Benetti - Electric Load Management Approaches For Peak Load Reduction A Systematic Literature Review and State of The Art

G Model
SCS 277 1–18 ARTICLE IN PRESS

Sustainable Cities and Society xxx (2015) xxx–xxx
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Sustainable Cities and Society

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/scs
1 Engineering Advance
2 Electric load management approaches for peak load reduction: A

3 systematic literature review and state of the art
4 Q1 Guido Benetti a , Davide Caprino a , Marco L. Della Vedova b,∗ , Tullio Facchinetti a
a
5 Department of Electrical, Computer and Biomedical Engineering, University of Pavia, via Ferrata 5, 27100 Pavia, Italy
b
6 Department of Mathematics and Physics, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, via Musei 41, 25121 Brescia, Italy
7
8
20 a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t
9
10 Article history: This paper proposes a review of the scientific literature on electric load management (ELM). Relevant
11 Available online xxx topics include the smart grid, demand-side management, demand-response methods, and peak load
12 reduction. The evaluation is performed by a systematic literature review (SLR) and an evaluation of
13 Keywords: the recent advances in the state of the art. The analysis is based on the classification of 200+ papers,
14 Electric load management considering the covered topics/problems, assumptions, constraints, and the proposed methods. Statistical
15 Systematic literature review
results show a growing interest in ELM in the last few years, and a fast obsolescence of older results. A
16 Demand-side management
lack of common benchmarking frameworks has been detected.
17 Direct load control
18 Peak load reduction © 2015 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
19 Q3 Load shifting
21 Contents
22 1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
23 2. Classification of the available literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
24 2.1. Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
25 2.1.1. Smart Grid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
26 2.1.2. Smart Building . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
27 2.1.3. Smart Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
28 2.1.4. Smart Meter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
29 2.1.5. Cyber-physical energy system (CPES) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
30 2.2. Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
31 2.2.1. Demand-side management (DSM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
32 2.2.2. Demand response (DR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
33 2.2.3. Electric load management (ELM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
34 2.3. Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
35 2.3.1. Energy efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
36 2.3.2. Peak load reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
37 3. The systematic literature review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
38 3.1. Objective statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
39 3.2. Source definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
40 3.3. Studies selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
41 3.3.1. Preliminary results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
42 3.3.2. Further selection of considered studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
Q2 ∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +39 0302406706.

E-mail addresses: guido.benetti01@ateneopv.it (G. Benetti),
davide.caprino01@ateneopv.it (D. Caprino), marco.dellavedova@unicatt.it
(M.L. Della Vedova), tullio.facchinetti@unipv.it (T. Facchinetti).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2015.05.002
2210-6707/© 2015 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
Please cite this article in press as: Benetti, G., et al. Electric load management approaches for peak load reduction: A systematic literature
review and state of the art. Sustainable Cities and Society (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2015.05.002
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2 G. Benetti et al. / Sustainable Cities and Society xxx (2015) xxx–xxx
3.4. Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
3.4.1. General purposes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
3.4.2. Application domain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
3.4.3. Load type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
3.4.4. Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
3.4.5. Control methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
3.4.6. Pricing-based approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
3.4.7. Validation method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
4. Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
4.1. Query accuracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
4.2. Topics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
4.3. Modeling vs. control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
4.4. Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
4.5. Considered loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
4.6. Considered tariffs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
5. Discussion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
5.1. Growth of interest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
5.2. Future directions of the research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
5.3. Fast obsolescence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
5.4. Benchmarking framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
5.5. Scalability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
6. Recent advances in the state of the art . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
7. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
43 1. Introduction peak-to-average power usage, the power grid is affected by less 69

Q4 stress and can provide a more reliable and adequate quality of 70
44 The balance of the power demand is one of the main challenges service. 71
45 in power delivery systems. The problem is that the electric power These issues have generated lot of interest in many energy 72
46 generation has to steadily match the consumption to avoid perfor- providers and companies operating in the electricity market. Sev- 73
47 mance losses in the network. This problem is exacerbated by the eral programs and projects have been started by these companies. 74
48 increasing penetration of the distributed generation associated to Some relevant examples include the Demand-Response program 75
49 renewable sources, due to their intermittent and partially unpre- started by the Office of Electricity Delivery & Energy Reliability (U.S. 76
50 dictable behavior. As a result, coping with a highly variable power Department of Energy, 2015), the Demand-Response project ran by 77
TM
51 demand is a critical and challenging issue for the utilities. Consolidated Edison (2015) and PowerOn Precision management 78
52 As an example of the impact of the power demand on the effi- system proposed by General Electrics (2015). The success of these 79
53 ciency of global cities, we can consider that a big city such as New programs, and many other similar ones, will be also related to the 80
54 York annually consumes a total amount of around 54 TWh of energy exploitation of technologies and solutions covered by our review. 81
55Q5 (New York Independent System Operator, 2014) each year in the A common solution adopted by energy providers is to control the 82
56 period 2010–2014. This is equal to 33% of the total energy con- activity of power plants to match as much as possible the requested 83
57 sumption of the whole New York state, which consumes around electric power. However, this approach has several disadvantages. 84
58 163 TWh per year (New York Independent System Operator, 2014) An important problem is that traditional power plants (e.g., ther- 85
59 in the same period. Global cities thus have a huge impact on the mal power plants) are more expensive to start/stop than plants 86
60 energy/power usage in their territory. On the other hand, there are based on renewable sources. For example, starting/stopping a gas 87
61 historical data about the peak-to-average power consumption at turbine is more challenging with reference to a hydroelectric gen- 88
62 state level. For instance, EIA (2015) reports several statistics related eration unit. Moreover, they cannot be turned on/off at an arbitrary 89
63 to power consumption in various US areas, including peak-to- frequency, since the switch may require a relatively long time. As 90
64 average evaluation. We report a representative example of a typical a side effect, power plants based on renewable sources are not 91
65 trend of the peak-to-average behavior, considering the yearly trend exploited at their full capacity, since it is more convenient to reduce 92
66 in New England (Fig. 1), which shows the steadily increasing trend the power generated from such plants instead of dealing with more 93
67 of this parameter. The distribution power grid in global cities complex traditional plants. For this reason, an increasing pene- 94
68 is thus a relevant component of the city itself. By reducing the tration of renewable energy generation technologies will require 95
a growth in the use of automatic power load management tech- 96
niques. Moreover, a higher elasticity in the power demand enabled 97
by the technologies discussed in this paper, will allow the on-site 98
consumption of the energy generated by distributed renewable 99
sources, thus reducing the impact of the variability of renewable 100
energy generation. Another issue arises from the sizing of the power 101
distribution infrastructure, which must be tailored to tolerate peak 102
load conditions. For example, the size of the cables needs to be large 103
enough to support the peak power, and since the peak occurs dur- 104
ing a fraction of the life time of the system, cables don’t operate 105
at full capacity in the majority of the time. The same rule applies 106
to other electrical equipment, such as transformers, switches, etc. 107
Eventually, the end-user pays for these disadvantages, for example 108
Fig. 1. Yearly peak-to-average trend in New England (US). when critical-peak tariffs are adopted (Newsham & Bowker, 2010). 109
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G. Benetti et al. / Sustainable Cities and Society xxx (2015) xxx–xxx 3
110 For the above reasons, a flatter power demand curve is desir- different papers to indicate the same subject. This limits the entropy 173
111 able. This is preferable both at large-scale level (e.g., at national of the terminology and delineates the main terms used in this paper. 174
112 level) and at smaller scale level (e.g., at building level). The advent Second, since the selection of keywords and synonyms plays a cru- 175
113 of new technologies is enabling new approaches to these issues. cial role to narrow the search scope of scientific papers composing 176
114 The demand-side control of the requested power is a promising the source base of the analysis, the classification is a mandatory 177
115 and complementary alternative to the aforementioned power gen- step to elaborate an accurate query to retrieve the source base 178
116 eration control. The emerging Smart Grid technology (Li et al., itself. This latter point is particularly delicate in a multidisciplinary 179
117 2010) enables the automation of power management at wider lev- research field as the ELM, since researchers from several differ- 180
118 els (Cecati, Citro, & Siano, 2011), by combining the existing power ent communities (e.g., electrical engineering, computer science, 181
119 distribution network with a telecommunication infrastructure to telecommunications, operational research, to mention a few) may 182
120 support its operations (Gungor et al., 2011, 2013). Meanwhile, tackle similar problems from different viewpoints. Moreover, they 183
121 research frontiers as cyber-physical energy system (CPES) (Kleissl tend to publish their works in conferences and journals of their orig- 184
122 & Agarwal, 2010) and wireless sensor networks (WSNs) (Gungor, inal community. This fact increases the fuzziness of the research 185
123 Lu, & Hancke, 2010) are investigated to support the development domain boundary and makes more difficult to identify all and only 186
124 of the smart grid. the relevant results. 187
125 In the engineering domain, the electric load management (ELM) The presentation of the terminology is organized by group- 188
126 refers to all those techniques developed to improve the efficiency ing the terms into three categories: technologies, techniques, and 189
127 of the power infrastructure by controlling and coordinating the objectives. Technologies refer to some “physical” set of compo- 190
128 operation of power loads (Capasso, Grattieri, Lamedica, & Prudenzi, nents, infrastructures and architectures to support the operation 191
129 1994). The goal is to develop technical solutions to enhance the of the ELM. Physical components include systems made by elec- 192
130 efficiency of the whole electric system, in order to reduce the costs trical or electronics hardware, such as smart meters or household 193
131 and increase the benefits for users and utilities. Essentially, this goal appliances. On the other hand, techniques identify algorithms and 194
132 can be tackled by pure financial solutions based on tariffs modu- methods that address the active monitoring, control and manage- 195
133 lation, or by more “engineering-oriented” approaches focusing on ment of the aforementioned physical devices and infrastructures. 196
134 load control. Such techniques consist of optimization methods developed in 197
135 The objective of the present work is to provide a wide perspec- operational research, artificial intelligence approaches, scheduling 198
136 tive on themes related to the ELM. The contribution is based on a algorithms, and so on. Finally, objectives represent the target of 199
137 review of the available scientific literature using a formal approach all above technologies and techniques. We distinguish between 200
138 called systematic literature review (SLR) (Isaksen, Ma, Simons, & energy efficiency and peak load reduction since they represent the 201
139 Gellings, 1981). In general, the SLR aims (i) to investigate topics, two types of addressed goals typically found in scientific papers. 202
140 themes, and research strategies in the literature to track the sta- It is worth to note that peak load reduction represents a possible 203
141 tus of the development in the considered scientific field, (ii) to approach to improve the energy efficiency. Therefore, energy effi- 204
142 study its evolution over the years, and (iii) to bring the focus on ciency is a general term used with a wider spectrum of meanings, 205
143 research areas that require more attention. The SLR provides a rig- while peak load reduction characterizes the specific scope of this 206
144 orous methodology to review a set of scientific papers and to derive paper. 207
145 useful observations regarding the covered topics, their impact on To search all possible scientific papers related to the topic under 208
146 the scientific community, and several other elements that char- investigation, a meaningful set of terms needs to be identified. The 209
147 acterize the considered research domain. The multi-disciplinary organization of terms proposed in this paper is based on keywords, 210
148 nature of this topic brings authors to publish interesting contri- synonyms and related terms. A keyword has a set of synonyms and 211
149 butions in different scientific areas. This fact makes it difficult a set of related terms. Keywords and synonyms essentially refer to 212
150 to provide a comprehensive picture of the available literature. the same subject. We consider as main keyword the term that is 213
151 The SLR provides a systematic method to gather and analyze used more frequently in the literature, while less common terms 214
152 the sources from different research domains. Due to its approach are listed as synonyms of the main keyword. Related terms identify 215
153 to the review of the existing scientific literature, the SLR is a a set of affine topics to the considered keyword. Table 1 provides the 216
154 good tool to provide an historical perspective of the considered complete list of these terms. The distinction between keywords and 217
155 scientific domain. Another benefit of the SLR is to imply a clas- synonyms/related terms is crucial to perform an effective search in 218
156 sification of reviewed papers under properly defined categories, scientific literature databases. In fact, synonyms and related terms 219
157 which is useful to better delineate the boundary of the evalu- may appear in a paper without the corresponding keyword, despite 220
158 ated research field. However, the most recent findings in the state the paper deals with the same topic associated with the keyword. 221
159 of the art cannot be adequately captured by the SLR. Therefore, Therefore, a search that does not consider such a classification may 222
160 we also provide a survey of more recent papers, that are clas- fail to find many relevant sources. For example, consider the con- 223
161 sified using the same categories identified to perform the SLR, cept of peak load reduction. In the scientific literature, the terms 224
162 thus providing a common viewpoint between older and newer peak load and peak demand are often used as synonyms of peak. 225
163 results. Moreover, the terms shaving and clipping are frequently used 226
instead of reduction. 227
The following notation is used to list synonyms and related 228
164 2. Classification of the available literature terms of a keyword: 229
165 As a consequence of the multi-disciplinary nature of ELM, key-

