◆

Nomenclature

a Prats’ relative capacity parameter b channel width

a Archie constant b linear regression constant
a ellipse axis, ft, m b slope of log-log plot of net pressure versus time
a viscosity degradation coefficient bfD dimensionless fracture width
a intermediate area, ft2, m2 blf linear flow fracture width
ac length scale characteristic bM Mayerhofer et al. (1993) method intercept
asH,max horizontal axis of the maximum damaged bN Nolte method intercept
ellipse, ft, m
bs damage extent normal to the fracture plane, ft, m
asH,min horizontal axis of the minimum damaged
B formation volume factor, RB/STB, res-ft3/scf,
ellipse, ft, m
res-m3/m3
asV,max vertical axis of the maximum damaged
B Skempton pore pressure coefficient
ellipse, ft, m
B ratio of the inner cup radius to bob radius
asV,min vertical axis of the minimum damaged
ellipse, ft, m Bg formation volume factor for gas, res-ft3/scf,
res-m3/m3
aX chemical activity of species X
Bo formation volume factor for oil, RB/STB,
A area, ft2, acre, m2
res-m3/m3
ABL representative formation property in the
Bw formation volume factor for water
boundary layer
cf fracture compliance
Ac acid capacity number
cf pore compressibility, psi–1, bar–1
Ae area at the end of an interval
cg compressibility of gas, psi–1, bar–1
Aelas elastic area
co compressibility of oil, psi–1, bar–1
Aetch acid-etched area
co borate foam viscosity adjustment factor
Af fracture face surface area, ft2, m2
ct total compressibility, psi–1, bar–1
Afso fracture area at screenout, ft2, m2
ctf fracture compressibility, psi–1, bar–1
Aik influence function
cw compressibility of water, psi–1, bar–1
AL leakoff area
C wellbore storage, bbl/psi, m3/bar
APZ representative formation property in the pay
zone C proppant concentration, ft3/ft3, m3/m3
AT critical transitional pore size C chemical concentration, mol/L
b y-axis intercept for spurt C constrained modulus, psi, bar, Pa

Reservoir Stimulation N-1

C discharge coefficient Cpfl fluid heat capacity
C rock type and grain size constant Cpi product concentration at the solid/liquid
interface, mol/L
C shape factor accounting for wellbore curvature
CR general reservoir-controlled leakoff coefficient,
C* critical overlap concentration, lbm/1000 gal,
ft/min1/2, m/s1/2
dL/g
CRD dimensionless reservoir conductivity
CA reservoir geometric shape factor
Ct combined fluid-loss coefficient, ft/min1/2, m/s1/2
CA acid concentration
Cv viscosity-controlled leakoff coefficient,
Cc compressibility control leakoff coefficient,
ft/min1/2, m/s1/2
ft/min1/2, m/s1/2
Cve effective filtrate-controlled leakoff coefficient,
Cce effective reservoir-controlled fluid-leakoff
ft/min1/2, m/s1/2
coefficient, ft/min1/2, m/s1/2
Cw wall or filter-cake fluid-loss coefficient,
CCO total interface concentration of carbonate
ft/min1/2, m/s1/2
species
CW acid concentration at solid/liquid interface
Ccv combined leakoff coefficient, ft/min1/2, m/s1/2
Cwall surface acid concentration
Cd dimensionless discharge coefficient
Cwcv total leakoff coefficient, ft/min1/2, m/s1/2
CD dimensionless wellbore storage coefficient
C0 acid concentration at capillary inlet
Cdiv concentration of diverter particles, lbm/gal,
kg/m3 C1 external phase constant
Cdiv´ net concentration of diverter particles after CF concentration factor
dissolution effects, lbm/gal, kg/m3
d diameter, in., m
Cdrag drag coefficient
d distance, ft, in., m
Cdyn dynamic constrained modulus, psi, bar, Pa
dprop proppant particle diameter, in., m
Ceqm equilibrium concentration
dsol solid particle diameter, in., m
CfD dimensionless fracture conductivity
dtbg tubing diameter, in., m
CfDapp apparent dimensionless fracture conductivity
D diameter, in., m
CfD,opt optimal dimensionless fracture conductivity
D distance, ft, in., m
CfDtrue actual dimensionless fracture conductivity
D turbulence coefficient
Cgel gel mass concentration in fluid
D diffusion constant, cm2/s
CH shape factor
DA molecular diffusion coefficient, cm2/s
CHF concentration of hydrofluoric acid
De effective acid diffusion coefficient, cm2/s
Ci reactant concentration at the solid/liquid inter-
Deff effective acid diffusion coefficient, ft2/s, m2/s
face, mol/L
DH hydraulic diameter, in., m
CL leakoff or fluid-loss coefficient, ft/min1/2,
m/s1/2 Dp pipe inner diameter, in., m
Co rock cohesion, psi, bar, Pa Dp perforation diameter, in., m
Co initial reactant concentration Dpe effective diffusion coefficient for reaction
products, cm2/s
Cp product concentration

