1-Electrical Network and Protections

1.1 Electrical Networks and Protections 1.
1 Electrical Networks and Protections

Introduction : electrical networks Introduction : electrical networks
and protection systems and protection systems
APPS APPS
Olivier Richardot Olivier Richardot

Issue A Issue A
Last modification : april 2011 Last modification : april 2011
Summary
y Summary
y
What is an electrical network? What is an electrical network?

Network architecture and components Network architecture and components
El t i l ffaults
Electrical lt and
d th
their
i consequences El t i l ffaults
Electrical lt and
d th
their
i consequences
Role and constitution of a protection system Role and constitution of a protection system
Required qualities of a protection system
y Required qualities of a protection system
y
The main protection’s families The main protection’s families
Schneider Electric - Energy Automation – Technical Institute 2 Schneider Electric - Energy Automation – Technical Institute 2
Electrical faults and their consequences Electrical faults and their consequences
Required qualities of a protection system Required qualities of a protection system
What is an electrical network ? What is an electrical network ?
Electrical network carry electricity from production centers to consumers Electrical network carry electricity from production centers to consumers
Electrical networks hierarchyy Electrical networks hierarchyy
Transmission and interconnection Transmission and interconnection

400 kV – 225 kV – 150 kV 400 kV – 225 kV – 150 kV
Repartition Repartition
90 kV – 63 kV 90 kV – 63 kV
Distribution
Di t ib ti Distribution
Di t ib ti
20 kV – 15 kV – 6 kV 20 kV – 15 kV – 6 kV
230-400 V 230-400 V
Standard voltage
g levels Standard voltage
g levels
NF C18
C18-510
510 Un IEC 60038 NF C18
C18-510
510 Un IEC 60038
EHV EHV
HTB 230 kV HTB 230 kV
HV HV
50 kV 50 kV
35 kV 35 kV
HTA HTA
MV MV
BTB
1 kV BTB
1 kV
500 V 500 V
BTA BTA
LV LV
50 V 50 V
TBT TBT
French network French network
Electrical networks protection

p Electrical networks protection
p
● Why do we need to protect transmission and distribution networks? ● Why do we need to protect transmission and distribution networks?
● Structures costs and strategic aspect of product « electricity » ● Structures costs and strategic aspect of product « electricity »
● Availability,
Availability continuity
continuity, quality of service ● Availability,
Availability continuity
continuity, quality of service
● Profitability and materials life duration ● Profitability and materials life duration
● Why do we need to protect industrial networks? ● Why do we need to protect industrial networks?
● Workmen
Workmen’s
s safety ● Workmen
Workmen’s
s safety
●Potential differences between earth points → risks of electric shock or ●Potential differences between earth points → risks of electric shock or
electrocution electrocution
● Materials protection ● Materials protection
●Flashover arcs → risks of fire or explosion ●Flashover arcs → risks of fire or explosion
●Overloads → risks of damage or destruction ●Overloads → risks of damage or destruction
● Operation
O ti continuity
ti it ● Operation
O ti continuity
ti it
Short-circuit on a 225 kV cable Short-circuit on a 225 kV cable

Meshed grids: transmission and Meshed grids: transmission and
repartition repartition
Mesh, or loop Mesh, or loop
B Tie-connection B Tie-connection
C C
A A
D D
E E
G G
H H
F F
Close tie-connection Close tie-connection

Meshed grids: transmission and Meshed grids: transmission and

repartition repartition
Radial g
grids: distribution Radial g
grids: distribution
Overhead distribution networks: Overhead distribution networks:
● Rural zones MV
● Rural zones MV
● Low load concentration source
NO ● Low load concentration source
NO
● Low implementation cost simple

i l spur liline ● Low implementation cost simple
i l spur liline
Underground distribution networks: NO NO NO Underground distribution networks: NO NO NO