166 words and terms that are common in a research fields can have
167 slightly different meaning in another, thus generating ambiguity. • words between square brackets, separated by commas, are alter- 230
168 This section describes and summarizes the most relevant terminol- native terms: only one of these words may appear in the term; 231
169 ogy adopted in scientific papers on ELM. It identifies the synonyms however, the presence of one term is necessary, since it is 232
170 and delineates the relations among different terms. required to guarantee the semantic meaningfulness of the term; 233
171 There are two objectives for this action. First, it explicitly • words enclosed in round brackets are optional: one of these 234
172 establishes the relationship among several terms that are used in words may or may not be present in the term. 235
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Table 1 2.1.3. Smart Load 258

Keywords (boldface), synonyms (italic) and related terms (standard font).
The smart load is an electric load (e.g., an household appliance) 259
Technologies that can exchange information with other loads or control devices 260
Smart Grid in its domain. The smart load can provide information regarding its 261
intelligent energy systems properties and working status, and may receive control commands 262
Smart Building from external controllers. Smart loads are the building blocks of 263
smart [home, house] smart homes and smart buildings. Ultimately, it is part of the smart 264
[home, residential, household] (energy) management (system)
grid. 265
[building, home] automation
domotics
Smart Load 2.1.4. Smart Meter 266
intelligent (electric) load A smart meter is an electrical meter that communicates infor- 267
Smart Meter
mation regarding electricity usage to the utility for monitoring and 268
automatic meter reading
advanced metering infrastructure billing purposes. Unlike home energy monitors, in smart meters, 269
home energy monitor data are gathered for remote reporting. The periodicity of measure- 270
Cyber-physical energy system (CPES) ments is usually an hour or less. Depending on the communication 271
Wireless sensor network technology, smart meters can be divided into two categories. In 272
automatic meter reading (AMR), the communication is one-way 273

Techniques
from the meter to the utility. The advanced metering infrastructure 274
Demand response (DR) (AMI) enables instead a two-way communication. 275
direct load control
time of use pricing
critical peak pricing 2.1.5. Cyber-physical energy system (CPES) 276
real-time pricing The research trend on embedded systems focuses on the inte- 277
electric load management (ELM) gration of computing resources within the physical system under 278
(Residential) (Electric) (Deferrable) Load [Scheduling, Management, Control, monitoring and control. This approach represents the foundation 279
Shifting, Shedding, Balancing]
energy consumption scheduling
of the so-called Cyber-Physical Systems (Lee & Seshia, 2011). When 280
power scheduling the underlying system is related with energy, the specific term CPES 281
is adopted. A typical example of CPES is composed by smart electric 282

Objectives devices, such as washing machines connected to the Internet and 283
Energy Efficiency other connected home appliances, supplied by the power grid. 284
energy optimization
Peak load reduction 2.2. Techniques 285
peak (load, demand) [reduction, shaving, clipping]
power leveling
load shifting Techniques refer to the methods and algorithms that address the 286
valley filling active monitoring, control and management of the aforementioned 287
flexible load shape physical devices and infrastructures. 288
2.2.1. Demand-side management (DSM) 289
236 Therefore, according to the above notation, synonyms for the DSM is a general term referring to any activity adopted on the 290
237 keyword peak load reduction are represented as follows: demand side that ultimately changes the utility’s system load pro- 291
file. The DSM is a key approach in the field of smart energy systems. 292
The generality of this approach is captured by its definition pro- 293

238 peak (load, demand) [reduction, shaving, clipping].
vided by Palensky and Dietrich (2011), where it is stated that the 294
DSM “includes everything that is done on the demand side of an 295

239 2.1. Technologies energy system, ranging from exchanging old incandescent light 296
bulbs to compact fluorescent lights up to installing a sophisticated 297

240 As stated in Section 2, technologies refer to sets of hardware dynamic load management system”. In the scope of this paper, the 298
Q6 components, infrastructures and architectures to support the oper-
241 focus is on the latest aspect related to DSM. 299
242 ation of the ELM.
2.2.2. Demand response (DR) 300
243 2.1.1. Smart Grid The DR is based on a set of techniques to induce the customer 301
244 According to IEEE (2010), the Smart Grid is made by “the inte- to change their energy demand. For example, the electricity price 302
245 gration of power, communications, and information technologies could be dynamically changed over time by the energy provider 303
246 for an improved electric power infrastructure serving loads while to motivate corresponding changes in electricity usage by end-use 304
247 providing for an ongoing evolution of end-use applications”. The customers. The goal is to induce lower power usage when grid 305
248 Smart Grid essentially represents the technological container of reliability is experiencing some problems or when electricity mar- 306
249 innovations and developments related to ELM. ket prices are not favourable. DR programs can be distinguished in 307
incentive-based and time-based. Incentive-based approaches span 308
from DLC, where utilities or grid operators get access to customer 309
250 2.1.2. Smart Building loads for managing activations/deactivations, to the so-called inter- 310
251 In general, a building is recognized as smart when it is equipped ruptible/curtailable rates, where customers get special contract 311
252 with an integrated control system that allows some degree of with limited sheds. In emergency demand response programs, 312
253 automation. In most of cases, the achieved automated operations users guarantee voluntary responses when emergency signals are 313
254 are related to energy and power usage. In this case, the smart build- received, while in demand bidding programs users can bid for cur- 314
255 ing represents a key component and an active part of the smart tailing on the basis of changing prices. Time-based approaches, on 315
256 grid. The term smart home is often used when the smart building the other hand, provides predetermined schedules of energy pric- 316
257 is a residential building. ing. Specific programs are: Time-of-use (TOU) rates, where a static 317
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318 price schedule is applied; critical peak pricing, based on a less pre- sources and thus to extract all and only (possibly) the studies of 377
319 determined variant of TOU; and real-time pricing (RTP), consisting interest. 378
320 in the highest dynamic pricing approach. Under RTP, wholesale 4. Classification: once primary studies are selected, they are exam- 379
321 market prices are forwarded directly to end customers. ined to apply classification criteria and templates, in order to 380
categorize and classify each document. 381
322 2.2.3. Electric load management (ELM) 5. Results Summarization: this action provides a representation 382
323 This term has a quite general scope. It refers to any policy devised of results from the analysis of selected studies, which allows to 383
324 to manage a set of electric loads to obtain the desired goal, such derive useful observations and conclusions regarding the con- 384
325 as peak load reduction or energy usage optimization. This specific sidered studies. 385
326 keyword can be found under several different names (synonyms) in