N-2 Nomenclature
Dw wire diameter, in., m FL linear flow function
Da Damköhler number Fmeas fracture development function for measured
data
Damt mass-transfer-limited Damköhler number
Fsim fracture development function for simulated
Darxn reaction-rate-limited Damköhler number
data
De Deborah number
F0 surface flux at time zero
DR damage ratio
g acceleration of gravity, ft/s2, m/s2
E Young’s modulus, psi, bar, Pa
g(∆tD) dimensionless fluid-loss volume function
E´ plane strain modulus, psi, bar, Pa
gf fracture gradient, psi/ft, Pa/m
Eav average Young’s modulus, psi, bar, Pa
g0 fluid-loss volume function
Edyn dynamic Young’s modulus, psi, bar, Pa
G shear modulus, psi, bar, Pa
Ef reaction rate constant
G(∆tD) dimensionless fluid-loss time function
En effect of all previous time steps
G* corrected value of G-function at closure
Es secant Young’s modulus, psi, bar, Pa
G´ elastic storage modulus, psi, bar, Pa
Et tangent Young’s modulus, psi, bar, Pa
G´´ viscous loss modulus, psi, bar, Pa
Et Young’s modulus of a plastic material, psi, bar,
Gc fluid-loss time function G(∆tD) at fracture
Pa
closure
f friction factor
Gdyn dynamic shear modulus, psi, bar, Pa
f elastic influence function
Ge strain energy release rate
faL apparent length fraction
GRAPI gamma ray value
fd drag coefficient
h height, ft, m
ffL ratio of fracture to loss volume during injection
h formation or reservoir thickness, ft, m
fLS volume fraction lost to spurt
h hardening parameter
fp pad volume fraction
h heat transfer coefficient
fpad pad volume fraction
hcp height at the center of perforations, ft, m
fs slurry volume fraction
hD dimensionless height
fv volume fraction
hf fracture height, ft, m
fw water fractional flow
hfD ratio of the leakoff area to the characteristic
fκ spurt fraction length
F fill fraction hfo initial fracture height, ft, m
F formation factor hL permeable or fluid-loss height, ft, m
F force, lbf, N hpay height of the pay zone, ft, m
F fracture development function hs penetration into bounding layer, ft, m
Fb ratio of wellbore width or net pressure hwD dimensionless completion thickness
Fc critical load H depth, ft, m
Fi surface flux at the ith time step i injection rate

Reservoir Stimulation N-3

i interest rate kpf perforation friction proportionality constant
I diffusion flux kr relative permeability, md
I influence function kr reservoir permeability, md
Iani index of horizontal-to-vertical permeability kr surface reaction rate constant, cm/s
anisotropy
kr,app apparent reservoir permeability, md
J acid flux
krg gas relative permeability, md
J pseudosteady-state productivity index
kro oil relative permeability, md
JF fractured well productivity index
krw water relative permeability, md
JH pseudosteady-state productivity index of
ks damaged permeability, md
horizontal well
ksph spherical permeability, md
Jideal ideal productivity index
kV vertical permeability, md
Jo initial productivity index
kVs damaged vertical permeability, md
Jreal real productivity index
kw water effective permeability, md
JV pseudosteady-state productivity index of
vertical well kx maximum permeability directed parallel to the
principal permeability axis, md
k permeability, md
kx permeability in the x direction, md
kc damaged zone permeability, md
ky minimum permeability directed perpendicular
kcake filter or diverter cake permeability, md
to the principal permeability axis, md
kd dissociation constant
ky permeability in the y direction, md
kf fracture permeability, md
kz vertical permeability, md
kfD dimensionless fracture permeability
k0 reaction rate constant at the reference
kfil relative permeability of the formation to temperature
filtrate, md
K bulk modulus, psi, bar, Pa
kfl thermal conductivity of a fluid
K mass-transfer coefficient, cm/s
kfoam foam permeability, md
K equilibrium constant
kfs fracture permeability in the near-well skin
K coefficient of earth stress, dimensionless
effect zone, md
K empirical kinetic constant
kg gas effective permeability, md
K Mark-Houwink coefficient, dL/g
kh thermal conductivity, BTU/hr ft°F,
J/s m°C K power law fluid rheology consistency
coefficient, lbf-sn/ft2
kH horizontal permeability, md
K´ power law effective consistency coefficient,
kHs damaged horizontal permeability, md
lbf-sn´/ft2
ki initial permeability, md
Ka equilibrium constant of acid
knear wellbore near-wellbore friction proportionality
Kads equilibrium constant of the exothermic adsorp-
constant
tion of molecules at surface reactive sites
ko oil effective permeability, md
Kc conditional equilibrium constant
ko initial permeability, md

