INTRODUCTION

Motor applications cover a wide range of characteristics, starting requirements, loading and
ambient temperature. Protection of motors therefore becomes less standardised than
protection of say generators. There are many protective devices ranging from simple fuses to
sophisticated solid state relays, all of which provide different degrees of protection. The cost
and the extent of such protective devices must be weighed against the potential hazards
bearing in mind the size of the motor and the type of load. Any device or scheme, though
reliable in operation under abnormal conditions, must not affect the continuous operation of the
motor under normal conditions. Unnecessary interruptions cause not only inconvenience but
serious loss of production may result.

The following table indicates typicall protection depending on the size of the motor. However,
other factors should be considered when selecting motor protection, for example importance of
load etc:

VOLTAGE RATING SWITCHING PROTECTION

DEVICE
<600V <11kW Contactor 1. Fuses
2. Fuses + Thermal
Overload + U/V
Release
<600V 11– 300kW Contactor Fuses + Thermal
3.3kV 100kW-1.5MW Contactor Overload +
6.6kV 1MW-3MW Contactor Earthfault
Options – Stalling &
Undercurrent
6.6kV >1MW Circuit Breaker As Above +
11kV >1MW Circuit Breaker Instantaneous
overcurrent +
differential

The types of fault or abnormality can be divided broadly into imposed external conditions and
internal faults. Externally imposed conditions include mechanical overload, unbalanced supply
voltages, undervoltage, single phasing and reversed phase sequence staring and loss of
synchronism in the case of synchronous motors. Internal faults include bearing failure, winding
phase and earth faults.

The protection must be able to distinguish between abnormal conditions and normal motor
operation. Therefore, it is important to understand the behaviour of the motor under certain
conditions to be able to apply protection successfully. For example, the magnitude and
duration of the starting current affects the application of overload protection; the magnitude and
maximum allowable duration of stalling current in relation to those of staring current determine
whether separate stalling protection is required.

THERMAL OVERLOAD PROTECTION

The tolerance to overload of motors depends on the motor design and differs considerably in
practice. The risk of damage of the insulation depends on the temperature. It is very difficult if
not impossible to cover all types and ratings of motors with different applications, variety of
possible abnormal operating conditions and the different modes of failure that may occur result
in a complex thermal relationship.

Copyright © of Alstom Grid UK Limited Page 1 of 14

If a motor is assumed to be a homogeneous body, developing heat internally at a constant rate
and dissipating heat at a rate directly proportional to its temperature rise it can be shown the
temperature at any instant is given by :

 -t
T = Tmax 1 - e  where Tmax = final steady temperature
 τ 
τ = heating time constant

This assumes a thermal equilibrium in the form :

Heat developed = Heat stored + Heat dissipated.

Temperature rise is proportional to the current square.

2  -t
Thus T = K Ι R 1 - e  where Ι R is that current which produces the rated
 τ 
temperature rise TR when flows
continuously in the motor.
2  -t
i.e. T = TR = K Ι R 1 - e  when t = °C .......... (1)
 τ 

For an overload current I the temperature rise is given by :

 -t
T = K Ι 2 1 - e  .......... (2)
 τ 

For the motor not to exceed the rated temperature rise TR for current I then the time t for which
the motor can withstand the current I is obtained by equating equations (1) and (2) with t = °C in
equation (1).

2  -t
Hence K Ι R = KΙ 2  1 - e 
 τ 
1
or t = τ .log e 2
Ι 
1-  R 
 Ι 

Overload protection should satisfy the above relation. The value of IR may be the full load
motor current or a percentage of it, depending on the motor design.

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It is an over-simplification to regard a motor as a homogeneous body. It actually comprises
several parts each with a characteristic surface area, mass, heat capacity, thermal conductivity
and rate of heat production. The temperature rise of different parts or even of various point in
the same part may be very uneven. However, it is reasonable to consider that the current-time
relationship follows an inverse fashion.

While infrequency overloads of short duration may not damage the motor, sustained overload
of a few percent may result in premature ageing and failure of insulation so that the time lag
characteristic of the device is of vital importance in permitting the normal starting duty and
providing close sustained overload protection for the motor at the same time.

START/STALL PROTECTION

A Direct-On-Line machine (DOL) will typically draw a starting current of approximately 6 times
full load current for a period defined by the machines starting time. This is because the
impedance of the machine is related to the slip frequency, which varies during start up; the
impedance being smaller at low speeds where the slip is larger.