327 different papers. Some common names use the terms of scheduling The following subsections will give a detailed explanation of 386
328 or control instead of management. As a result, a widespread term how each activity has been carried out. 387
329 to indicate this topic is substantially missing. In fact, due to the
330 multidisciplinary nature of the topic itself, different communities 3.1. Objective statement 388
331 adopt different terms to refer to the same subject.
The goal of the present SLR is to characterize the research related 389
332 2.3. Objectives to the ELM. Such characterization includes the identification of the 390
main research issues and the classification of the most commonly 391
333 2.3.1. Energy efficiency adopted solutions. 392
334 It is the most general objective considered in this paper, and rep- An important outcome of the work is the definition of a set of 393
335 resents the most widespread terms. Increasing energy efficiency is keywords (i.e., the tags) that captures the various aspects of the 394
336 not just about reducing the consumed energy, it is also about con- research domain. Eventually, this set of keywords can be effectively 395
337 suming, producing and distributing power in a more convenient used to label newer and future works concerning the same topic. 396
338 (money-wise, environment-wise and/or comfort-wise) manner.
339 The electric load management can also have other targets, address-
3.2. Source definition 397
340 ing issues such as user comfort, security, safety and reliability.
The first activity of a SLR is to define the sources of studies 398
341 2.3.2. Peak load reduction
to be collected. Among other online scientific databases, the Sci- 399
342 The peak load is the maximum amount of power demanded by
verse Scopus database1 has been selected. There are two reasons 400
343 a set of electric loads. Reducing the peak load is an important goal
for this selection. First, Scopus indexes works published in the 401
344 for all the actors in the power grid, and for the grid itself. In prac-
journals, magazines, conferences, and workshops which are of rec- 402
345 tice, the generated power needs to match the demanded power at
ognized quality by the research community. Second, its internal 403
346 every time instant to avoid grid instability, undesired high voltage
search engine provides many options to fine tune the identification 404
347 fluctuations, and possible failures (e.g., black outs). For this rea-
and to extract the most appropriate studies related to the consid- 405
348 son, enough generation capacity must be provided to cope with
ered topic. Moreover, the possibility to export (i.e., save on a local 406
349 peak load conditions. However, for economic convenience, energy
computer) the results of searches allows to efficiently perform the 407
350 providers privilege the use of cheaper generating capacity, while
desired offline processing on the retrieved data. 408
351 more expensive power plants are turned on in case of peak demand
352 conditions. As a consequence, the reduction of the peak load allows
353 to reduce the use of expensive generation capacity, thus increasing 3.3. Studies selection 409
354 the financial benefits of the provider. In turn, such benefits can be
355 translated to customers in terms of incentives to reduce the peak The next step of the SLR is to select the set of articles that 410
356 load. Moreover, since expensive power plants often correspond to will be subject of dedicated analysis. Study selection within online 411
357 the most polluting plants, the peak load reduction may bring to databases translates to formulate the query string. The query string 412
358 reduce the amount of emissions of pollutant. specifies the criteria imposed to the search engine of the online 413
database to select the search results. The formulation of an effective 414
359 3. The systematic literature review query string is made difficult by the variety of terms used by scien- 415
tific authors to identify similar subjects. For example, if the query 416
360 This section provides an overview of the research about peak would be composed by the string “demand side management”, all 417
361 load reduction in ELM through a systematic analysis of the main- those papers referring to “demand response” but not explicitly to 418
362 stream scientific articles published from 1981 to 2013 (included). DSM will be excluded from the results, DR and DSM almost refer to 419
363 The study aims to investigate what has built this research field by the same topic. Clearly, the inclusion of these latter papers is funda- 420
364 examining topics, themes, and technological solutions proposed in mental in order to perform a comprehensive review. The derivation 421
365 the literature. The adopted review approach allows to track the of the classification illustrated in Section 2 turns out to be essential 422
366 status of research development and its evolution. This allows to in this step. In fact, thanks to the careful identification of synonyms 423
367 identify those topics that require more investigation. The presented and to the search tools offered by Scopus, it is possible to retrieve 424
368 SLR follows the principles proposed by Kitchenham and Charters all the important works by combining the synonyms into a query 425
369 (2007). The practical steps required to derive the SLR are the fol- string using the “OR” statement. 426
370 lowing: The optimal search query would include all and only the rel- 427
evant papers relate to the desired subject. The use of synonyms 428
371 1. Objective statement: in this step, the research objectives are allows to avoid excluding relevant papers. However, an abuse of 429
372 defined. “OR” statements may cause the inclusion of false positive results, 430
373 2. Source selection: the goal of this step is to select the sources i.e., papers containing one or more keywords or synonyms but with 431
374 from where the studies will be extracted and collected.

375 3. Studies selection: the selection of studies requires the definition
376 and the formalization of necessary criteria to filter the desired 1
http://info.scopus.com.
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Table 2
The query submitted to retrieve the data sources.
TITLE-ABS-KEY(“demand side management”

OR “demand response”
OR “electric load management”
OR “home energy management”
OR “direct load control”)
AND TITLE-ABS-KEY(“peak load”
OR “peak clipping”
OR “peak shaving”
OR “load shifting”
OR “power leveling”
OR “power levelling”
OR “load profile”
OR “peak power”
OR “peak demand”)
AND LANGUAGE(english)
AND PUBYEAR <2014
432 poor or even no relationship with the topics of interest. This behav- Fig. 2. Number of publications per year.
433 ior arises when one or more keywords are used in research fields
434 other than the one of interest. For example, the term “peak load”
435 is commonly used to refer loads generated by electric devices. In
436 fact, the term may also refer to weight loads in material science or
437 traffic peak hours in traffic control systems.
438 Taking into account all the aforesaid considerations, the results
439 provided by the classification presented in Section 2 have been
440 combined to elaborate the query string reported in Table 2. This
441 query string has been submitted to the Scopus online database.
442 The query is divided into three parts. The simplest is the
443 last part, i.e. AND LANGUAGE(english) AND PUBYEAR <2014,
444 by which we exclude papers in language other than English or
445 published in the current year (2014) from results. The inclusion
446 of the papers of the current year leads to incompleteness with
Fig. 3. Number of publications per country.
447 respect to the analyzed period. With this choice we can claim
448 to have considered all the papers published until 2013, or, more
449 precisely, all the papers until 2013 indexed by Scopus by the date Fig. 3 shows Countries from which publications come from. 478
450 when we have performed the search (i.e., February 11, 2014). With More precisely it is the nation of the authors’ institution. Most of 479
451 the first and the second part of the query, we seek papers having the papers are from the U.S.A., even though the interest on this topic 480
452 at least one of the listed keywords explicitly written either in the is world-wide: as many as 60 countries are represented. 481
453 title, or in the abstract, or in the keyword section. The first part of Fig. 4 shows the number of publications per research area, as 482
454 the query, i.e. TITLE-ABS-KEY(“demand side management” OR defined within Scopus. Research areas refer to the subjects of the 483
455 “demand response” OR “electric load management” OR journal in which the document is published. A journal can have 484
456 “home energy management” OR “direct load control”), is more than one subject area, for example Applied Energy lists both 485
457 related to techniques and technologies of interest and so keywords “Energy” and “Engineering”, which are the two major area in the 486
458 are: demand side management, demand response, electric load chart. Therefore, a document published in this journal, counts in 487
459 management, home energy management, direct load control. The both the two areas. 488
460 second part of the query, i.e. TITLE-ABS-KEY(“peak load” OR

461 “peak clipping” OR “peak shaving” OR “load shifting” 3.3.2. Further selection of considered studies 489
462 OR “power leveling” OR “power levelling” OR “load The next step of the SLR is to filter the studies in order to have 490
463 profile” OR “peak power” OR “peak demand”), is related to a smaller number of papers to be further analyzed. We used the 491
464 objectives instead. Keywords are: peak load, peak clipping, peak following two criteria: 492
465 shaving, load shifting, power leveling, power levelling (with two
466 l), load profile, peak power, and peak demand. The query as a
467 whole returns the intersection between results of the first part and
468 results of the second part. The goal is to build a query which is (as
469 much as possible):
470 • complete, i.e. it includes (ideally) all relevant papers, thanks to

471 the use of synonyms and to the exclusion of the current year, and
472 • precise, i.e. it includes (ideally) only the relevant papers, thanks
473 to the intersection between keywords related to methods and
474 those related to objectives.
475 3.3.1. Preliminary results

476 The result for the research performed on February 11, 2014 is a
477 set of 831 papers. Fig. 2 shows the number of publications per year. Fig. 4. Number of publications per research area.
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493 1. first, we limit results to journal papers, reducing the total num- Table 3
Summary of tags used in the classification.
494 ber of studies to 335. The reason is that, generally speaking, the
495 quality and the maturity of journal papers is higher than confer- Topic Tags
496 ence papers. This is not a universal rule, but it applies in most of General purposes survey modeling
497 the cases. Moreover, when a conference paper has a good suc- control economics
498 cess, authors usually consider to forward an extended version to notrelevant
499 a journal. In Scopus, this filtering can be easily done by adding Technologies renewables storage
500 to the query string the following:
Domain residential industrial
office

501 AND (LIMIT -TO(SRCTYPE, “j ))
Load type thermal lighting
phev pumps
502 2. second, only the first 200 most cited papers were considered. The heterogeneous
503 obvious reason of this operation is to focus on the most influenc-
Model dynamics black-box
504 ing, and therefore important, studies. Since the least cited paper
statistical-m stochastic
505 among the 200 selected ones has been cited twice, we can con- agent-based peakload
506 clude that all papers with at least three citations are included in qos
507 the list. Control method optimization fuzzy
real-time dlc
508 3.4. Classification demand-response
Pricing tou rt-pricing

509 The following step of the SLR is the information extraction. To Validation method experiment simulation
510 accomplish this task, all the considered papers have been reviewed example statistical
511 and labelled with a proper set of tags. The original formulation of
512 the SLR reviewing method was based on the assignment of each
513 paper to exactly one category, selected within a set of mutually- consumption, physical variables behavior, typical load profiles 554
514 excluding categories. This method, however, is poorly descriptive, and patterns, etc. The presentation is based on physical or ther- 555
515 since it rigidly forces each paper into one basket, despite many modynamic models (Aalami et al., 2010; Capasso et al., 1994; 556
516 heterogeneous aspects may characterize the paper. Tags, unlike Paatero & Lund, 2006). The model is often proposed to allow a 557
517 categories, allow to capture multiple aspects of a paper, not nec- detailed simulation of the physical system (Ashok, 2006; Chu 558
518 essarily involving the mutual-exclusion between such aspects. The et al., 1993). The modeling effort allows the development of fine- 559
519 idea is to assign to each paper a number of suitable tags selected grained control algorithms that leverages the proposed model 560
520 from a tag set, allowing many-to-many relations between papers (Callaway, 2009). Therefore, a paper on modeling is sometimes 561
521 and tags. The use of tags instead of categories improves the flexi- associated with the control tag, although some studies limit 562
522 bility and the level of description achieved by the classification.

