cy
2
dy
0
b
k2
2
 c y dy
pb  ail bδa
b
k1
2
Hence, = b/2
(6.25)
2V 2
 cy
2
dy
0
Some times the deflections of aileron on the up going wing (δaup) and on the
down going wing (δadown) may not be equal. In this case δa is taken as :

δaup + δadown δatotal

δa = = , in this case,
2 2
b
k2
2
 c y dy
pb  ail b(δatotal )
b
k1
2
= b/2
(6.26)
2V 4

2
c y dy
0

Taking derivative of Eq.(6.18) with respect to δa gives the aileron power
as:
b
k2
Cl' 2CLαw  ail 2
δa
=C'lδa =
Sb  c y dy
b
(6.27)
k1
2

Ailerons are operated by sideward movement of the control stick. An
analysis of the control force required can be done in a manner similar to that for
rudder and elevator. However, in practice it is more complex as the ailerons on
the two wing halves move in opposite direction. See Ref. 1.7 Chapter 9 for some
information.
Example 6.1
The lift curve of a light airplane wing of rectangular planform is almost
straight between angle of zero lift (-30) and the incidence of 100 at which
CL=1.066. The wing chord is 2.14 m, the aspect ratio is 8.3 and the dihedral
angle is 50. Assuming that the level flight speed is 41.15 m/s, calculate rolling
moment set up by a sudden yaw of 50 (Adapted from Ref.1.4, chapter 14 with
permission of author).
Solution:
The data supplied are as follows.
α0L = -30, CL=1.066 at α = 100.
Hence, (dCL/dα)wing = CLαw = (1.066/13) = 0.082 deg-1.

c = c = 2.14 m, A = 8.3, Γ= 50, V = 41.15 m/s,

The rolling moment due to wing dihedral (L′w)Γ is to be calculated when β = 50.
From Eq.(6.3)
dCL 1
(L'w )Γ = -βΓ ρV2 S y
dα 2
b/2
2
y=
S  c y dy
0
In this case c is constant, hence

b/2
2c  y 2  2c 1 b2 c b2
y=   = =
S  2 0 S 2 4 S 4
c = 2.14 m, S = b x c, A = b2 / S = b2 / b x c
Hence, b = 8.3 x 2.14 =17.762 m ; b/2 = 8.881 m
S = b x c = 17.762 x 2.14 = 38.01 m2
Hence,
2.14 (17.762)2
y= × = 4.44 m
17.76 2× 2.14 4
And
L 
W  = 5o , β = 5o =-
5
×
5
57.3 57.3
1
× 0.082× 57.3 × ×1.225 (41.15)2 × 38.01 × 4.44
2
= - 6262.3 Nm
Remarks:
i) From the available data we can obtain (C′lβ)Γ. From Eq.(6.4a)
dCL y 5 4.44
(C'lβ )Γ = - Γ =- × 0.082 × 57.3 × = - 0.102 rad-1
dα b 57.3 17.762
= - 0.00179 deg-1
(C'lβ )Γ 0.00179
Hence, =- = - 0.000358
Γ 5

ii)The procedure to estimate (C'lβ )Γ given in Ref.1.8b, which is based on the one
given in Ref.2.2, gives for this case with Λ = 0, λ = 1 and A = 8.3:

(C'lβ )Γ
= - 0.00027 .
Γ
Example 6.2
A light airplane has a wing of rectangular planform 12.8 m span, 2.14 m
chord and CLmax of 1.5. The wing loading is 850 N/m2. The airplane is rolled
through 450 in one second when flying at three times its stalling speed. Estimate
the rolling moment created by the ailerons assuming steady motion (Adapted
from Ref.1.4, chapter 14 with permission of author).
Solution:
The prescribed data are as follow.
b = 12.8 m, c = 2.14 m, CLmax =1.5, W/S = 850 N m-2
The rate of roll (p) = 450 s-1 = 0.785 rad-1.
Flight velocity = V = 3 Vstall
2W 2× 850
Vstall = = = 30.41m/s
ρ S CLmax 1.225 ×1.5
V = 3 Vstall = 91.23 m/s.