MV WC MV WC
● Urban or mixed zones source BC ● Urban or mixed zones source BC
NO NO
● High load concentration double spur line ● High load concentration double spur line
● High continuity of service ● High continuity of service
MV
main ring MV MV
main ring MV
source source source source
NO NO
Electric p
power p
plants Electric p
power p
plants
● Component of the network which provides electric power to the network ● Component of the network which provides electric power to the network
● Alternators moved by different primary energy sources ● Alternators moved by different primary energy sources
● Predominantly centralized production, distributed generation being ● Predominantly centralized production, distributed generation being
more and more important with market deregulation more and more important with market deregulation
G G
Sources: statistic data (France)
( ) Sources: statistic data (France)
( )
● data from French Utility RTE at end of 2009 ● data from French Utility RTE at end of 2009
thermal nuclear 63.1 GW thermal nuclear 63.1 GW
thermal classic 26.1 GW thermal classic 26.1 GW
hydraulic 25.4 GW hydraulic 25.4 GW
wind-power 4.6 GW wind-power 4.6 GW
other renewables 1 2 GW
1.2 other renewables 1 2 GW
1.2
Cruas-Meysse
y nuclear plant
p ((France)) Cruas-Meysse
y nuclear plant
p ((France))
Transmission lines Transmission lines
● Component of the network dedicated to electric energy transmission ● Component of the network dedicated to electric energy transmission
from a node to an other from a node to an other
● Three-phase lines made of one to four wire per phase, eventually ● Three-phase lines made of one to four wire per phase, eventually
added
dd d up withith an earth
th wire
i added
dd d up withith an earth
th wire
i
● Transit power linked to permanent maximal admissible current, and to ● Transit power linked to permanent maximal admissible current, and to
static stability
y limit static stabilityy limit
Lines: statistic data (France)

( ) Lines: statistic data (France)
( )
● Transmission and repartition grid (data from RTE at end of 2009) ● Transmission and repartition grid (data from RTE at end of 2009)
270 kV CC 4 underground connections: 117 km (FA2000) 270 kV CC 4 underground connections: 117 km (FA2000)
400 kV overhead:
h d 21 279 k
km underground:
d d 3 km
k 400 kV overhead:
h d 21 279 k
km underground:
d d 3 km
k
225 kV overhead: 25 568 km underground: 970 km 225 kV overhead: 25 568 km underground: 970 km
63 kV overhead: 33 656 km underground : 2 135 km 63 kV overhead: 33 656 km underground : 2 135 km
● Distribution grid (data from French distrib. Utility ERDF at end of 2009) ● Distribution grid (data from French distrib. Utility ERDF at end of 2009)
HTA overhead: 363 600 km underground : 235 650 km HTA overhead: 363 600 km underground : 235 650 km
BT overhead: 426 800 km underground : 248 500 km BT overhead: 426 800 km underground : 248 500 km
France-Spain
p 400 kV interconnection France-Spain
p 400 kV interconnection
Substations Substations
● Component of the network allowing control,

control dispatching and ● Component of the network allowing control,
control dispatching and
transmission of electric energy on different voltage levels transmission of electric energy on different voltage levels
● Bus-bars to which are connected spans (or cubicles), lines and ● Bus-bars to which are connected spans (or cubicles), lines and
t
transformers
f t
transformers
f
● Presence of break and disconnect devices allowing separation of ● Presence of break and disconnect devices allowing separation of
different network sections different network sections
Substations: main components
p Substations: main components
p
feeder measurementt feeder measurementt

circuit-breaker circuit-breaker
transformers transformers
bus-bar bus-bar
li and
line d ground
d li and
line d ground
d
disconnect switch disconnect switch
selector selector
disconnect disconnect
protection; switch protection; switch
control-command control-command
Substations: main components

p Substations: main components
p
bus-bar longitudinal CB bus-bar longitudinal CB

VT “Bus-Tie” VT “Bus-Tie”
LGS CB LGS CB
CT CT
bus-bar
bus bar bus-bar
bus bar
voltage voltage
control control
switch bus-bar isolator switch switch bus-bar isolator switch

bus-bar bus-bar
selector selector
CVT CVT
bus coupler bus coupler

Substations: statistic data (France)
( ) Substations: statistic data (France)
( )
● HV substations (data from RTE at end of 2009) ● HV substations (data from RTE at end of 2009)
270 kV CC 2 HVDC stations (FA2000) 270 kV CC 2 HVDC stations (FA2000)
400 kV 142 substations

b t ti 400 kV 142 substations
b t ti
225 kV 536 substations 225 kV 536 substations
● MV substations (data from French distrib. Utility ERDF at end of 2009) ● MV substations (data from French distrib. Utility ERDF at end of 2009)
Public MV distribution HV/MV 2 200 substations Public MV distribution HV/MV 2 200 substations
Public LV distribution MV/LV 734 000 substations Public LV distribution MV/LV 734 000 substations
400 kV substation 400 kV substation
Electrical faults and their Electrical faults and their
consequences consequences
Th main
The i protection’s
t ti ’ families
f ili Th main
t ti ’ families
f ili
Short-circuits Short-circuits
Short-circuits that may appear on the networks are of different kinds... Short-circuits that may appear on the networks are of different kinds...
1-phase-to- 2-phase-(to- 3-phase-(to- 1-phase-to- 2-phase-(to- 3-phase-(to-