N-4 Nomenclature
Kc G-plot slope correction factor for pressure- L horizontal well length, ft, m
dependent leakoff
Lapp apparent of equivalent fracture penetration, ft,
Kd dissociation constant m
Kdyn dynamic bulk modulus Le length to tip, ft, m
Keq effective equilibrium constant Lp productive length, ft, m
Kfoam consistency coefficient for the foam phase Lt length of the fracture tip region, ft, m
Kg mass-transfer coefficient Lv length of filtrate-invaded zone, ft, m
KI stress intensity factor, psi/in.1/2, bar/m1/2 m slope on semilogarithmic straight line,
psi/cycle (oil), psi2/cycle or psi2/cp/cycle (gas)
KIc critical stress intensity factor, psi/in.1/2,
bar/m1/2 m Archie constant
KIceff effective fracture toughness, psi/in.1/2, m linear regression constant
bar/m1/2
m reaction rate order
KIclag critical stress intensity factor in the fluid
m power law turbulence factor
lag region, psi/in.1/2, bar/m1/2
mbf bilinear flow slope, psi/hr1/4, bar/hr1/4
KIc-apparent apparent fracture toughness, psi/in.1/2,
bar/m1/2 mc early-time slope used to compute the wellbore
storage coefficient C
KIl stress intensity factor at bottom fracture
tip, psi/in.1/2, bar/m1/2 mcf linear flow slope in an elongated reservoir
KIu stress intensity factor at top fracture tip, mepr early pseudoradial flow slope
psi/in.1/2, bar/m1/2 mG slope of the G-plot, psi, bar, Pa
Ko coefficient of earth pressure at rest, dimen- mGc slope of the G-plot at fracture closure, psi, bar,
sionless Pa
Kpipe consistency index for pipe flow, lbf-sn/ft2 mhl linear flow slope of a horizontal well
Kr reaction rate mlf linear flow slope, psi/hr1/2, bar/hr1/2
Kr temperature-dependent reaction rate con- mM Mayerhofer et al. (1993) method slope
stant
mn straight-line slope
Ks bulk modulus of the solid constituents, psi,
bar, Pa mN Nolte method slope
Ks solubility constant mp match pressure, psi, bar, Pa
Kslot consistency index for slot flow, lbf-sn/ft2 mpp spherical flow slope
Kv consistency index for a concentric cylinder mrf radial flow slope, psi, bar, Pa
viscometer, lbf-sn/ft2 m3/4 slope of the G-plot at the 3⁄4 point, psi, bar, Pa
l length, ft, in., m Macid moles of acid per unit rock face area
l diverter cake thickness, ft, m Mgel specific density of gel mass in the fluid
ld length of damaged zone, ft, m Mv viscosity average molecular weight, g/mol
lp perforation channel length, ft, m MW molecular weight, g/mol
L length, ft, m n number or order
L fracture half-length, ft, m n index of time step