523 The classification process has been carried out by tagging each Table 4
524 paper manually. In order to double check the assignment of the Number and percentage of tags assigned to the whole set of more than 200 papers
525 tags, each of the 200 papers has been tagged by two of the four and to the restricted 25 top-most cited papers.
526 authors independently. In case the tag set assigned by one author Tag All papers Top cited
527 differed from the tag set assigned by the other author, the final tag
modeling 89 44.5% 12 40.0%
528 set has been agreed in a joint session with all the authors. The entire economics 84 42.0% 13 43.3%
529 process took about ten weeks. simulation 73 36.5% 11 36.7%
530 The reminder of this section describes the list of tags used for the optimization 51 25.5% 6 20.0%
residential 42 21.0% 9 30.0%
531 classification. Tags are grouped by topic. Table 3 reports a summary
black-box 41 20.5% 6 20.0%
532 of all tags. Moreover, Table 4 shows the assignment of tags to the 25 control 41 20.5% 8 26.7%
533 top-most cited papers selected from the set of works resulting from thermal 39 19.5% 4 13.3%
534 the previous steps. In the following presentation of the considered notrelevant 38 19.0% 6 20.0%
535 tags, references will be provided to significant papers reported in example 37 18.5% 1 3.3%
tou 36 18.0% 5 16.7%
536 Table 5.
demand-response 34 17.0% 12 40.0%
heterogeneous 33 16.5% 3 10.0%
537 3.4.1. General purposes renewables 33 16.5% 7 23.3%
538 • survey – The tag identifies a survey, a review, or an analy- storage 33 16.5% 5 16.7%
539 sis of the-state-of-the-art studies concerning the ELM. A survey rt-pricing 29 14.5% 6 20.0%
statistical-m 29 14.5%
540 does not usually contain new approaches or solutions to exist- office 27 13.5% 3 10.0%
541 ing problems. Instead, it provides comments, observations and/or experiment 26 13.0% 5 16.7%
542 categorization of selected available methodologies, problems, dynamics 26 13.0% 3 10.0%
543 scenarios, etc. This tag can be assigned as unique tag to a paper: dlc 23 11.5% 6 20.0%
survey 22 11.0% 5 16.7%
544 it happens when the survey is an overview of the ELM (Palensky
industrial 21 10.5% 3 10.0%
545 & Dietrich, 2011; Vojdani, 2008). However, in case the survey qos 18 9.0% 4 13.3%
546 focuses on specific topics, additional tags may accompany it to statistical 15 7.5% 5 16.7%
547 better characterize the paper. For example, Cappers et al. (2010) peakload 11 5.5% 1 3.3%
548 has the additional tags economics and demand-response, while stochastic 10 5.0% 4 13.3%
phev 10 5.0% 1 3.3%
549 Newsham and Bowker (2010) is tagged with experiment and agent-based 5 2.5%
550 tou. fuzzy 4 2.0%
551 • modeling – A paper labeled with this tag presents an approach pumps 4 2.0%
552 to model one or more types of electric loads or systems, aim- real-time 2 1.0%
lighting 2 1.0%
553 ing to study their characteristics in terms of power/energy
8
SCS 277 1–18

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Table 5
Association of tags to the 25 top-most cited relevant papers considered in the SLR.
Capasso Palensky Vojdani Paatero Sinden Callaway Lijesen Erol- Lu and Cappers, Wei and Aalami,
et al. and (2008) and Lund (2007) (2009) (2007) Kantarci Shahidehpour Goldman, Chen Moghaddam,
(1994) Dietrich (2006) and (2005) and Kathan (1995) and Yousefi
(2011) Mouftah (2010) (2010)
(2011)
modeling • • • • •
residential • • •
stochastic • •
statistical • • • •
simulation • • • •
survey • • •
heterogeneous •
black-box • •
experiment • •
demand-response • •
renewables • • • •
G. Benetti et al. / Sustainable Cities and Society xxx (2015) xxx–xxx
ARTICLE IN PRESS
dynamics •
control • • •
qos •
dlc • •
economics • • • •
rt-pricing •
tou •
optimization • • •
storage • •
thermal •
phev
industrial
office
peakload
example
statistical-m
fuzzy
real-time
agent-based
pumps
lighting
Faruqui Roscoe and Wang et al. Newsham Ashok Lu and Newborough Chu, Chen, Saele and Moura and Sezgen, Deng Gransson,
and Sergici Ault (2010) (2011) and (2006) Chassin and and Fu Grande de Almeia Goldman, (2003) Karlsson,
(2010) Bowker (2004) Augood (1993) (2011) (2010) and and
(2010) (1999) Krishnarao Johnsson
(2007) (2010)
modeling • • • • • • •
residential • • • • • •
stochastic •
statistical •
simulation • • • • • • •
survey • • •
heterogeneous • • •
black-box • • • •
experiment • • •
demand-response • • • • • • • •
renewables • • • •
dynamics •
control • • • • •
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their attention to the model without proposing a specific control 563
strategy (Paatero & Lund, 2006). Specific modeling techniques are 564
Gransson,
Karlsson,
Johnsson
captured with dedicated tags described later in this section. 565
(2010)
and
• control – The tag is associated to papers discussing con- 566
trol systems or algorithms for the ELM. In general, a control 567
•
method allows to actively influencing the system operations. 568
Some approaches focus on load scheduling (Chu et al., 1993), 569
i.e., they devise a policy to determine the activation pattern of

(2003)
570
Deng
electric loads. The policy can be based on pricing information 571
•
(Erol-Kantarci & Mouftah, 2011), can limit the evaluation to pure 572
physical/technological issues (Callaway, 2009; Newborough & 573

Krishnarao
Goldman,
Augood, 1999), or may encompass a combination of both (Wei & 574

Sezgen,
(2007)
Chen, 1995). A control algorithm can be based on several different 575

and
approaches, each one providing peculiar benefits and disadvan- 576
• tages. For this reason, later in this section a dedicated set of tags 577
is introduced that identifies specific control methods.

Moura and
578
de Almeia
• renewables – This tag labels papers where renewable sources of 579

(2010)
energy are explicitly considered. The most widely studied sources 580
•
•
•
•
•
include the solar technology, both photo-voltaic and thermal 581
technologies, and wind (Sinden, 2007). A common issue in ELM 582
related to renewables is to consume the generated power locally.

Saele and
583
Grande
(2011)
For instance, in Rastegar, Fotuhi-Firuzabad, and Aminifar (2012) 584
the integration of PHEV in a smart building is studied to opti- 585

•
mize the operating osts thanks to local usage and storage. This 586
is desirable for two main reasons: technological and economic.

Chu, Chen,
587
Technological advantages are mainly on the utility side, since 588

and Fu
(1993)
limiting the amount of energy supplied to the grid reduces the 589
variability of the available energy level at any time, thus making

•
•
•
•
590
the regulation of the power grid easier. Financial benefits arise

Newborough
591
from the fact that, usually, available tariffs pay much less the 592
Augood
(1999)
energy sold by the producer to the utility than the energy bought 593
and
by the user from the utility. 594

•
•
•
• storage – Energy-storage systems are often used in conjunc- 595
tion with renewable energy sources to smooth the amount of 596
energy that flows from the producer to the grid. These sys-
Chassin
597
Lu and
(2004)
tems allow to store locally part of the produced energy, thus 598
supporting the above mentioned local energy usage (Rastegar

•
599
et al., 2012). Several technologies can be used to store energy: 600
batteries, compressed-air, fuel-cells, pumped water, or ther- 601
mal accumulation. Although energy storage enables an optimal

(2006)
Ashok
602
energy management, their practical usage is limited due to sev- 603

•
•
•
•
eral factors. For instance, batteries have high costs and relevant 604
Association of tags to the 25 top-most cited relevant papers considered in the SLR.
environmental impacts; compressed-air and pumped water have 605

Newsham
low efficiency. An increasingly popular storage approach is based 606

Bowker
(2010)
on electric vehicles, whose batteries are seen as a viable dis- 607

and
tributes storage system (Stadler et al., 2012; Wang et al., 2011)

•
608
(see also the phev tag). The expected increasing penetration of 609
Wang et al.
electric vehicles is seen as a viable solution to the high cost of 610
batteries.
(2011)
611
• economics – An economic model is discussed. The goal of the 612
•
ELM strategy, in this case, is money-wise. In other words, there is 613
an explicit integration of cost variables into the model or the con- 614
Ault (2010)
Roscoe and
trol policy (Aalami et al., 2010; Cappers et al., 2010; Lijesen, 2007; 615
Roscoe & Ault, 2010). Despite the most interesting goal is usually 616
the minimization or (more practically) the reduction of costs, the 617

•
explicit integration of cost variables is often neglected. For exam- 618

and Sergici
ple, the limitation of the peak load of power demand is known to 619
Faruqui
bring to economic advantages for both suppliers and customers.