To determine L′ due to aileron we assume that the rolling moment due to aileron
equals the damping moment.
From Eq.(6.22)
b/2
2ap
(Cl' )damp =  c y dy
2
VSb 0
S = 12.8 x 2.14 = 27.392 m2, A = b2/S = (12.8)2 / 27.395 = 5.981

2πA
Using CLα = which is approximately valid for unswept wing at low
2+ A 2 +4
Mach number (see example 5.2),
2 π ×5.981
CLα = = 4.552 rad-1
2
2+ 5.981 +4
b/2
y3 b/2 c b3 2.14 (12.8)3
Further, c  y 2 dy = c [ ]0 = = = 187 m4
0
3 3 8 3 8

2×4.552× 0.785
(C'l )damp = ×187 = 0.0415
91.23 ×27.392×12.8
1
L'damp = ρV 2 Sb (C'l )damp
2
1
= ×1.225 ×91.23 2 × 27.392×12.8 × 0.0415 = 74173 Nm
2
Example 6.3
An airplane has a straight tapered wing with taper ratio ( λ ) of 0.4 and
aspect ratio of 8. It has 0.20 c ailerons extending from 0.55 semi span to 0.90
semi span. If aileron defects up 180 and down 120 at full deflection, estimate
pb/2V for the airplane. If the wing span is 13.64 m, obtain the rate of roll in
degrees per second at sea level for air speeds between 150 to 500 kmph.
Solution:
The data supplied are as follows.
λ = 0.5, A = 8, b = 13.64 m
Hence, S = b2 / A = (13.64)2 / 8 = 23.26 m2.
Ailerons of 0.2c extends from 0.55 b/2 to 0.9 b/2.
(δa)up = 180, (δa)down = 120 hence (δa)total = 300.
From Eq.(6.26),
b
k2
2
 c y dy
pb  ail b(δatotal ) k1 2
b
= b/2
2V 4
 c y dy
2
To evaluate the integrals an expression is needed for „c‟ as function of „y‟. The
root chord (cr) and the tip chord (ct) are obtained as :
b 13.64
S= (c r + c t ) = (c r + 0.4 c r )
2 2
23.26 × 2
Or c r = = 2.436 m
13.64 ×1.4
ct = 0.974 m ; (b/2) = 6.82 m
For a straight tapered wing :

y
c = cr - (c - c )
b/2 r t
y
Hence , c = 2.436 - (2.436 - 0.974) = 2.436 - 0.2144 y
6.82
Consequently, cy = 2.436 y - 0.2144 y2
The aileron extends for 0.55 b/2 to 0.9 b/2 or from y = 3.751 to 6.138 m.
Hence,
6.138
6.138
 y2 y3 

2
(2.436 y - 0.2144 y ) dy =  2.436 - 0.2144  =15.996 m3
3.751  2 3  3.751
b/2 b/2
 c y 2 dy =  (2.436 - 0.2144 y) y
2
dy
0 0
6.86
 y3 0.2144 4 
= 2.436 - y 
 3 4 0
2.436 0.2144
= × 6.823 - × 6.824 =141.620 m4
3 4
The quantity  ail can be roughly estimated using Fig. 2.32. For ca /c = 0.2, τ = 0.4
Hence,
pb 30 15.996
= 0.40 × 13.64 × × = 0.08067
2V 4×57.3 141.620
pb 1
The quantity is a measure of aileron effectiveness. In the present case:
2V δa
pb 1
= 0.08067/15 = 0.005378 deg-1 .
2V δa
The variation of p with V is given in the table below.
pb 2V 2
p= × = 0.08067 × V = 0.01183 V
2V b 13.64
V (kmph) 150 200 300 400 500

V (m/s) 41.67 55.55 83.33 111.11 138.89
p (rad/sec) 0.4930 0.6573 0.9858 1.314 1.643

Remark:
The quantity pb/2V will remain constant upto certain speed, then decrease due to
reduction in aileron effectiveness owing to flexibility of the structure. It (pb/2V)
would be zero at aileron reversal speed.