ground ground) ground) ground ground) ground)
Short-circuits Short-circuits
... and can have various origins. ... and can have various origins.
i t
internal
l external
t l i t
internal
l external
t l
● maneuver over voltages ● lightning shocks ● maneuver over voltages ● lightning shocks
● isolators deterioration ● ice, snow, dust ● isolators deterioration ● ice, snow, dust
● resonance, ferroresonance ● branches, animals ● resonance, ferroresonance ● branches, animals
● broke conductors ● excavation engines ● broke conductors ● excavation engines
● ... ● vehicle collisions ● ... ● vehicle collisions
● ... ● ...
Short-circuits: examples of risky Short-circuits: examples of risky

sit ations
situations sit ations
situations
Short-circuits: statistic data (France)
( ) Short-circuits: statistic data (France)
( )
● data from ‘Techniques de l’Ingénieur’ ● data from ‘Techniques de l’Ingénieur’

transmission & interconnection 15.2 faults per 100 km per year transmission & interconnection 15.2 faults per 100 km per year
mono 83 % mono 83 %
poly 17 % poly 17 %
repartition 37.5 faults per 100 km per year repartition 37.5 faults per 100 km per year
mono 68 % mono 68 %
poly 32 % poly 32 %
distribution (MV) 150 faults per 100 km per year distribution (MV) 150 faults per 100 km per year
mono 64 % mono 64 %
poly 36 % poly 36 %
Other electric faults Other electric faults
● Sustained overloads ● Sustained overloads

isolator deterioration (over-heating) that may lead to perforation isolator deterioration (over-heating) that may lead to perforation
● Over voltages ● Over voltages

straight-front transient, origin from atmosphere straight-front transient, origin from atmosphere
transient maneuver regime transient maneuver regime
industrial frequency industrial frequency
arcing arcing
● Unbalances ● Unbalances
rupture of a conductor rupture of a conductor
unbalanced load unbalanced load
vibrations over-heating
vibrations, over heating of rotating machines vibrations over-heating
vibrations, over heating of rotating machines
Consequences:
q voltage
g dips
p Consequences:
q voltage
g dips
p
A short-circuit has as a major consequence to impose to healthy A short-circuit has as a major consequence to impose to healthy
elements a lower voltage than the minimal admissible voltage in normal elements a lower voltage than the minimal admissible voltage in normal
operation operation
Driving torque proportional to squared voltage Driving torque proportional to squared voltage
AsM  slowing down and risk of stalling AsM  slowing down and risk of stalling
Disturbance of P and Q flows Disturbance of P and Q flows

G  risk of loss of synchronism G  risk of loss of synchronism
Consequences
q g
: overvoltages Consequences
q g
: overvoltages
● A one-phase-to-ground fault with ● A one-phase-to-ground fault with

isolated or impedant neutral leads isolated or impedant neutral leads
to a voltage rise on healthy phases to a voltage rise on healthy phases
● Opening a circuit (with self) on a ● Opening a circuit (with self) on a

short-circuit current generates a short-circuit current generates a
temporary overvoltage  temporary overvoltage 
q
Consequences: g
contact voltages q
Consequences: g
contact voltages
● Fault between phase(s) and grounded metallic mass(es) ● Fault between phase(s) and grounded metallic mass(es)
difference off potentials

diff i l between
b metallic ( ) and
lli mass(es) d ground
dddue difference off potentials
diff i l between
b metallic ( ) and
lli mass(es) d ground
dddue
to current flow through resistances to current flow through resistances
Uc Uc
Uc Uc
Role and constitution of a protection Role and constitution of a protection
system system
Th main
t ti ’ families
f ili Th main
t ti ’ families
f ili
Role of a p
protection system
y Role of a p
protection system
y
The role of a protection system is to: The role of a protection system is to:
● detect and clear quickly any electric fault on the network ● detect and clear quickly any electric fault on the network
● separate faulty part of the network only ● separate faulty part of the network only
● signal any abnormal operation condition ● signal any abnormal operation condition
● limit operation interruptions and electric fault consequences ● limit operation interruptions and electric fault consequences
● optimize the network operation ● optimize the network operation
Constitution Constitution
Protection is realized by de-energizing the faulty element, according to Protection is realized by de-energizing the faulty element, according to
voltage level and installation power voltage level and installation power
fuses contactors circuit breakers fuses contactors circuit breakers
Protection principle
p p Protection principle
p p
The protection relay is a continuous network electric state monitoring The protection relay is a continuous network electric state monitoring
device, which controls breaking systems via « break » (NC), or device, which controls breaking systems via « break » (NC), or
« make » (NO) switches « make » (NO) switches
ure
ure
nd
nd
comman
comman
measu
protect. signaling control- measu protect. signaling control-