With normal 3-phase supply, should a motor stall when running, or be unable to start due to
excessive load, it will draw a current equivalent to the locked rotor current. On the basis of
starting current being equal to locked rotor current it is not possible to distinguish between
3-phase stalling and healthy starting by monitoring the current alone.

In the majority of cases, the starting time of a normal induction motor is less than the maximum
stalling time allowable to avoid excessive deterioration of the motor insulation. Under this
condition it is possible to discriminate on a time basis between the two and provide protection
against stalling. In applications where the stalling time is less than the starting time such as
motors driving high inertia loads, it is more difficult to discriminate between a healthy start and a
stall condition. A separate stalling relay may be required depending on the type of overload
protection relay used and the ratio of normal starting time to the allowable stall time.

The following conditions may be examined :

Assume starting current = stall current

tsT = maximum starting time

tsL = maximum allowable stall time.

a) tsT < tsL

t
Thermal
i) Thermal relay operating time at
the same current level < tsL but
> tsT : tsL

In this case the thermal relay can tsT

Protect the motor against
3-phase stall, no separate
stalling relay is required.

Copyright © of AREVA T&D UK Limited Page 3 of 14

 ii) Thermal relay operating time at
the same current level > tsL and Thermal
tsT : t

In this case no stalling protection

is provided by the thermal
overload relay even though the tsL
stall time is greater than the
tsT
starting time. A separate stalling
relay is required. If the difference
between tsL and tsT is adequate
to cater for relay errors a simple
single phase definite time over-
current relay may be used. I

Is current setting < locked rotor current but > load current
ts time setting <tsL but > tsT

Thermal
+ -
Definite time O/C
t overcurrent TD

TD
86
tsL
ts
tsT Motor starting
characteristic
O/C = overcurrent TRIP
TD = time delay
86 = trip relay
IS I tsL > TD > tsT

b) tsT > tsL

In this case a separate stalling relay in the form of a definite time over-current relay and a shaft
monitoring device are required. The latter is used to check the motor speed while the relay
measures the motor current. Instead of the overcurrent relay a simple definite time delay relay
may also be used as shown below :

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i) Use of a tachoswitch monitor with a definite time delay relay:-

TD < tsL
+ Tacho -
MSD The tacho contact will open
TD
when the set speed (say 10% of
rated speed) is reached. It must
operate well within TD.
TD
86
MSD = Motor switching device
auxiliary contact, closed
when the motor is
switched on.
TRIP

ii) Use of a tachoswitch monitor with a definite time overcurrent relay:-

+ Tacho -
O/C
TD
This offers more reliability.

TD TD < tSL
86
O/C < stall current,
> load current

TRIP
iii) Use of a 2-stage definite time overcurrent relay:-

+ -
MSD
TD1
TD1 > tsT
TD1 O/C TD2 < tsL
TD2 O/C < stall current
> load current
TD2 No protection during motor starting
86
period. TD1 is continuously
energised when the motor is in
operation.
TRIP

Copyright © of AREVA T&D UK Limited Page 5 of 14

If tsL > tsT the same arrangement can be used in which case stalling protection is provided
during the starting period. This method provides additional advantage for motors with different
hot and cold stall times in that TD2 can be set to less than hot stall time irrespective of cold stall
time.

TD1 > tsT

(TD1 + TD2) < tsL (cold)
TD2 < tsL (hot)

OPERATION ON UNBALANCE SUPPLY

The supply voltage to a 3-phase induction motor can become unbalanced due to such reasons
as single phase load, imperfect transportation of feeders etc. The degree of unbalance is small
in normal installation except when one phase become open circuited. This would not affect at
first sight, the motor to any large extent, but a small voltage unbalance could produce a much
larger negative phase sequence current in the winding due to the relative small negative phase
sequence impedance of the machine compared with the positive phase sequence impedance.
Consider the following equivalent circuits for positive and negative phase sequence currents,
the magnetising impedance being neglected:

' ' ' '

R1 + R 2 j(X1 + X 2) R1 + R 2 j(X1 + X 2)