(2010)
620
However, a peak shaving technique such as Newborough and 621

•
•
Augood (1999) does not use any information about the cost of 622
energy, being only based on power demand profiles of the con- 623
statistical-m
optimization
sidered loads. This is a representative case of indirect economic

agent-based
rt-pricing•
624
industrial
economics
real-time
benefits arising from the optimization of some technical figure,

peakload
lighting
625
storage
thermal
example
office
i.e., the peak load.

fuzzy
pumps
626
Table 5
phev
tou•
•
qos
dlc
social – The study takes into account the sociologi- 627
cal/psychological aspects of the energy efficiency problem by 628
G Model
629 focusing on individual consumers and their attitudes, behavior especially suitable for being shifted in time without affecting the 691
630 and choices. Theories of social practices are proposed and dis- service (Stadler, Krause, Sonnenschein, & Vogel, 2009). 692
631 cussed. Actually, just one paper addresses the problem in this • lighting – This type of loads experienced several enhancements 693
632 perspective (Strengers, 2012). in terms of energy efficiency in past years. The main driving force 694
633 • not-relevant – This tag characterizes those papers whose topic is the improvement of the lighting technology, i.e., the evolution 695
634 is out of the scope of this SLR. The percentage of papers marked from incandescent bulbs to LEDs. However, this improvement is 696
635 as not-relevant captures the accuracy of the query: the higher not related to ELM. A second important reason, which has instead 697
636 the number of papers marked as not-relevant, the lower the accu- a strong relationship with ELM, is the possibility to integrate 698
637 racy of the query. The discussion on this issue is deferred to occupancy presence/vacancy sensors into the lighting system, 699
638 Section 4.1. An example paper is by El-Khattam, Bhattacharya, allowing an automatic controller to turn on/off and dimming the 700
639 Hegazy, and Salama (2004). The paper deals with the planning of lamps depending on the presence/absence of people in the room 701
640 power generation plants. Although the planning have clear rela- (Akashi & Neches, 2005). 702
641 tionship and impact with ELM, it does not directly deal with an • phev – This tag is assigned to papers dealing with PHEV. As 703
642 ELM technique. Other non-relevant papers retrieved by the query, anticipated while describing the storage tag, PHEV are expected 704
643 among the 30 top-most cited works, include (Billinton & Fotuhi- to rapidly spread, since their penetration depends on the auto- 705
644 Firuzabad, 1994), which addresses the health assessment of a motive market, which is nowadays one of the largest markets 706
645 generation system, and Botterrud, Ilic, and Wangensteen (2005), (Dallinger & Wietschel, 2012; Finn, Fitzpatrick, & Connolly, 2012; 707
646 which studies a method to determine the optimal investment Pang, Dutta, & Kezunovic, 2012). In the context of ELM, the 708
647 policy on power generation systems. challenge of PHEV operations is related to the management of 709
charge/discharge cycles. For instance, one common issue is to 710
coordinate the charge of a large number of vehicles to maintain 711
648 3.4.2. Application domain the peak load under control and to achieve the desired Quality of 712
649 • residential – This tag is used to label models and/or methods Service (Shao, Pipattanasomporn, & Rahman, 2012). 713
650 that applies to the residential domain. This is the case of applica- • pumps – Pumps and compressors are among the most popular 714
651 tions including smart homes, smart buildings, and domotics. The type of load in the industrial domain, thanks to the flexibility 715
652 ELM can consider a single or multiple electricity users. Most of of their applications. They are usually energy-hungry loads due 716
653 the studies deal with the modeling/control of household appli- to the typical usage. On the other hand, like HVAC, they can be 717
654 ances (Paatero & Lund, 2006), either focusing on specific types of suitably controlled in an automated manner (van Staden, Zhang, 718
655 loads (e.g., thermal loads, as in Lu & Chassin, 2004; Wei & Chen, & Xia, 2011; Zhang, Xia, & Zhang, 2012). 719
656 1995) and considering a broader set of heterogeneous loads, as • heterogeneous – This tag has been assigned when the proposed 720
657 done in Roscoe and Ault (2010). model or method can be applied, or explicitly addresses, different 721
658 • industrial – The tag applies to papers focused on the indus- types of loads. Such loads can include all or part of the devices 722
659 trial domain. This kind of papers usually takes into account the identified by the remaining tags in this set. 723
660 manufacturing processes. It adds important challenges to the

661 model and/or control method, since many constraints may arise
3.4.4. Models 724
662 between loads, such as precedence, process flow and production
Tags belonging to this category identify the type of background 725
663 parameters (Ashok & Banerjee, 2000; Babu & Ashok, 2008).
model that is proposed in a paper or is leveraged to develop a
• office – This tag is used to identify all those domains that do not
726
664
control algorithm. 727
665 belong to residential or industrial domains. Therefore, not only
666 offices are naturally included in this category, but also schools,
667 hospitals, supermarkets, warehouses, shopping centers, etc. (Chu • dynamics – This is the most accurate type of models available in 728
668 et al., 1993). In this domain, the most prominent type of mod- terms of description of the physical system associated with the 729
669 eled/controlled loads are heating, ventilation and air conditioning load, although different levels of modeling accuracy are possible. 730
670 (HVAC). These models are often based on continuous or discrete differen- 731
tial equations, at various levels of simplification. The equations 732
describe the physics and/or the thermodynamics of the consid- 733
671 3.4.3. Load type ered physical system, e.g. Facchinetti and Della Vedova (2011), 734
672 • thermal – Thermal loads include all those loads whose behavior Kamoun and Malham (1992), Stadler et al. (2009), Van Tonder 735
673 depends on the variation or the control of the temperature. The and Lane (1996). 736
674 interest behind these loads is motivated by their considerable • black-box – A black-box approach model a load or a system 737
675 power consumption, the possibility to automate their operation using high level parameters. In particular, the physical process 738
676 (since they can easily be controlled without user intervention), interested by the modeling effort is not modeled in details. For 739
677 see Wei and Chen (1995). Moreover, their periodic nature, i.e., example, when modeling the power demand of a load, only the 740
678 they need to be periodically activated to properly perform the power profile is captured: the load is modeled as a device that just 741
679 regulation, enables the use of specific control strategies, such as consumes power, without considering the physical operations 742
680 the one based on real-time scheduling proposed in Facchinetti that determine the power demand (Ashok, 2006; Newborough 743
681 and Della Vedova (2011). HVAC is one of the most popular & Augood, 1999; Sezgen et al., 2007). The representation of 744
682 type of loads subject of investigation in existing scientific litera- the power demand can be based on power profiles in the time 745
683 ture (Escriv-Escriv, Segura-Heras, & Alczar-Ortega, 2010). Water domain, or may leverage a spectral analysis of the profile. For 746
684 heaters represent another important type of thermal load, due to instance, Riddell and Manson (1996) use the coefficient of the 747
685 their widespread diffusion and their typical relatively high power Fourier transform of sampled profiles to characterize a power 748
686 demand. As in other thermal loads, the electric power is usu- load. 749
687 ally demanded periodically over short time frames, making this • statistical-m – Another common approach to model a load is 750
688 kind of loads especially suitable for automatic control actions. based on the statistical analysis of some representative param- 751
689 Finally, refrigerators are another kind of thermal load that is par- eters. The -m suffix is for “model”, to distinguish the tag from 752
690 ticularly interesting, since they have a regular activation pattern, the tag statistical, which is related to the evaluation method. 753
G Model
754 Examples of such parameters are the energy consumption, their • optimization – The control strategy is based on an optimization 818
755 power absorption, environmental conditions affecting the load method. These methods are able to find the optimal allocation 819
756 operation (e.g., the weather for renewables, or the temperature of resources under complex constraints. Typical examples of 820
757 in case of thermal loads), the frequency of usage or activation, etc. optimization techniques adopted for ELM are linear program- 821
758 In Capasso et al. (1994) the penetration and distribution of loads, ming (e.g., in the form of integer (Middelberg, Zhang, & Xia, 822
759 as well as the habits of customers (families), are defined by sta- 2009; van Staden et al., 2011), binary (Di Giorgio & Pimpinella, 823
760 tistically evaluating a large set of data. In Joe-Wong, Sen, Ha, and 2012), or mixed-integer problems (Bozchalui, Hashmi, Hassen, 824
761 Chiang (2012) the user willingness to allow the load shifting is Caizares, & Bhattacharya, 2012; Nikzad, Mozafari, Bashirvand, 825
762 characterized by probabilistic parameters that can be estimated Solaymani, & Ranjbar, 2012; Stadler et al., 2012)), dynamic 826
763 from the analysis of observed real data. programming (Huang, 2003; Laurent, Desaulniers, Malhame, & 827
764 • stochastic – This tags is associated to works where stochas- Soumis, 1995), model-predictive control (van Staden et al., 2011; 828
765 tic/probabilistic models are proposed. The stochastic nature of Zong, Kullmann, Thavlov, Gehrke, & Bindner, 2012), and evo- 829
766 the method can be either applied to the model or to the deriva- lutionary algorithms (Logenthiran, Srinivasan, & Shun, 2012). 830
767 tion of simulation results. In the former case, considering some The typical goal of the optimization is direct cost reduction, see 831
768 given distributions of the parameters allows to derive a proba- Babu and Ashok (2009), Bhatnagar and Rahman (1986), Bozchalui 832
769 bilistic characterization of the results (Facchinetti & Della Vedova, et al. (2012), Tsui and Chan (2012), Vosloo, Liebenberg, and 833
770 2011; Joe-Wong et al., 2012). The latter case refers to the use of Velleman (2012). Although other objectives are possible, usu- 834
771 Monte-Carlo approaches to evaluate the proposed method (Yang ally such objectives are pursued to achieve an indirect cost 835
772 & Huang, 1999). Stochastic models and simulations are used in benefit. For example, in Huang (2003) the optimization goal 836
773 Tan, Green, and Hernandez-Aramburo (2010) to find the most is to reduce the peak load in substations, which brings to 837
774 adequate size of battery packs to address both the electricity economic advantages to the owner in terms of maintenance 838
775 cost reduction due to peak load and the protection of photo- and exercise costs. The common issue faced by optimization 839
776 voltaic systems. On the other hand, Capasso et al. (1994) use a approaches is the lack of scalability. When the number of loads 840
777 randomized method to generate the activation pattern of resi- or the resolution of the timebase increase, the time required 841
778 dential appliances; the pattern is used to produce the overall load to obtain a solution to the optimization problem becomes too 842
779 profile. long for online operations. For this reason, the main effort of 843
780 • agent-based – The system is modeled as a multi-agent system. researchers is on finding formulations of the optimization prob- 844
781 This approach is based on the representation of system compo- lem that allow the use of faster solving methods. For example, 845
782 nents as autonomous agents. During the simulation, the agents Tsui and Chan (2012) formulate the model to allow a con- 846
783 interact to produce an overall combined effect. This method is vex optimization problem, which is significantly faster than 847
784 used in Hobby, Shoshitaishvili, and Tucci (2012) to disaggregate mixed integer problems. Another approach is to simplify the 848
785 the contribution of different loads to the total power consump- problem, considering few loads and/or working with a larger 849
786 tion profile. In Logenthiran, Srinivasan, Khambadkone, and Aung timebase (e.g., 1 hour). Overall, optimization methods require 850
787 (2012), agents are used to model generation components and fast processors, an adequately large amount of RAM memory, 851
788 loads, to allow their interaction through a well-defined inter- and often the support for floating point calculations. These 852
789 face. In Valenzuela, Thimmapuram, and Kim (2012), a multi-agent requirements make the approach not suitable for the imple- 853
790 architecture is used to simulate the energy market, and to study mentation on platforms with scarce resources (e.g., embedded 854
791 the behavior of customers under dynamic-pricing conditions. systems). 855
792 • peakload – This tag is used to describe approaches that explic- • fuzzy – The fuzzy logic is a general modeling and control 856
793 itly and solely address the minimization or reduction of the peak approach suitable to incorporate expert knowledge into the 857
794 load of demanded power. Despite most of the reviewed works model. This method is especially useful when the underlying pro- 858
795 are focused on the optimization of costs, often considering a cess is difficult to describe formally, while there are established 859
796 variable energy price, some proposals aim to achieve the same control practices derived from experienced personnel. Due to 860
797 goal by reducing the peak load (Lameres, Nehrir, & Gerez, 1999; the inherent complexity of power systems, the fuzzy logic has 861
798 Reddy, Norford, & Kempton, 1991; Yang & Huang, 1999). The been applied successfully to model and control such systems, see 862
799 authors assume that the lower peak load provides technical ben- Goel, Wu, and Wang (2010), Yang and Huang (1999). However, 863
800 efits to the energy provider (e.g., an easier and more predictable being fundamentally based on expert knowledge, it is difficult 864
801 management of the electrical infrastructure). Such technical ben- to achieve any formal guarantee on the system behavior. There- 865
802 efits induce economic advantages to the provider, which is in fore, the typical validation method is based on simulations or 866
803 turn stimulated to deliver pricing incentives to the customers to experiments. 867
804 reduce their peak load. • real-time – Real-time scheduling methods leverage exist- 868
805 • qos – This tag means “Quality of Service”. It refers to approaches ing techniques developed in the field of operating sys- 869
806 that take into account constraints on different physical variables, tems to manage the activation of electric loads under 870
807 not directly related to electricity, such as temperature, pressure, several kind of constraints (Facchinetti & Della Vedova, 871
808 basin levels, speed, etc. The typical constraint is to bound the 2011). The main advantages include: scalability (low com- 872
809 variable change within a given range. Examples of papers labeled plexity), predictability (guarantees in the worst-case), and 873
810 with this tag are those on thermal loads where a constraint on the robustness. 874
811 controlled temperature is enforced (Lameres et al., 1999; Saele • dlc – The tag refers to the Direct Load Control technology 875
812 & Grande, 2011). Other approaches are more general, consider- (DLC), a common approach to implement an active control of 876
813 ing constraints on a generic physical variable (Facchinetti & Della user loads. The DLC is based on the possibility for the elec- 877
814 Vedova, 2011). tricity provider to selectively turn off some controllable loads 878
owned by customers. These latter, need to adhere to the DLC 879
program. This method is applied by Wei and Chen (1995) 880