relay command relay command
Monitored values Monitored values
I current relays
y I current relays
y
U voltage relays U voltage relays
P, Q power relays P, Q power relays
Z impedance relays Z impedance relays
f frequency relays f frequency relays
Protection elements Protection elements
R l and
Role d constitution
tit ti off a protection
t ti system
t R l and
Role d constitution
t ti system
t
Required qualities of a protection Required qualities of a protection
system system
Th main
t ti ’ families
f ili Th main
t ti ’ families
f ili
Essential qualities
q Essential qualities
q
RELIABILITY FASTNESS RELIABILITY FASTNESS
protection protection
system
t system
t
SELECTIVITY ROBUSTNESS SELECTIVITY ROBUSTNESS

Selectivity
y Selectivityy
Selectivity consists into separating the malfunctioning element from healthy Selectivity consists into separating the malfunctioning element from healthy
network to de-energize it, and only this one network to de-energize it, and only this one
● Necessary for operation and electric energy supply continuity ● Necessary for operation and electric energy supply continuity
● Optimization of electric network operation ● Optimization of electric network operation
● Tripping of the fault clearing necessary CB alone ● Tripping of the fault clearing necessary CB alone
SELECTIVITY SELECTIVITY
Selectivity
y Selectivityy
Four tools to ensure selectivity of a protection system: Four tools to ensure selectivity of a protection system:
● Use of protections sensitive only to faults occurring inside the ● Use of protections sensitive only to faults occurring inside the
protected section protected section
selectivity by differential protection selectivity by differential protection
● Use of protections with spread time-delays to ● Use of protections with spread time-delays to
let the protection which is the closest from let the protection which is the closest from
fault clear the fault fault clear the fault
time-grading selectivity time-grading selectivity
Selectivity
y Selectivityy
Four tools to ensure selectivity of a protection system: Four tools to ensure selectivity of a protection system:
● Use of protections with spread thresholds adjusted to discriminate the ● Use of protections with spread thresholds adjusted to discriminate the
faults located out of the protected section faults located out of the protected section
current-grading selectivity current-grading selectivity
● Use of information sharing between relays to ● Use of information sharing between relays to
let the only concerned protections clear the let the only concerned protections clear the
fault fault
logic selectivity logic selectivity
Fastness Fastness
Fatness consists into separating the malfunctioning Fatness consists into separating the malfunctioning
element from healthy network to de-energize it, within element from healthy network to de-energize it, within
FASTNESS FASTNESS
a delay compatible with various security constraints a delay compatible with various security constraints
● Necessary for workmen and materials safety ● Necessary for workmen and materials safety
● Safeguard of production units stability ● Safeguard of production units stability
● Reduction of costs due to deteriorations or destructions caused by a fault ● Reduction of costs due to deteriorations or destructions caused by a fault
● Continuity of operation, cost of unsupplied energy ● Continuity of operation, cost of unsupplied energy
● Respect of selectivity ● Respect of selectivity
Reliability
y Reliabilityy
Reliability consists into surely separating the Reliability consists into surely separating the
malfunctioning element from healthy network malfunctioning element from healthy network
RELIABILITY RELIABILITY
to de-energize it to de-energize it
● Necessary for workmen and materials safety ● Necessary for workmen and materials safety
● Reduction of costs due to deteriorations or destructions caused by a fault ● Reduction of costs due to deteriorations or destructions caused by a fault
● Capability to ensure protection function’s operation without failure at any time ● Capability to ensure protection function’s operation without failure at any time
Reliability
y Reliabilityy
The tools to ensure protection system’s The tools to ensure protection system’s
reliability: reliability:
RELIABILITY RELIABILITY
● Redundant system to compensate possible material failures ● Redundant system to compensate possible material failures
● Self-control and supervision functions ● Self-control and supervision functions
● Adequate sensitivity to operate properly in circumstances where faults are ● Adequate sensitivity to operate properly in circumstances where faults are
difficult to detect difficult to detect
● Good robustness to disturbances due to the system’s environment ● Good robustness to disturbances due to the system’s environment
Robustness Robustness
Robustness consists into not separating an healthy element from the Robustness consists into not separating an healthy element from the
network in case of a disturbance which is not an abnormal operation for network in case of a disturbance which is not an abnormal operation for
the protected section the protected section
● Necessary for operation electric energy supply continuity ● Necessary for operation electric energy supply continuity
● Non-deterioration of electric network operation ● Non-deterioration of electric network operation
● Absence of unexpected trips ● Absence of unexpected trips
ROBUSTNESS ROBUSTNESS
Robustness Robustness
The tools to ensure protection system’s robustness: The tools to ensure protection system’s robustness:
● A redundant
d d t system
t permits
it to
t adjust
dj t settings’
tti ’ sensitivity
iti it th
through
h the
th use off ● A redundant
d d t system
t permits
it to
t adjust
dj t settings’
tti ’ sensitivity
iti it th
through
h the
th use off
complementary functions complementary functions
● A system which is independent from network’s configuration is not disturbed by ● A system which is independent from network’s configuration is not disturbed by
external operation constraints external operation constraints
● A coordinated system is indifferent to abnormal operations that doesn’t concern ● A coordinated system is indifferent to abnormal operations that doesn’t concern
the protected section the protected section
each protection function has each protection function has