1− S S - 1
R' 2 R' 2
S 2 - S

With positive phase sequence voltages a rotating field will be set up and the rotor will rotate in
the direction of rotation of the filed giving a slip s and slip frequency sf. With negative phase
sequence voltages the field will rotate in the opposite direction cutting a rotating rotor conductor
at almost twice the frequency. The actual frequency of negative phase sequence voltage and
current in the rotor circuit is (2 - s)f. From the equivalent circuits:

Motor +ve sequence impedance at a given slip s

½
 R' 2 2 
= (R1 + ) + (X 1 + X ' 2 ) 2 
 s 

½
= [(R
1 + R' 2 ) 2 + (X 1 + X ' 2 ) 2 ] when s = 1 at standstill.
Page 6 of 14 Copyright © of AREVA T&D UK Limited
 Motor -ve sequence impedance at a given slip s

½
 R' 2 2 
= (R1 + ) + (X 1 + X ' 2 ) 2 
 2-s 

½
 R' 2 2 
= (R1 + ) + (X 1 + X ' 2 ) 2  when s << 1 at normal running speed
 2 

The value of resistance is generally much less than the leakage reactance. Therefore
neglecting the resistance term the motor -ve phase sequence impedance at normal running
speed can be approximated to the +ve phase sequence impedance at standstill.

At normal running speed :

+ve sequence impedance starting current

≈
-ve sequence impedance normal load current

If a motor has a starting current 6 x the full load current, the -ve sequence impedance would be
th
about 1/6 of the +ve sequence impedance.

Therefore if 1 pu +ve sequence voltage applied to the motor would produce 1 pu of +ve
sequence current, the same 1 pu of -ve sequence voltage would produce 6 pu - ve sequence
current. Consequently, if there is 5% -ve sequence voltage present in the supply it would result
in an approximate 30% of -ve sequence component of current.

The ac resistance of the rotor conductor to the induced -ve sequence current is greater than the
dc resistance due to the higher frequency [(2-s)f] causing skin effect. The heating effect of -ve
sequence current is therefore greater and increases the motor losses. The machine output
must be reduced to avoid overheating.

Because of the reversed rotation of the magnetic field due to -ve sequence current, a small -ve
torque is also produced.

As mentioned previously one unit of -ve phase sequence current has a greater heating effect
than one unit of +ve phase sequence current, this unequal heating effect should be taken into
account in the design of a thermal characteristic based on:

Ι equivalent = Ι 12 + n Ι 2 2

where I1 = +ve sequence component

I2 = -ve sequence component
N = a fixed constant

A typical value of n in motor protection relays is 6. This value has been carefully chosen to
provide adequate protection to both the stator and rotor windings for all designs of motor
without causing nuisance tripping.

Copyright © of AREVA T&D UK Limited Page 7 of 14

LOSS OF ONE PHASE WHILE STARTING

Assume a balanced 3-phase supply:

Normal starting current IA = (VAN.Z)/2 = Standstill impedance per phase of the motor.

I'A
With one phase open-circuited say A

C phase :
Z
VAB
Ι' C = 0
Ι' A = - Ι'B
VAB
Ι' A = Z
2Z Z
I'C C
1 B
= ( 3 VAN ) X
2Z
I'B
3 VAN
=
2 Z
= 0.866 Ι A

i.e, Starting current with one phase open circuited = 0.866 x normal starting current.

Ι' A + Ι ' B + Ι' C = 0

∴ Ιo = 0
1
Ι1 = (Ι' A + a Ι'B ) a = 1 ∠120°
3
1
= (1 - a) Ι' A
3
1  3 3 
=  -j Ι' A
3 2 2 
1
= ( 3 - j1) Ι' A
2 3
1
= Ι' A ∠ − 30°
3

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 1
∴ Ι1 = Ι' A
3
1 3 1
= x x ΙA = ΙA
3 2 2
1
i.e. + ve sequence current = normal starting current.
2
1
Similarly, Ι 2 = (Ι' A + a 2 Ι'B )
3
1
= (1 - a 2 ) Ι' A
3
1 3 3  1
=  + j  Ι' A = Ι' A ∠30°
3 2 2  3
1 3 1 1
∴ Ι2 = x x ΙA = ΙA i.e. = ve sequence current =
3 2 2 2
normal starting current.