Chapter 6
Lecture 21
Topics
6.11 General discussions on control surface
6.11.3 Horn balanace
6.11.7 Trim tab
6.11.8 Link balance tab
6.11.9 Servo tab
6.13 miscelleneous topics
6.13.1 Mass balancing of controls
6.13.3 Elevons
6.13.4 V– tail
6.11 General discussion on controls

In chapters 2 to 5 and in the previous sections of this chapter, some
specific features of elevator, rudder and aileron were considered. In this section
some common features of the controls are dealt with.
The ways and means of reducing the magnitudes of Chαt and Chδe are called
aerodynamic balancing.
The methods for aerodynamic balancing are:

1. set back hinge,
2. horn balance and
3. internal balance.
In this case, the hinge line is shifted behind the leading edge of the control
(see upper part of Fig.6.6). As the hinge line shifts, the area of the control surface
ahead of the hinge line increases and from the pressure distribution in Fig.3.3 it
is evident that |Chαt |and |Chδe | would decrease. The over hang is characterized
by cb / cf .Figure 6.6 also shows typical experimental data on variations of Chα
and Chδ with cb / cf. It may be added that the changes in Chα and Chδ also depend
on (a) gap between nose of the control surface and the main surface, (b) nose
shape and (c) trailing edge angle (Fig.6.7a and b).
Fig.6.6 Effect of set back hinge on Chα and Chδ – NACA 0015 Airfoil with blunt
nose and sealed gap (Adapted from Ref.6.1)

Fig.6.7a Parameters of control surface - chord lengths
Fig.6.7b Parameters of control surface- shapes of nose and trailing edge
6.11.3 Horn balance

In this method of aerodynamic balancing, a part of the control surface near
the tip, is ahead of the hinge line (Fig.6.8a and b). There are two types of horn
balances – shielded and unshielded (Fig 6.8a). The following parameter is used
to describe the effect of horn balance on Chα and Chδ.
(Areaof horn)×(meanchordof horn)
Parameter =
(Areaof control)×(meanchordof control)

Figure 6.8b shows the areas of the horn and control surface. Figure 6.8b also
shows the changes ΔChα and ΔChδ due to horn as compared to a control surface
without horn. Horn balance is some times used on horizontal and vertical tails of
low speed airplanes (see Fig.6.8c).
Unshielded horn Shielded horn
Fig.6.8a Unshielded and shielded horn

Fig.6.8b Unshielded horn and the changes ΔChα and ΔChδ as compare to control
surface without horn (Adapted from Ref.6.1)

Fig.6.8c Airplane with horn balance on horizontal tail and vertical tail
(Based on drawing of HAMSA-3 supplied by
National Aerospace Laboratories, Bangalore, India)
In this case, the portion of the control surface ahead of the hinge line,
projects in the gap between the upper and lower surfaces of the stabilizer. The
upper and lower surfaces of the projected portion are vented to the upper and
lower surface pressures respectively at a chosen chord wise position (upper part
of Fig.6.9). A seal at the leading edge of the projecting portion ensures that the
pressures on the two sides of the projection do not equalize. Figure 6.9 also
shows the changes ΔChα and ΔChδ due to internal seal balance. This method of

aerodynamic balancing is complex but is reliable. It is used on large airplanes to
reduce Chα and Chδ.
Fig.6.9 Internal seal and the changes ΔChα and ΔChδ as compared to control
surface with Cb / Cf = 0 (adapted from Ref.6.1)
Remark:
Tab is also used for aerodynamic balancing. See section 6.12.
The frise aileron is shown in Fig.6.10. The leading edge of the aileron has a
specific shape. The downward deflected aileron has negative Chδ and the upward
deflected aileron has positive Chδ. This reduces the net control force. Further,

owing to the special shape of the leading edge, the upward deflected aileron
projects into the flow field and increases the drag. This reduces adverse yaw.
Fig.6.10 Frise aileron