it own specific
its ifi role
l it own specific
its ifi role
l
ROBUSTNESS ROBUSTNESS
R l and
Role d constitution
t ti system
t R l and
Role d constitution
t ti system
t
Classification BACKUP
Classification BACKUP
PROTECTIONS PROTECTIONS
fault clearance in case fault clearance in case
MAIN PROTECTIONS of mal operation of MAIN PROTECTIONS of mal operation of
selective and fast fault clearance main protections selective and fast fault clearance main protections
selectivity by selectivity by selectivity by selectivity by

current-grading backup by time current-grading backup by time
measurement information measurement information
selectivity delayed action selectivity delayed action
principle sharing principle sharing
overcurrent overcurrent
distance distance
differential overcurrent CB fail differential overcurrent CB fail
logic logic
voltage voltage
Overcurrent Overcurrent
Fuses Fuses
● Basic protection against short-circuits ● Basic protection against short-circuits
● Direct breaking action with the help of short-circuit current energy ● Direct breaking action with the help of short-circuit current energy
● MV applications: motors and transformers  1MW ● MV applications: motors and transformers  1MW
● simplicity ● simplicity
● low cost ● low cost
● quick fault clearance ● quick fault clearance
● no selectivity ● no selectivity
● lack of flexibility ● lack of flexibility
AsM AsM
Overcurrent Overcurrent
Max of I relays Max of I relays

● Local I measurement ● Local I measurement
● Trip criterion elaboration on current analysis ● Trip criterion elaboration on current analysis
● Selectivity by time, current, logic information ● Selectivity by time, current, logic information
● Directional protection (with local U measurement) if several sources ● Directional protection (with local U measurement) if several sources
● main protection in: ● main protection in:

distribution distribution
industry industry
● backup protection in transmission ● backup protection in transmission
I> I>
Differential Differential
● Local and remote I measurement ● Local and remote I measurement

● Trip criterion elaboration on incoming and outgoing currents analysis ● Trip criterion elaboration on incoming and outgoing currents analysis
● Intrinsic
I i i selectivity
l i i bby time
i andd measurement principle
i i l ● Intrinsic
I i i selectivity
l i i bby time
i andd measurement principle
i i l
Id > Id >
Distance Distance
● Local I and U measurement ● Local I and U measurement

● Trip criterion elaboration on impedance analysis computed by the relay ● Trip criterion elaboration on impedance analysis computed by the relay
● Z = U/ I provides
id an image
i off the
h lload d and
d permits
i didistance evaluation
l i ● Z = U/ I provides
id an image
i off the
h lload d and
d permits
i didistance evaluation
l i
from the fault location in case of short-circuit from the fault location in case of short-circuit
● Selectivity
y byy time,, impedance,
p , logic
g information ● Selectivityy by
y time,, impedance,
p , logic
g information
● Tele-action schemes for a fast fault clearance ● Tele-action schemes for a fast fault clearance
Z< Z< Z< Z<

Voltage
g and Frequency
q y Voltage
g and Frequency
q y
● Local U and F measurement ● Local U and F measurement