For delta-connected winding motors the actual line starting current with one phase open circuit
is the same as a wye-connected machine :

For delta-connected winding motors the

actual line starting current with one
phase open circuit is the same as a
wye-connected machine:- Z Z

VAB Z
Normal starting current = 3x
Z X
VAB
Actual starting current =
Z112Z
VAB
=
2
Z
3
3 VAB
=
2 Z
3  VAB 
=  3 
2  Z 
3
= x normal starting current
2
= 0.866 x normal starting current

Note that one winding will carry twice the current in the other two windings.

Copyright © of AREVA T&D UK Limited Page 9 of 14

SINGLE PHASE STALLING PROTECTION

On loss of one phase supply while starting the motor will remain stationary. It has been shown
the motor will draw a current equal to 0.866 x the normal starting current. Therefore, if a relay
measuring the total stator current is used it must have a time delay longer than the starting time
of the motor. If the allowable stall time at that level of current is less than the starting time
similar arrangements as in the case of 3-phase stalling protection have to be used.

However, it has also been shown that the negative phase sequence component present in the
current is equal to half the normal starting current. A negative phase sequence current detector
can therefore detect this condition. In the CTM relay an instantaneous negative phase
sequence current detector is fitted. It has a setting of 2-8 x rated current. If a setting of 1/3
normal starting current the relay will detect single phase stalling condition.

LOSS OF ONE PHASE WHILE RUNNING

It is difficult to shown in simple mathematical terms the behaviour of the motor when one phase
supply is lost with the motor running due to the complex nature of the slip calculation and the
possibility of additional negative phase sequence current being fed into the motor from parallel
equipment. However, the following would happen:

i) Heating increases considerably due to high rotor losses caused by the -ve sequence
current

ii) Output of motor is reduced and depending on the load it could stall altogether.

iii) Motor current increases.

REVERSED PHASE SEQUENCE STARTING

In many installations such as lift motors and conveyors, protection is occasionally required to
ensure correct direction of rotation. Although not damaging to the motor this can be detrimental
to the process.

Under reversed phase sequence conditions the relay is designed to respond to the excessive
negative phase sequence component of current. A number of methods can be used to
disconnect the motor from the supply during this condition:

• Instantaneous Negative Sequence Overcurrent Relay – This will respond very quickly if the
load current is sufficient on the system.
• Time Delayed Thermal Trip – As mentioned previous the thermal overload protection is
influenced by the negative phase sequence component of the current, this element may be
more benificial for smaller loads.

The disadvantage of the above methods is that in order for them to operate the motor must be
switched on, dpending on the inertia of the motor it may start to turn in the wrong direction. If
this is unacceptable then a negative phase sequence voltage monitoring device can be used.
This device will monitor the phase rotation of the incoming supply to the motor and if interlocked
with the motor switching device will prevent closure onto a revese phase sequence supply. This
approach is also used when the motor can only draw very low load currents.

Page 10 of 14 Copyright © of AREVA T&D UK Limited

LOW VOLTAGE PROTECTION

For induction motor the torque developed is approximately proportional to the square of the
applied voltage. Low voltage level prevents motors from reaching rated speed on starting or
may draw heavy current on losing speed. Some form of undervoltage protection is therefore
desirable with suitable time delay to disconnect the motors when severe low voltage conditions
persist for more than a few seconds. The time delay is required to prevent tripping on
momentary voltage dips.

INSULATION FAILURE

The majority of stator winding faults are the result of prolonged or cyclical overheating which
causes the insulation to deteriorate. Most faults are cleared by instantaneous earth fault
protection as the windings are generally surrounded by earthed metal. Sensitivity of the earth
fault relay is limited by the spill current from residually connected CTs during starting, usually
20%.

Most other faults are cleared by thermal or unbalance protection. Instantaneous overcurrent
units if fitted protect only against terminal flashovers and other heavy short circuits. This is
because of the high settings necessary to prevent maloperation on starting current surges. For
motors above say 1MW differential protection may be used to give high speed clearance of
phase and earth faults. This usually takes the form of high impedance differential or biased
differential. 6 current transformers are required with 2 per phase at the two ends of winding.

SELF BALANCE TYPE DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION

50

50

50

An alternative is to use self balance type differential protection arrangement as shown above
using instantaneous current relays.

Copyright © of AREVA T&D UK Limited Page 11 of 14

If conductors are placed reasonably concentric within the window of the core balance current
transformers, spill current can be kept to a minimum. With this low spill current and a
reasonably independence of CT ratio to full load a lower fault setting could be achieved than
conventional high impedance circulating current differential schemes.