Reservoir Stimulation N-5

n power law fluid rheology behavior index, pD,up dimensionless pressure for a uniform-
dimensionless pressure, fixed-length fracture
n´ power law effective index, dimensionless pe constant outer reservoir pressure, psi, bar,
Pa
ne index of time step after shut-in
pf fissure or fracture pressure, psi, bar, Pa
nf power law exponent of the filtrate
pf fracturing fluid pressure, psi, bar, Pa
nperf number of perforations
pf far-field pore pressure, psi, bar, Pa
NDH dimensionless cumulative recovery from a
longitudinally fractured horizontal well pfc formation capacity
NDV dimensionless cumulative recovery from a pfo fissure opening pressure, psi, bar, Pa
fractured vertical well
ph hydrostatic pressure, psi, bar, Pa
Np oil cumulative production, bbl, m3
phead hydrostatic head of wellbore fluid, psi, bar,
NRe Reynold’s number Pa
NSc Schmidt number pi initial reservoir pressure, psi, bar, Pa
NSh Sherwood number pif breakdown pressure for fracture initiation,
psi, bar, Pa
Nϕ coefficient of passive stress
pinj injection pressure, psi, bar, Pa
p pressure, psi, bar, Pa
pISI instantaneous shut-in pressure, psi, bar, Pa
p reservoir pressure, psi, bar, Pa
pit wellhead injection pressure, psi, bar, Pa
pb bubblepoint pressure, psi, bar, Pa
piw bottomhole injection pressure, psi, bar, Pa
pbh borehole pressure, psi, bar, Pa
pm microannulus pressure, psi, bar, Pa
pc constant confining pressure, psi, bar, Pa
pm mud pressure in the wellbore, psi, bar, Pa
pc closure pressure, psi, bar, Pa
pmeas measured pressure, psi, bar, Pa
pc capillary pressure, psi, bar, Pa
pnet net pressure, psi, bar, Pa
pcf casing friction pressure, psi, bar, Pa
pnet,crit critical net pressure, psi, bar, Pa
pcorr pressure corrected for non-plane-strain contri-
bution, psi, bar, Pa pnet,fo net pressure required for fissure opening,
psi, bar, Pa
pcp pressure at center of the perforations, psi, bar,
Pa pnet,max maximum net pressure, psi, bar, Pa
pD dimensionless pressure pnet,si net pressure at shut-in, psi, bar, Pa
pD´ dimensionless pressure derivative pnet,so net pressure at screenout, psi, bar, Pa
pDLs dimensionless pressure difference for pressure- po wellbore pressure, psi, bar, Pa
dependent leakoff
pp far-field reservoir pressure, psi, bar, Pa
pdr downstream restriction pressure, psi, bar, Pa
ppf perforation friction, psi, bar, Pa
pdsc pressure downstream of the surface choke, psi,
ppipe friction pipe friction pressure, psi, bar, Pa
bar, Pa
ppwD dimensionless pseudopressure
pdsv pressure downstream of the safety valve, psi,
bar, Pa pr reservoir pressure, psi, bar, Pa