The methods of aerodynamic balancing described earlier are sensitive to
fabrication defects and surface curvature. Hence, tabs are used for finer
adjustment to make the hinge moment zero. Tabs are also used for other
purposes. A brief description of different types of tabs is given in the following
subsections.
6.11.7 Trim tab
It is used to trim the stick or bring Ch to zero by tab deflection. After the
desired elevator deflection (δe) is achieved, the tab is deflected in a direction
opposite to that of the elevator so that the hinge moment becomes zero. Since
the tab is located far from the hinge line, a small amount of tab deflection is
adequate to bring Che to zero (Figs.2.16a and b). As the lift due to the tab is in a
direction opposite to that of the elevator, a slight adjustment in elevator deflection
would be needed after application of tab. Though the pilot subsequently does not
have to hold the stick all the time, the initial effort to move the control is not
reduced when this tab is used.
6.11.8 Link balance Tab
In this case the tab is linked to the main control surface. As the main
surface moves up the tab deflects in the opposite direction in a certain proportion
(Fig.6.11). This way the tab reduces the hinge moment and hence it is called
„Balance tab‟.

Fig.6.11 Link balance tab
6.11.9 Servo tab

In this case the pilot does not move the main surface which is free to
rotate about the hinge. Instead the pilot moves only the tab as a result of which
the pressure distribution is altered on the main control surface and it attains a
floating angle such that Ch is zero .The action of the tab is like a servo action and
hence it is called “Servo tab”. This type of tab is used on the control surfaces of
large airplanes.
As pointed out earlier (section 3.4.1) the control force increases in
proportion to the cube of the linear dimension of the airplane and to the square of
the flight velocity. Consequently, a low value of Chδ is required, to restrict the
control forces within human limits. It may be as low as 0.0002. This is not
achievable consistently due to sensitive dependence of C hδ on uncertainty in
fabrication. The alternative systems for operation of controls are as follows.
(a) Hydraulic power boosted systems in which the effort of the pilot is boosted by
a hydraulic system. (b) Power operated systems in which the movements of the

pilot alter settings of electrical/ electronic systems which in turn cause the
movement of the controls. This led to fly-by-wire system wherein the aircraft
motion (e.g. velocity, angular rates, acceleration, incidence and sideslip) are
sensed by appropriate transducers. Then, optimum response of the airplane is
computed and the control surfaces are actuated to give desired results. This
system requires artificial feel system to give the pilot, an appreciation of the result
of the stick/ pedal movements by him and also to prevent inadvertent excess
movement of control surfaces. This system also needs multi-plexing i.e. alternate
systems to take over if one of the systems fails.
Remark:
(i) Subsection 1.2.2 may be referred to for brief descriptions of the relaxed static
stability and the control configured vehicle (CCV).
(ii) Fly-by light :
In early fly-by wire systems the signals, from flight computer to the control
surface actuators, were sent through wires. Presently, the signals are sent
through fibre optic cables. Hence, the fly-by-wire system is now called “Fly-by-
light” (Ref. 6.2 Chapter 12)
6.13 Miscellaneous topics
6.13.1 Mass balancing of control
This ensures that the c.g. of the control surface lies ahead or on the hinge line.
In some military and large civil airplanes the entire horizontal tail is hinged
and rotated to obtain larger longitudinal control.
6.13.3 Elevons
In a tailless configuration (e.g. concorde airplane) the functions of the
elevator and the aileron are combined in control surfaces called elevons. Like
ailerons they are located near the wing tip but the movable surfaces on the two
wing halves can move in the same direction or in different directions. When they
move in the same direction, they provide pitch control and when they move in
different directions they provide control in roll.

6.13.4 V– tail
In some older airplanes the functions of horizontal and vertical tails were
combined in a V-shaped tail. Though the area of the V-tail is less than the sum of
the areas of the horizontal and vertical tail, it leads to undesirable coupling of
lateral and longitudinal motions and is seldom used.
At supersonic speeds the slope of the lift curve (dCL/dα) is proportional to
1/(M2 -1)1/2 , where M∞ is the free stream Mach number. Thus, CLα and in turn the
tail effectiveness decreases significantly at high Mach numbers. Hence some

military airplanes have two moderate sized vertical tails instead of one large tail.
For example see MiG-29M (Fig.6.12). Reference 1.13, chapter 5 mentions that
dσ
for this configuration the quantity η (1+ ) , mention in Eq.(5.19) and (5.20),
v dβ
has a higher value as compared to the configuration with single vertical tail
located in the plane of symmetry.