815 3.4.5. Control methods and Chu and Jong (2008) to the control of air conditioners, 881
816 This set of tags refers to the method or the technology leveraged while it is applied to generic thermostatically controlled loads 882
817 to define the control policy or to implement it. in Callaway (2009). 883
G Model
884 3.4.6. Pricing-based approaches a synthetic reproduction of the system behavior. Simulations are 947
885 Pricing-based pricing of electricity includes quicker and cheaper to carry out with reference to experiments. 948
On the other hand, a simulation focuses on some specific part of 949
the system, such as the control algorithm (Callaway, 2009; Wei & 950
886 • demand-response – This tag identifies a common approach to
Chen, 1995), the communication protocol, or a device operation 951
887 achieve benefits to the considered power system. Indeed, such
(Newborough & Augood, 1999). It is hard to accurately capture 952
888 approach is called Demand-Response. It refers to the action (the
all the phenomena that affect a real system. Therefore, a sim- 953
889 “Response”) of power end-users, which change their normal
ulation is useful to assess the behavior and the performance of 954
890 demand patterns in response to the request (the “Demand”) that
a component of the whole system, while the experiment needs 955
891 comes from the energy provider. The request is often performed
the integration (and thus the practical implementation) of the 956
892 by explicitly modulating the energy price and by updating the
involved technologies, methods and solutions. 957
893 information provided to the users. In this way, the customer
• example – Some papers do not provide experiments or sim- 958
894 is brought to reduce its energy demand in presence of an high
ulations to assess the proposed methods. In some cases, the 959
895 price; in turn the price is increased in case of energy shortage or
method is fully described and characterized by a theoretical 960
896 problems on the power distribution/transmission infrastructure,
dissertation that leads to some formal proofs and makes the sim- 961
897 which may jeopardize the correct provision of electricity. Several
ulation unnecessary, see Tsekouras, Kotoulas, Tsirekis, Dialynas, 962
898 works related to ELM are based on this approach: see Aalami et al.
and Hatziargyriou (2008), Zhang et al. (2012). In other cases, 963
899 (2010), Cappers et al. (2010), Lu and Chassin (2004), Newborough
the example is used to complete the description, providing use- 964
900 and Augood (1999), Paatero and Lund (2006), Roscoe and Ault
ful details and showing an application, of the proposed method, 965
901 (2010), Saele and Grande (2011), Sezgen et al. (2007), Wang et al.
see Huang and Billinton (2012), Reddy et al. (1991), Riddell and 966
902 (2011).
Manson (1996). 967
903 • tou – The tag refers to the Time-Of-Use pricing policy, whereby
• statistical – A validation method is labeled with the sta- 968
904 a static price schedule is applied to electric energy usage. Typ-
tistical tag when it is performed on the basis of statistical 969
905 ical schedules may be organized over three periods: daytime,
parameters. This tag often accompanies the simulation tag, 970
906 overnight and weekend. The energy price overnight and dur-
when simulation parameters are selected according to some pre- 971
907 ing the weekend is usually cheaper than while daytime, since
defined statistical distributions, see Capasso et al. (1994), Paatero 972
908 industrial activities are mostly idle. The pricing schedules take
and Lund (2006). For instance, the power consumed by given 973
909 into account such a situation to encourage domestic customers
loads may be randomly selected within a suitable interval; the 974
910 to consume more energy overnight and during the weekends.
number and type of appliances installed in a building may reflect 975
911 This approach leads to a balanced power load. In Ashok (2006),
the statistical penetration of the considered devices in a given 976
912 the effect of tariffs based on TOU are analyzed in a specific appli-
country (Sinden, 2007). 977
913 cation: a steel plant in India. In Aalami et al. (2010), Faruqui and
914 Sergici (2010), TOU is proposed as a solution to reduce the need
915 of new power plant installations. 4. Results 978
916 • rt-pricing – Under the real-time pricing scheme, wholesale

917 energy market prices are forwarded to end-users. Prices may 4.1. Query accuracy 979
918 change as often as hourly. In general, the price signal is provided