N-6 Nomenclature
ps pressure at the outer bound of the damaged qD dimensionless flow rate
zone, psi, bar, Pa
qDND dimensionless non-Darcy flow rate
psc standard condition pressure, psi, bar, Pa
qe flow at tip
psep separator pressure, psi, bar, Pa
qf volume rate of storage in a fracture
psim simulated pressure, psi, bar, Pa
qg gas production rate, Mscf/D, m3/d
psurf surface pressure, psi, bar, Pa
qi injection rate, B/D, bbl/min, m3/d, m3/s
ptf tubing flowing pressure, psi, bar, Pa
qi,max maximum injection rate, B/D, bbl/min, m3/d,
ptip net pressure at fracture tip for extension, psi, m3/s
bar, Pa
qL rate of fluid loss, B/D, bbl/min, m3/d, m3/s
pur upstream restriction pressure, psi, bar, Pa
qlast last flow rate, B/D, bbl/min, m3/d, m3/s
pusv pressure upstream of the safety valve, psi,
qL,C rate of fluid loss for reservoir-controlled
bar, Pa
leakoff, B/D, bbl/min, m3/d, m3/s
pvapor fluid vapor pressure, psi, bar, Pa
qn leakoff rate from one wing through two faces,
pw wellbore pressure, psi, bar, Pa B/D, m3/s
pwD dimensionless wellbore pressure qo initial flow rate, B/D, m3/s
pwf bottomhole flowing pressure, psi, bar, Pa qo oil production rate, B/D, m3/s
pwf,ideal ideal bottomhole flowing pressure, psi, bar, Pa qo,max maximum oil production rate at two-phase
flow, B/D, m3/s
pwf,real real bottomhole flowing pressure, psi, bar, Pa
qperf flow entering a perforation
pwfs wellbore sandface flowing pressure, psi, bar,
Pa qRT total reservoir production rate, B/D, m3/d
pwh wellhead flowing pressure, psi, bar, Pa qs damaged flow rate
pws bottomhole shut-in pressure, psi, bar, Pa qT total injection rate
p1 hr pressure on extension of semilogarithmic qtot constant total injection rate
straight line at t = 1 hr, psi, bar, Pa
qw water production rate, B/D, m3/d
p3/4 3
pressure at the G-plot ⁄4 point, psi, bar, Pa
Qp cumulative production, B/D, m3/d
Pe Peclet number
r radial distance, ft, m
PI productivity index, B/D/psi (oil), Mscf/D/psi
r reaction rate
(gas), m3/d/bar
rA rate of reactant consumption, mol/cm2/s
PIs damaged productivity index, B/D/psi (oil),
Mscf/D/psi (gas), m3/d/bar rac stimulation radius, ft, m
PVBT number of pore volumes to breakthrough rb acid bank radius, ft, m
PVinj number of pore volumes injected rbob bob radius
q flow rate, B/D (oil), Mscf/D (gas), m3/d rcup cup radius
qapp apparent flow rate, B/D, bbl/min, m3/d, m3/s rD rate of surface reaction, mol/cm2/s
qave average flow rate, B/D, bbl/min, m3/d, m3/s re reservoir radius, ft, m
qc flow rate in capillary pores reH radius of horizontal drainage ellipse formed
around a horizontal well, ft, m
qc injection rate into core face

Reservoir Stimulation N-7

rf radial extent of foam bank, ft, m Rso solution-gas/oil ratio
rfeldspar reaction rate of feldspar, mol feldspar/cm2/s Rsw solution-gas/water ratio
rHF radial penetration of hydrofluoric acid, ft, m Rt true formation resistivity, ohm-m
rhyd hydraulic radius Rw resistivity of formation water, ohm-m
ri specific reaction rate of mineral i Rxo resistivity of the flushed zone, ohm-m
ri inner radius R0 filter-cake resistance, s⋅m–1
ro outer radius R0,app apparent filter-cake resistance, s⋅m–1
rp ratio of permeable area to fracture area s skin effect, dimensionless
rp probe radius s reactive surface area
rpD dimensionless ratio of permeable area to sc skin effect from partial penetration,
fracture area dimensionless
rperf perforation radius, in., m sc + θ skin effect due to partial penetration and slant,
dimensionless
rquartz reaction rate of quartz, mol quartz/cm2/s
scake temporary skin effect due to diverter cake,
rs radius of damaged or displaced section, ft, m
dimensionless
rv fraction of well drainage volume occupied by
sd skin effect due to damage, dimensionless
the crest at water breakthrough
(sd)o perforation skin effect in openhole,
rw wellbore radius, ft, m
dimensionless
rw´ effective or apparent wellbore radius, ft, m
(sd)p perforation skin effect due to perforations
rwD´ dimensionless effective wellbore radius terminating outside the damaged zone,
rwh wormhole radius dimensionless

R pore radius se vertical eccentricity skin effect, dimensionless

R reaction rate sf skin effect while flowing at pseudoradial

conditions, dimensionless
R universal gas constant, psi ft3/mol °R,
bar m3/mol K sf fracture stiffness, ft/psi/m

R fracture radius, ft, m sf skin effect due to a fracture, dimensionless

RA rate of appearance of reactant sfoam foam skin effect, dimensionless

RAt rate of reactant consumption at the tip sfs fracture face damage skin effect, dimensionless

RB rate of mineral dissolution sH plane-flow skin effect, dimensionless

Rcake diverter cake resistance, m–1 so initial skin effect, dimensionless

Reff effective radius, ft, m so constant skin effect, dimensionless

Rf radial fracture radius, ft, m sp skin effect due to perforations, dimensionless

Ri overall reaction rate of mineral i st total skin effect, dimensionless

Rmf resistivity of the mud filtrate, ohm-m sV vertical skin effect, dimensionless