Fig.6.12 Airplane with two vertical tails MIG-29M

(Adapted from: http://www.defenseindustrydaily.com)

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Flight dynamics –II Prof. E.G.

Dept. of Aerospace Engg., IIT Madras 1

Dept. of Aerospace Engg., IIT Madras 2

Dept. of Aerospace Engg., IIT Madras 3

Fig.2.1 Convention for pitching moment

Dept. of Aerospace Engg., IIT Madras 4

Fig.2.2 Geometric parameters of a wing

Dept. of Aerospace Engg., IIT Madras 5

2.1.3 Criterion for longitudinal control and trim in pitch

Fig.2.3 change in angle of attack due to gust

Dept. of Aerospace Engg., IIT Madras 6

Fig.2.4 Airplane in disturbed position

Δα should be accompanied by positive ΔMcg . This again means that

Dept. of Aerospace Engg., IIT Madras 7

Dept. of Aerospace Engg., IIT Madras 8

Fig.2.5 Cmcg vs α variations for stable and unstable airplanes

2.1.7 Effect of elevator deflection on Cmcg vs α curve

Dept. of Aerospace Engg., IIT Madras 9

Fig.2.6 Effect of elevator deflection on trim

2.1.8 Cmcg expressed as function of CL

Dept. of Aerospace Engg., IIT Madras 10

Dept. of Aerospace Engg., IIT Madras 11

2.2 Cmcg and Cmα expressed as sum of the contributions of various

Dept. of Aerospace Engg., IIT Madras 1

Fig.2.8 Contributions of major components to Cmcg

Dept. of Aerospace Engg., IIT Madras 2

the next four sections.

Dept. of Aerospace Engg., IIT Madras 3

Fig.2.9 Wing contribution

+ L w sin(αw - iw )Zcgw - Dw cos(αw - iw )Zcgw + Macw (2.14)

Dept. of Aerospace Engg., IIT Madras 4

= CL0w + CLαw α (2.18)

where, α0Lw is the zero lift angle of the wing and

Dept. of Aerospace Engg., IIT Madras 5

Fig.2.10 Approximate contribution of wing to Cmcg

2.3.1 Correction to Cmαw for effects of horizontal components of lift and

In the simplified analysis for the contribution of wing to Cmcg , the

Mcgwh = L w sin(α w - iw )Zcgw - Dw cos(αw - iw )Zcgw (2.21)

Dividing by ½ ρV2S c and noting that cos  α w - iw   1 yields :

dCLw dCDw Zcgw

Dept. of Aerospace Engg., IIT Madras 6

Further, CLw cos(α w - iw )  CLw

dCDw dCDw dCL dCDw

Substituting this in Eq.(2.25) yields:

Dept. of Aerospace Engg., IIT Madras 7

Fig.2.11 Effect of wing location on Cmcgw

Dept. of Aerospace Engg., IIT Madras 8

Dept. of Aerospace Engg., IIT Madras 9

Fig.E2.1 Configuration for example 2.1

Dept. of Aerospace Engg., IIT Madras 10

Cmcg = 0.4 (x cg - x ac ) + c (0.02) = 0

Dept. of Aerospace Engg., IIT Madras 11

Fig.E2.3 Schematic of configuration for example 2.3

Combining Eqs.(2.20) and (2.26),

Dept. of Aerospace Engg., IIT Madras 12

CL (Cmcgw) without horizontal (Cmcgw) with horizontal

Table E2.3 contribution of wing to Cmg

Dept. of Aerospace Engg., IIT Madras 13

2.4 Contributions of horizontal tail to Cmcg and Cmα

2.4. Contributions of horizontal tail to Cmcg and Cmα

Dept. of Aerospace Engg., IIT Madras 1

Dept. of Aerospace Engg., IIT Madras 2

Fig. 2.12 Upwash–downwash field of a wing