● Trip criterion elaboration on voltage and/or frequency analysis ● Trip criterion elaboration on voltage and/or frequency analysis
● Selectivity
S l i i b by time
i compulsory
l as voltage
l andd ffrequency are ● Selectivity
S l i i b by time
i compulsory
l as voltage
l andd ffrequency are
« extended » values (therefore no possible discrimination of faulty « extended » values (therefore no possible discrimination of faulty
element) element)
● Generally used as backup protections ● Generally used as backup protections
U, F U, F
Improve
p yyour knowledge
g ... Improve
p yyour knowledge
g ...
Techniques de l’Ingénieur Techniques de l’Ingénieur
RTE : Mémento de la sûreté du système électrique, RTE : Mémento de la sûreté du système électrique,
édition 2004 édition 2004
Guide de l’ingénierie
g électrique
q Guide de l’ingénierie
g électrique
q
Anyy available
a a ab e pprotection
otect o app
application
cat o gu
guide
de Any
y available
a a ab e pprotection
otect o app
application
cat o gu
guide
de
Revision Comment Author Date Revision Comment Author Date
A Creation from french issue C2 O. RICHARDOT Mar 2011 A Creation from french issue C2 O. RICHARDOT Mar 2011

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1.1 Electrical Networks and Protections 1.

1 Electrical Networks and Protections

Olivier Richardot Olivier Richardot

What is an electrical network? What is an electrical network?

What is an electrical network ? What is an electrical network ?

Transmission and interconnection Transmission and interconnection

Electrical networks protection

What is an electrical network? What is an electrical network?

Close tie-connection Close tie-connection

Meshed grids: transmission and Meshed grids: transmission and

● Low implementation cost simple

Underground distribution networks: NO NO NO Underground distribution networks: NO NO NO

● High continuity of service ● High continuity of service

thermal nuclear 63.1 GW thermal nuclear 63.1 GW

thermal classic 26.1 GW thermal classic 26.1 GW

hydraulic 25.4 GW hydraulic 25.4 GW

wind-power 4.6 GW wind-power 4.6 GW

Lines: statistic data (France)

150 kV overhead: 1 061 km underground: 2 km 150 kV overhead: 1 061 km underground: 2 km

90 kV overhead: 14 963 km underground: 499 km 90 kV overhead: 14 963 km underground: 499 km

63 kV overhead: 33 656 km underground : 2 135 km 63 kV overhead: 33 656 km underground : 2 135 km

● Component of the network allowing control,

feeder measurementt feeder measurementt

Substations: main components

bus-bar longitudinal CB bus-bar longitudinal CB

switch bus-bar isolator switch switch bus-bar isolator switch

bus coupler bus coupler

400 kV 142 substations

225 kV 536 substations 225 kV 536 substations

150 kV 27 substations 150 kV 27 substations

90 kV 516 substations 90 kV 516 substations

63 kV 1291 substations 63 kV 1291 substations

400 kV substation 400 kV substation

1-phase-to- 2-phase-(to- 3-phase-(to- 1-phase-to- 2-phase-(to- 3-phase-(to-

Short-circuits: examples of risky Short-circuits: examples of risky

● data from ‘Techniques de l’Ingénieur’ ● data from ‘Techniques de l’Ingénieur’

● Sustained overloads ● Sustained overloads

● Over voltages ● Over voltages

Disturbance of P and Q flows Disturbance of P and Q flows

● A one-phase-to-ground fault with ● A one-phase-to-ground fault with

● Opening a circuit (with self) on a ● Opening a circuit (with self) on a

difference off potentials

fuses contactors circuit breakers fuses contactors circuit breakers

protect. signaling control- measu protect. signaling control-

U voltage relays U voltage relays

P, Q power relays P, Q power relays

Z impedance relays Z impedance relays

f frequency relays f frequency relays

Protection elements Protection elements

RELIABILITY FASTNESS RELIABILITY FASTNESS

SELECTIVITY ROBUSTNESS SELECTIVITY ROBUSTNESS

● Optimization of electric network operation ● Optimization of electric network operation

● Safeguard of production units stability ● Safeguard of production units stability

● Respect of selectivity ● Respect of selectivity

● Self-control and supervision functions ● Self-control and supervision functions

● Non-deterioration of electric network operation ● Non-deterioration of electric network operation

● Absence of unexpected trips ● Absence of unexpected trips

each protection function has each protection function has

selectivity by selectivity by selectivity by selectivity by

Max of I relays Max of I relays

● main protection in: ● main protection in:

● backup protection in transmission ● backup protection in transmission

● Local and remote I measurement ● Local and remote I measurement