Ro resistivity of 100% water-saturated formation, swb wellbore skin effect, dimensionless

ohm-m sx vertical effects skin effect, dimensionless
Rp pressure-difference curve, dimensionless sθ skin effect due to slant, dimensionless

N-8 Nomenclature
S surface area tDrw′ dimensionless time referenced to the effective
wellbore radius rw′
SF surface area per unit volume of solids for fast-
reacting minerals tDxf dimensionless fracture time
Sg gas-phase fluid saturation, fraction te time at end of pumping or injection, min, s
Si reactive surface area of mineral i tend time of the end of dual-porosity behavior
So oil-phase fluid saturation, fraction texp time of fracture opening and initial fluid
exposure
Soi initial oil saturation, fraction
ti injection time
Sor residual oil saturation, fraction
ti time at the end of the ith step
Sp spurt-loss coefficient, gal/ft2, m3/m2
tknee knee time for the crossing of pressure derivatives
SRE rock embedment strength
tmin minimum time
SS surface area per unit volume of solids for
slow-reacting minerals tn time at the end of step n, s
Sw water saturation, fraction ton time of onset of dual-porosity behavior
Swc connate water saturation, fraction tp producing time, hr
Swi irreducible water saturation, fraction tp pumping or injection time, hr
t time, day, hr, min, s tP compressional wave arrival time
t* reduced time tpss time to pseudosteady state, hr
ta pseudotime tr time at reference point r
taD dimensionless pseudotime tS time of tip screenout or injection without
screenout
tBT time of water breakthrough, hr
tS shear wave arrival time
tc closure time, min
tso time at screenout
tcD dimensionless closure time
tsp spurt time
tD dimensionless time
t0 reference time
tDA dimensionless time referenced to reservoir
drainage area tαD dimensionless ratio of time to pumping time
tDblf dimensionless time at start of formation linear T temperature, °F, °C, K
flow regime
T absolute temperature, °R, K
tDebf dimensionless time at end of bilinear flow
T dimensionless time for after-closure analysis
regime
T constant for tectonic effects on stress
tDefl dimensionless time at which fracture linear
flow behavior ends T wire tension, lbf/ft
tDelf dimensionless time at which formation linear Td dead weight, lbf
flow behavior ends TD dimensionless temperature
tdep time of departure from flow regime trend Tf flowing temperature, °F, °C
tD,knee dimensionless knee time for the pressure Tfl fluid temperature, °F, °C
derivatives
Ti fluid temperature at the fracture mouth, °F, °C

Reservoir Stimulation N-9

Tinlet temperature at inlet, °F, °C V volume, ft3, m3
Tknee dimensionless knee time for after-closure Vac acid volume injected, ft3, m3
analysis
Vf fracture volume, ft3, m3
To offset temperature, °F, °C
Vf fluid volume
To tensile strength, psi, bar, Pa
VF volume of fast-reacting minerals
Tp dimensionless time at the end of pumping for
Vfp fracture volume at the end of pumping, ft3, m3
after-closure analysis
Vfso fracture volume at screenout, ft3, m3
Tr reservoir temperature, °F, °C
VHC volume of hydrocarbons, ft3, m3
Tref reference temperature, °F, °C
VHCl volume of hydrochloric acid, ft3, m3
Ts wire strength, lbf/ft
VHF volume of hydrofluoric acid, ft3, m3
Tsc standard condition temperature, °F, °C, K
Vi volume of fluid injected, bbl, gal, m3
TR tool response
Viso fluid volume injected at screenout, bbl, gal,
u velocity, ft/s, cm/s
ft3, m3
u acid flux
VL leaked-off fluid volume, bbl, gal, m3
ug volumetric flux of gas
VL,C volume of fluid lost due to filtration, bbl, gal,
uL leakoff velocity, ft/s, cm/s m3
uP P-wave velocity, ft/s, m/s VLp leaked-off volume during pumping, bbl, m3
ur rising velocity of spherical particles in a fluid, VLp,C volume of fluid lost due to filtration at the
ft/s, cm/s end of pumping, bbl, gal, m3
uS S-wave velocity, ft/s, m/s VLs volume of fluid lost during shut-in, bbl, gal,
usol solid particle velocity, ft/s, cm/s m3

ut terminal settling velocity, ft/s, m/s VL,S fluid-loss component due to spurt, bbl, gal, m3