919 to the users in advance, e.g., the day before. This scheme can make The accuracy of the research query is measured by the percent- 980
920 the load very elastic. However, end-users must be able to effi- age of papers tagged as not relevant. Since the retrieval of source 981
921 ciently handle the variability of the energy price. This can only be papers is based on keywords, not relevant papers may be included 982
922 done by leveraging some automatic management system. For this in the results because they just mention some terms as a general 983
923 reason, most of small consumers are nowadays not equipped with reference, although the discussed topic is only marginally related to 984
924 suitable technologies and devices to make the real-time pric- the term. There are 38 such papers, corresponding to the 19% of the 985
925 ing policy convenient. On the other hand, this approach is very total. Therefore, the precision of the query is 81%, which appears to 986
926 promising in the near future thanks to the increased load elas- be a reasonable result considering the discussed difficulties about 987
927 ticity (Sezgen et al., 2007). In fact, the load elasticity is becoming synonyms and shared keywords with other disciplines. 988
928 more and more important due to the spread of renewable energy
929 sources (Roscoe & Ault, 2010), whose power generation is highly
4.2. Topics 989
930 variable by nature.
Regarding papers typology, there are 22 surveys (11%) and 140 990
931 3.4.7. Validation method research papers (70%). Fig. 5 summarizes the aforesaid. The most 991
932 • experiment – This tag identifies whose works that base their cited surveys are: Cappers et al. (2010), Palensky and Dietrich 992
933 methods on properly acquired real-world data, or they provide (2011), Vojdani (2008). 993
934 a practical implementation of the proposed method. For many Fig. 6 shows the number of papers labeled by a tag within the 994
935 reasons, instead, several works use synthetic data or simulations general purpose category. Modeling, control and economic issues 995
936 to validate theirs results. Some works provide both practical and related to ELM are topics for more than a quarter of the papers. 996
937 simulated results: the experiment tag applies to these papers too Very few papers explicitly addresses social aspects. In practice, only 997
938 (Paatero & Lund, 2006). In general, experiments are more valu- Strengers (2012) deals with this issue. Experimental results are pre- 998
939 able than simulations for the validation of a model or method sented by 13% of the studies, such as Paull, Li, and Chang (2010), 999
940 (Pipattanasomporn, Kuzlu, Rahman, & Teklu, 2014). On the other Sinden (2007). In most of the papers, in fact, simulations are used to 1000
941 hand, practical implementations are often prohibitive due to the test the performance of the proposed approaches. 16% of the studies 1001
942 significant investments required by a large number of involved deal with micro-generation with renewable source of energy, such 1002
943 devices or users, or to expensive components or infrastructures. as photo-voltaic (Byrne, Letendre, Govindarajalu, Wang, & Nigro, 1003
944 • simulation – Simulations are a preliminary approach to vali- 1996), wind (Dietrich, Latorre, Olmos, & Ramos, 2012), solar water 1004
945 date a proposed method, before going to real experiments. This heating (Batidzirai, Lysen, van Egmond, & van Sark, 2009) and a mix 1005
946 method is based on a suitable modeling of the power system, and of these (Moura & de Almeida, 2010M, 2010o, 2010u, 2010r, 2010a 1006
G Model
Fig. 5. Paper typologies percentages.
Fig. 7. Radar chart that compares the number of modeling-related papers to control-
1007 and de Almeida, 2010). The same percentage of the papers lever-
related papers for the type of model that is treated.
1008 age the possibility to store energy, in many forms. For instance,
1009 Arteconi, Hewitt, and Polonara (2012) uses thermal storage, while
1010 in Lu and Shahidehpour (2005) plug-in electric vehicles batteries
1011 are leveraged. 4.4. Methods 1027
Fig. 8 shows methods typology of the tagged studies. Note that 1028
1012 4.3. Modeling vs. control the percentages do not sum to 100% because some papers include 1029
more than one method and some methods can be classified with 1030
1013 Fig. 7 shows a comparison between modeling papers and multiple tags. The majority of the papers are about optimization. 1031
1014 control papers in terms of model typology. The chart shows a mis- Main advantages of optimization techniques are: (i) the opportu- 1032
1015 match between modeling and control: the majority of the papers nity to include into the model many types of constraints and (ii) 1033
1016 that actually propose models concerns statistical (e.g. McSharry, the availability of well-known resolution methods. The drawback 1034
1017 Bouwman, & Bloemhof, 2005) or dynamic models (e.g. Paull et is the computational complexity that could affect scalability. 1035
1018 al., 2010), while most of the papers that propose control schemes Methods based on fuzzy-logic have been proposed, such as Goel 1036
1019 treat black-box models, like Di Giorgio and Pimpinella (2012), Van et al. (2010), Yang and Huang (1999). Those methods scale well 1037
1020 Tonder and Lane (1996). This latter observation suggests that most with the number of loads, but the quality of service cannot be 1038
1021 control schemes proposed in the literature do not take into account mathematically guaranteed, due to the nature of the fuzzy-logic. 1039
1022 the physical model of the process related to the electric load, but Real-time methods usually do not reach the optimal solution. 1040
1023 they care just the power consumption. Examples of ELM that take However, they have a low computational cost that allows their 1041
1024 explicitly into account the quality of service of the process con- implementation in low-power embedded systems. 1042
1025 trolled by the electric loads are Facchinetti and Della Vedova (2011), Some of, but not all, the methods are explicitly classified by the 1043
1026 Stadler et al. (2009). authors of the studies as DLC or demand-response. 1044
Fig. 6. Number of papers by general tags with respect to the total number of papers
(i.e., 200). Fig. 8. Control methods relative percentage.
G Model
100
90 energy
80 engineering
computer sc.
70
Number of papers
environmental sc.
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1996
1999
2002
2005
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1997
1998
2000
2001
2003
2004
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
Fig. 11. Number of publications per research area, per year.
5. Discussion 1062
5.1. Growth of interest 1063
Fig. 9. Papers by load types.

The increase of interest of the scientific community on the topic 1064
in exam in the very last years is attested by the time-series of the 1065
number of publications. As can be seen in Fig. 2, the number of 1066
papers about this subject, including both conference and journal 1067
papers, has grown consistently in the last ten years: from 18 in 1068
2003 to 127 in 2013. Moreover, more than 47% of all the papers 1069
published in the period 1981–2013 were produced after 2009. 1070
As depicted in Fig. 11 the growth of interest affects all the major 1071
disciplines involved in the subject, i.e., energy, engineering, com- 1072
puter science and environmental science. These disciplines are 1073
those provided by Scopus (see Section 3.3.1). However, the most 1074
significant growth has been registered in the fields of computer 1075
science and engineering. This fact can be easily explained by con- 1076
sidering the exponential spreading of technologies and approaches 1077
behind the smart energy grid, such as embedded systems, wire- 1078
less sensor networks (Gungor et al., 2010), cyber-physical systems 1079
(Kleissl & Agarwal, 2010) and Internet of Things (Miorandi, Sicari, 1080
De Pellegrini, & Chlamtac, 2012). Further evidence of such a growth 1081
of interest comes from the increasing volume of research on elec- 1082
tric load management, which could be related to a general gain of 1083

Fig. 10. Papers by electricity tariffs. interest in energy efficiency by the society, attested by big public 1084
investments. The European Union launched in 2009 the “20-20- 1085
1045 4.5. Considered loads 20” program4 that commits member countries achieving by the 1086
year 2020 the following goals: (i) reduce the by the 20% the car- 1087
1046 Fig. 9 lists the load types considered in the papers. There is a bon emission, (ii) produce at least the 20% of the primary energy 1088
1047 prevalence of thermal systems, which is justified by the fact that by renewable sources, (iii) reduce energy consumption by the 20% 1089
1048 this type of loads consumes more than a third of the total elec- thanks to improvements on energy efficiency. The U.S. government 1090
1049 tricity in the residential buildings2 and about a half in commercial presented in 2008 the “New Energy for America” plan5 aiming to 1091
1050 buildings3 (these data refer to the U.S., but the situation is compa- invest $150 billion over the next ten years to encourage private 1092
1051 rable in other developed Countries). The most influential papers – efforts to develop clean energy sources and technology. 1093
1052 in terms of citations – about thermal loads management are Chu

1053 et al. (1993), Lu and Chassin (2004), Wei and Chen (1995). 5.2. Future directions of the research 1094
1054 4.6. Considered tariffs The results of the review suggest that the trend in the research 1095
on ELM are pointing towards the extension of optimization meth- 1096
1055 Electricity tariffs considered in the tagged papers are listed in ods to include more and more features and modeling details. This 1097
1056 Fig. 10. The plot shows the number of papers that take explicitly into is done to obtain more accurate results through the optimization 1098
1057 account a electricity tariff over the total number of papers dealing of more complete models. However, a trade-off between compu- 1099
1058 with economical issues. The description of the different tariffs is tational complexity and scalability (see the considerations below) 1100
1059 given in Section 3.4.6. Most of the papers deal with the classical must be established. 1101
1060 time-of-use pricing (18%), but also the newest real-time pricing There are few papers dealing with actual practical experiments, 1102
1061 tariff is adopted by several works (14%). while there is a growth of interest in using the proposed technolo- 1103
gies in practical programs and applications, as we pointed out in the 1104
introduction. Therefore, we foresee a trend in the study of practical 1105
2
Source: U.S. Energy Information Administration http://www.eia.gov/
energyexplained/index.cfm?page=electricity use (visited in March, 2013).
3 4
Source: U.S. Energy Information Administration http://www.eia.gov/ See http://ec.europa.eu/europe2020.
5
energyexplained/index.cfm?page=us energy commercial (visited in March, 2013). See http://apps1.eere.energy.gov/news/news detail.cfm/news id=12194.
G Model
1106 issue arising from the implementation of the solutions proposed in of our expertise. In our opinion, these works represent an advance- 1163
1107 the scientific literature. ment in the state of the art with respect to previous achievements. 1164
1108 Finally, the spread of new approaches, platforms and infrastruc- Although the selection of the set of papers is more subjective with 1165
1109 tures based on embedded systems, Internet of Things and related respect to the SLR, this additional review is done by leveraging the 1166
1110 technologies, will accelerate the implementation and the adoption definition of tags provided in previous sections, thus achieving the 1167
1111 of ELM solutions. necessary continuity and homogeneity in the evaluation process 1168
applied to the selected set of papers. The review highlights the most 1169
1112 5.3. Fast obsolescence relevant assigned tags to each mentioned paper. 1170
Zhou, Wu, Li, and Zhang (2014) propose an approach for the 1171
1113 Papers in this field tend to become outdated fast. In fact, the most real-time energy control (tag control) that considers several dif- 1172
1114 cited papers in our list are all quite recent: 17 out of the 20 top cited ferent loads (heterogeneous): HVACs, dryers, EVs, PV generation 1173
1115 papers have been published in the last decade. Our explanation and storage. The method combines a half-hour-ahead planning 1174
1116 for this fact is twofold. On one hand, the fast development of new determined through optimization (optimization), and an online 1175
1117 technologies that make papers that do not rely on them obsolete. strategy to cope with dynamic changes and modeling approxima- 1176
1118 On the other hand, the volume of paper production on this topic tions. The storage system is governed by a controller based on 1177
1119 has grown significantly in the last few years (cf. Fig. 2). Therefore fuzzy logic (fuzzy). Adika and Wang (2014) present a modeling 1178
1120 there are very few top cited papers among older papers. (modeling) and management scheme (control) for prosumers, 1179
i.e., residential energy users (residential) that, thanks to the 1180
availability of renewable energy sources (renewables), become 1181