Disadvantages :

i) the necessity of passing both ends of each phase winding through the CT and hence the
need for extra cabling on the neutral end.

ii) to avoid long cabling position of CTs are restricted to the proximity of the machine output
terminals in which case the cable between the machine output terminals and controlling
switchgear might not be included within the differential zone.

OPERATION WITH FUSED CONTACTORS

Where the motor is switched via a fused contactor, the interrupting capacity of the contactor
must be taken into consideration. In general they will not be rated to break the maximum fault
current. In this case it is important to prevent the protection attempting to operate the contactor
above its maximum rating. This is usually achieved by disabling all instantaneous tripping
elements and time co-ordinating with the associated fuse. This is illustrated in the following
diagram:

TRIP

TIME
MPR

FUSE
M

Ts MPR
ELEMENT

I Ico CURRENT

Ts > Tfuse at Icont.

Page 12 of 14 Copyright © of AREVA T&D UK Limited

BEARING FAILURE PROTECTION

Bearings can suffer from both electrical and mechanical failure:

Electrical Interference - can result in an induced voltage and corresponding circulating

current in the bearing, it is important to take precautions against this, for example adequate
earthing of equipment.

Mechanical Failure – results in increased friction, generating heating and eventually failure of
the bearing.

Two types of bearings are detailed below:

i) Ball or Roller Bearings

Generally, any failure of this type of bearing will cause the motor to come to a standstill
almost immediately. The motor will draw a heavy current equivalent to the locked rotor
current. There is very little change that a relay monitoring the motor current can detect
bearing failure of this type before the bearing is destroyed. However, it is essential to
disconnect the motor before excessive winding damage. This may be covered in the form
of stalling protection.

ii) Sleeve Bearings

Failure of this type of bearing is a very occurrence. If it occurs it will be indicated by

temperature rise, vibration and increase in motor current in the order of 10% to 20% prior
to seizure.

It is generally accepted that the bearing will need replacing following failure, however stall
protection will help minimise damage to the motor itself. Unfortunately, in extreme cases
this is not the case and distortion of the shaft may occur. One method used to prevent
this is direct temperature monitoring of the bearings using RTD`s for example.

SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS

Out-Of-Step Protection

A synchronous motor decelerates and falls out of step when it is subjected to a mechanical
overload exceeding its maximum available output. It may also lose synchronism from a fall in
field current or supply voltage. An out-of-step condition will subject the motor to undesirable
overcurrent and pulsating torque leading to eventual stalling.

Two methods are available to detect out-of-step condition in a synchronous motor:

i) Field Current Method

The alternating component of current induced in the field circuit when the motor falls out
of step provides the basis for this method. One arrangement is to connect a reactor in
series with the field circuit to divert alternating current to a polarised field-frequency relay,
a coil of which is connected in parallel with the reactor.

Copyright © of AREVA T&D UK Limited Page 13 of 14

 Disadvantages :

a) difficult to discriminate between alternating current induced by pole slip and that
induced by faults on the supply system or sudden swing of load.

b) certain faults introduce harmonics, in particular second harmonic alternating current

in the filed circuit.

ii) Power Factor Method

This method makes use of the change of power facto that occurs when the motor slips
poles. When the motor loses synchronism a heavy current at a very low power factor is
drawn from the supply.

I'

Stator current on
loss of synchronism

Protection Against Sudden Restoration Of Supply

On loss of supply a synchronous motor should be disconnected if the supply could be restored
automatically or restored without knowledge of the machine operator. This is to avoid the
possibility of the supply being restored out of phase with the motor generated emf.

Two ways of detecting loss of supply :

i) Overvoltage and Underfrequency

If the supply busbars have no other load connected and the motor is not loaded the motor
terminal voltage could rise instantaneously to 20-30% on loss of supply due to the open
circuit regulation of the machine. If the motor is loaded it will decelerate fairly quickly on
loss of supply and the frequency of terminal voltage will fall.

ii) Underpower and Reverse Power

Applicable when power reversals do not occur under normal operating conditions.

Underpower - arranged to look into the machine; applicable when there is a possibility of
no load connected on loss of supply.

Reverse power - arranged to look away from the machine; applicable where there is
always load connected.

Time delay is required to overcome momentary power reversal due to faults etc.

Page 14 of 14 Copyright © of AREVA T&D UK Limited