utip fracture tip velocity, ft/s, cm/s VLs,C volume of fluid lost due to filtration during
shut-in, bbl, gal, m3
uw volumetric flux of water
VM molar volume
u∞ terminal proppant settling velocity, ft/s, m/s
Vmineral volumetric fraction of a mineral
v flow velocity, ft/s, cm/s
Vp pore volume, ft3, m3
v^ specific volume of foam
Vprop bulk proppant volume injected
vA,x Fick’s law for the velocity of species A
Vrp relative proppant volume, lbm/md-ft3
vc damaged zone velocity, ft/s, cm/s
VS volume of slow-reacting minerals
vfall settling rate, ft/s, cm/s
VS volume of fluid lost to spurt, gal/100 ft2
v^ l specific volume of the base liquid
Vwall volume of fluid leaked off at the fracture wall
vL fluid-loss velocity, ft/min
w width, ft, m
vL specific fluid-loss volume
w fracture width, ft, in., m
vm matrix velocity, ft/s, cm/s
we average fracture width at end of pumping, ft,
vx average fluid velocity along the fracture length, m
ft/s, cm/s

N-10 Nomenclature
wetch acid-etched width, ft, m zw standoff from oil-water contact, ft, m
wf fracture width, ft, m zw elevation of midpoint of perforations from the
bottom of the reservoir, ft, m
wL leakoff width, ft, m
zwD dimensionless completion elevation
wlost proppant volume lost to the fracture width
Z gas deviation factor, dimensionless
wmax maximum width, ft, m
wmax,p maximum fracture width at the end of
pumping, ft, m
Symbols
wmax,si maximum fracture width immediately after
shut-in, ft, m α Forscheimer equation coefficient

wn average fracture width at time step n, ft, m α Biot poroelastic constant

wo wellbore width, ft, m α proportionality constant

wp propped width, ft, m α specific diverter cake resistance, m/kg

wp-eff effective propped width, ft, m α exponent of fracture area growth, dimensionless

wso width at screenout, ft, m α order of reaction

ww width at the wellbore, ft, m αbf bilinear flow constant

Welas elastic energy stored in a solid αc wellbore storage constant

Wext potential energy of exterior forces αcf elongated reservoir constant

Wi weighting factors αf sealing fault constant

Wkin kinetic energy αg geometry coefficient

Ws energy dissipated during propagation of αhl linear flow to a horizontal well constant
a crack αlf linear flow constant
x linear distance, ft, m αp dimensionless pressure constant
xe well drainage dimension, ft, m αpp partial penetration constant
xe,opt optimal well spacing, ft, m αt dimensionless time constant
xf productive fracture half-length, ft, m αT linear thermal expansion coefficient
xfa apparent fracture half-length, ft, m α0 lower bound of area exponent, dimensionless
xfeldspar feldspar volume fraction of a sandstone α1 upper bound of area exponent, dimensionless
xs half-length of the skin effect zone, ft, m αθ perforation-phase-dependent variable
X volumetric dissolving power β dissolving power coefficient related to acid
XC dissolving power of acid strength

XHCl bulk rock fraction dissolved by hydrochloric β stiffness

acid β ratio of average to wellbore net pressure or
y vertical linear distance, ft, m width

z linear distance, ft, m β Forscheimer equation coefficient

zTVD true vertical depth, ft, m β non-Darcy flow rate coefficient

zw elevation from reservoir bottom, ft, m βp net pressure or width ratio during injection

Reservoir Stimulation N-11

βs net pressure or width ratio during shut-in ∆pfriction friction pressure ratio with and without
solids
γ shear strain
∆ph hydrostatic pressure drop, psi, bar, Pa
γ channel factor
∆pint difference in the pressure intercept, psi,
γ G-plot slope correction factor for pressure-
bar, Pa
dependent leakoff
∆pmisalign perforation misalignment friction, psi,
γ specific gravity
bar, Pa
γ shear rate, s–1
∆pnear wellbore near-wellbore pressure loss, psi, bar, Pa
γab interaction energy per unit surface area
∆pnf pressure difference due to near-face
between liquids a and b
leakoff effects, psi, bar, Pa
γb shear rate at the bob, s–1
∆ppf friction through the perforation, psi, bar,
γF fracture surface energy Pa
γfluid specific gravity of fluid ∆ppiz pressure drop across a polymer-invaded
γg specific gravity of gas zone, psi, bar, Pa