1121 5.4. Benchmarking framework
producers as well. The proposed control scheme targets the cost 1182
reduction under different pricing policies (tou, rt-pricing), by 1183

1122 The mismatch between modeling and control approaches
controlling several kind of appliances (heterogeneous). A fuzzy 1184
1123 shown in Fig. 7 opens the door to future research that combines
control scheme (fuzzy, control) is proposed by Qela and Mouftah 1185
1124 advanced control techniques with the more and more detailed
(2014) to reduce the peak load of power demand (peakload) 1186
1125 models of the physical processes related to electric devices. On
generated by thermal loads (thermal), while balancing the user 1187
1126 this regard, a common framework for simulating heterogeneous
requirements in terms, e.g., of temperature adjustment (qos). A 1188
1127 systems with many models of electric appliances would represent
set of experiments (experiments) were carried out by Douglass, 1189
1128 an useful tool for the benchmarking of the proposed control tech-
Garcia-Valle, Nyeng, Ostergaard, and Togeby (2013) on thermal 1190
1129 niques. In fact, the current lack of this kind of framework makes the
loads (thermal) to statistically assess (statistical-m) their abil- 1191
1130 comparison between different ELM methods difficult. For example,
ity to effectively act for frequency regulation (control). This 1192
1131 in the field of building thermal load simulation, the EnergyPlus soft-
approach is proposed to cope with the high variability of system 1193
1132 ware (Crawley et al., 2001), developed at the U.S. Dept. of Energy,
load due to the presence of renewable energy sources. 1194
1133 is a powerful and widely adopted framework. This tool facilitates
Soliman and Leon-Garcia (2014) suggest a new economic model 1195
1134 design and test of new methods for energy efficiency at building
(modeling, economics) for the energy market that keeps into 1196
1135 level, and allows the comparison between different solutions. In our
account both customers selling energy and storage possibilities 1197
1136 opinion, the modular architecture of EnergyPlus may be leveraged
(storage). The approach is based on the solution of two game- 1198
1137 to implement add-ons specifically dedicated to ELM. Such add-ons
theoretic problems. The first game is played among users, whose 1199
1138 may include novel control approaches, as well as physical models
goal is to shift energy usage and production to minimize the energy 1200
1139 of electric devices and appliances. In this way, the accurate physical
cost. The authors show that a Nash equilibrium point matches a 1201
1140 simulation achieved by EnergyPlus would serve as a common layer
global optimal solution. The second game is between the utility 1202
1141 for the implemented ELM methodology and models.
and users. It is formulated in terms of a Stackelberg game that is 1203
solved using both an heuristic and an optimization method (opti- 1204

1142 5.5. Scalability mization). As a demonstration, the authors show some examples 1205
of application of their method (examples). 1206

1143 Most of the proposed methods are based on optimization (cf. Gils (2014) studies the potentials behind the application of 1207
1144 Fig. 8). The high computational cost associated with these kind of demand-response methods (demand-response). The analysis of 1208
1145 methods may lead to scalability issue. Large-scale systems have the proposed statistical model (modeling, statistical-m) allows 1209
1146 not been investigated in deep so far and they are those researchers to conclude that significant load reductions can be achieved by 1210
1147 will address in the future. Scalability issues are likely to arise in operating on heavy industries, as well as on office and residential 1211
1148 case of end-users aggregation. For example, the coalitions approach thermal loads. However, the impact of demand-response is strongly 1212
1149 (Vinyals, Bistaffa, Farinelli, & Rogers, 2012) leverages such aggre- per-country dependent. Factors like industrialization, penetration 1213
1150 gation in form of Virtual Electricity Consumers (VECs) that obtain of specific types of loads – HVACs in particular, the balance between 1214
1151 better pricing conditions with utility companies by achieving larger the use of gas and electricity, play an important role in the achiev- 1215
1152 scale flexible load management. able load reduction, which ranges between 7% and 26% according 1216
to the presented analysis. 1217
1153 6. Recent advances in the state of the art A coordination approach (control) based on real-time schedul- 1218
ing algorithms (real-time) is proposed by Caprino, Della Vedova, 1219
1154 The systematic literature review as performed in this paper and Facchinetti (2014) for several types of household appliances 1220
1155 allows to accurately describe the historical perspective of the (residential, heterogeneous). The goal is the minimization of 1221
1156 research domain that was taken into account. However, it may not the peak power demand (peakload). The coordination method 1222
1157 be effective in depicting the most recent advances on the same sub- leverages an accurate modeling of the power demand profiles of 1223
1158 ject, since recent papers may have not received enough visibility loads (modeling). The main benefits of the proposed methods are 1224
1159 (i.e., citations) to appear among the works analyzed in the SLR. its scalability, thanks to the low computational complexity, very 1225
1160 To give a wider perspective to the methods available in the liter- good performance in terms of peak load shaving, and the possibil- 1226
1161 ature, we include a classical review of some selected recent papers ity to a-priori compute a bound on the peak load under worst case 1227
1162 on electric load management, which have been selected on the basis conditions. 1228
G Model
1229 Real-time scheduling techniques are also studies by 7. Conclusion 1295
1230 Subramanian, Garcia, Callaway, Poolla, and Varaiya (2013) to

1231 manage a set of electric devices, such as renewable sources In this paper, we have performed a systematic literature review 1296
1232 (renewables), static loads, and deferrable loads (heteroge- of the available scientific literature on electric load management. 1297
1233 neous). Storage capabilities are also taken into account (storage). After a careful elaboration of a search query, submitted to the sci- 1298
1234 Three scheduling methods are compared: the Earliest Deadline entific source engine, we have individually classified the 200 top 1299
1235 First (EDF), Least Laxity First (LLF), and Receding Horizon Control. cited papers. The classification allowed the researchers to iden- 1300
1236 The first two methods, which are derived from Real-Time Systems tify sub-topics and trends. The results of such evaluation show an 1301
1237 theory (Buttazzo, 2011), are essentially heuristics, presenting bet- increasing interest in this topic in the last five years, a fast obsoles- 1302
1238 ter scalability properties, while the latter is an optimization-based cence due to the spreading of new technologies, a small volume of 1303
1239 method (optimization) having better performance. research works addressing large-scale systems, and a lack of a com- 1304
1240 A mixed-integer linear programming (MILP) optimization mon benchmarking framework that would make the comparison 1305
1241 method (optimization) to reduce the energy cost (economics) between methods easier. 1306
1242 in the same domain (residential) is proposed by Setlhaolo, Xia,

1243 and Zhang (2014). The method can achieve a cost saving up to
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SCS 277 1–18 ARTICLE IN PRESS

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Sustainable Cities and Society

2 Electric load management approaches for peak load reduction: A

Q2 ∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +39 0302406706.

43 1. Introduction peak-to-average power usage, the power grid is affected by less 69

a growth in the use of automatic power load management tech- 96

niques. Moreover, a higher elasticity in the power demand enabled 97

by the technologies discussed in this paper, will allow the on-site 98

consumption of the energy generated by distributed renewable 99

sources, thus reducing the impact of the variability of renewable 100

distribution infrastructure, which must be tailored to tolerate peak 102

to other electrical equipment, such as transformers, switches, etc. 107

124 of the smart grid. the relevant results. 187

instead of reduction. 227

The following notation is used to list synonyms and related 228

164 2. Classiﬁcation of the available literature terms of a keyword: 229

165 As a consequence of the multi-disciplinary nature of ELM, key-

Table 1 2.1.3. Smart Load 258

automatic meter reading (AMR), the communication is one-way 273

is adopted. A typical example of CPES is composed by smart electric 282

2.2.1. Demand-side management (DSM) 289

The generality of this approach is captured by its deﬁnition pro- 293

DSM “includes everything that is done on the demand side of an 295

bulbs to compact ﬂuorescent lights up to installing a sophisticated 297

incentive-based and time-based. Incentive-based approaches span 308

categorize and classify each document. 381

326 keyword can be found under several different names (synonyms) in

database to select the search results. The formulation of an effective 414

374 from where the studies will be extracted and collected.

TITLE-ABS-KEY(“demand side management”

460 second part of the query, i.e. TITLE-ABS-KEY(“peak load” OR

470 • complete, i.e. it includes (ideally) all relevant papers, thanks to

475 3.3.1. Preliminary results

Pricing tou rt-pricing

522 bility and the level of description achieved by the classiﬁcation.

SCS 277 1–18

G. Benetti et al. / Sustainable Cities and Society xxx (2015) xxx–xxx

their attention to the model without proposing a speciﬁc control 563

trol systems or algorithms for the ELM. In general, a control 567

Some approaches focus on load scheduling (Chu et al., 1993), 569

i.e., they devise a policy to determine the activation pattern of

electric loads. The policy can be based on pricing information 571

physical/technological issues (Callaway, 2009; Newborough & 573

Augood, 1999), or may encompass a combination of both (Wei & 574

Chen, 1995). A control algorithm can be based on several different 575

approaches, each one providing peculiar beneﬁts and disadvan- 576

is introduced that identiﬁes speciﬁc control methods.

• renewables – This tag labels papers where renewable sources of 579

include the solar technology, both photo-voltaic and thermal 581

technologies, and wind (Sinden, 2007). A common issue in ELM 582

related to renewables is to consume the generated power locally.

For instance, in Rastegar, Fotuhi-Firuzabad, and Aminifar (2012) 584

the integration of PHEV in a smart building is studied to opti- 585

is desirable for two main reasons: technological and economic.

Technological advantages are mainly on the utility side, since 588

variability of the available energy level at any time, thus making

the regulation of the power grid easier. Financial beneﬁts arise

by the user from the utility. 594

• storage – Energy-storage systems are often used in conjunc- 595

tion with renewable energy sources to smooth the amount of 596

supporting the above mentioned local energy usage (Rastegar