γI interfacial tension ∆pr pressure drop in the reservoir, psi, bar,

Pa
γprop specific gravity of proppant
∆pR total pressure increase in the reservoir
γv volume-averaged shear rate, s–1 beyond the filtrate invasion region, psi,
Γ foam quality, fraction bar, Pa

Γ(d) Euler gamma function ∆pRC pressure increase in the reservoir beyond
the filtrate region due to Carter-based
Γ(x) gamma function leakoff, psi, bar, Pa
δ dip of the formation (angle with the hori- ∆pRS pressure increase in the reservoir beyond
zontal), degree the filtrate region due to spurt, psi, bar,
∆ rate of deformation tensor Pa

∆C change in concentration ∆psafe pressure safety margin, psi, bar, Pa

∆E activation energy, kcal/mol ∆pT total pressure difference between the

fracture pressure and initial reservoir
∆H heat of reaction pressure, psi, bar, Pa
∆MD change in measured depth, ft, m ∆ptort tortuosity component of pressure, psi,
∆p pressure difference or gradient, psi, bar, Pa bar, Pa
∆pc pressure drop between filtrate/reservoir ∆ptotal difference between fracture pressure and
interface and far-field reservoir, psi, bar, Pa far-field reservoir pressure, psi, bar, Pa
∆pcake pressure drop across the filter cake, psi, ∆pv pressure drop across the filtrate-invaded
bar, Pa zone, psi, bar, Pa
∆pct total pressure drop, psi, bar, Pa ∆pw difference in wellbore pressure, psi, bar,
Pa
∆pdeparture pressure departure, psi, bar, Pa
∆pµ viscous pressure contribution, psi, bar,
∆pentry fracture entry pressure, psi, bar, Pa Pa
∆pface pressure drop across fracture face domi- ∆t time difference, hr
nated by filter cake, psi, bar, Pa
∆t sonic transit time in the formation

N-12 Nomenclature
∆t shut-in time, hr, min, s η efficiency
∆tae effective pseudotime η diffusivity constant
∆tc closure time ηC efficiency including spurt loss
∆tC compressional wave traveltime ηf fracture hydraulic diffusivity
∆tcD dimensionless closure time ηfD dimensionless fracture hydraulic diffusivity
∆tD dimensionless time difference ηp efficiency at end of pumping
∆tD dimensionless shut-in time ηso efficiency at screenout
∆tDso dimensionless time after a screenout θ angle, degree
∆te effective time θ fluid-loss exponent
∆tma sonic transit time in the rock matrix θ dimensionless time
∆tS shear wave traveltime κ opening-time distribution factor
∆tso time following screenout κ ratio of fracture-opening stress to minimum
stress
∆tsup superposition time function
κ spurt effect factor
∆Tsurf temperature change at the surface, °F, °C
κ thermal diffusivity
∆TBT change in true bed thickness, ft, m
κ overall dissolution rate constant, cm/s
∆TVD change in true vertical depth, ft, m
κso spurt correction at screenout
∆V change in volume
λ interporosity constant
∆ρ density difference, lbm/ft3, g/cm3
λ experimental coefficient for the tortuosity reori-
∆φmax difference in maximum porosity
entation of a fracture path
∆σ stress difference, psi, bar, Pa
λ apparent time multiplier
∆$n incremental revenue
λ characteristic relaxation time
ε introduced error
λrt total mobility
ε ratio of closure time to the time interval
λt multiphase mobility
ε longitudinal strain
Λ length scale corresponding to pore size
εa axial strain
µ viscosity, cp
εe elastic strain
µa apparent viscosity, cp
εf acid front position divided by the linear flow
µbase viscosity of base fracturing fluid, cp
core length
µeff effective viscosity, cp
εh minimum tectonic strain
µfil viscosity of fracturing fluid filtrate, cp
εH maximum tectonic strain
µfluid fluid viscosity, cp
εp plastic strain
µg gas viscosity, cp
εr radial strain
µgi gas viscosity at initial reservoir pressure and
εS specific volume expansion ratio
temperature, cp
εV volumetric strain
µi intrinsic viscosity, cp
η poroelastic stress coefficient

Reservoir Stimulation N-13

µinh inherent viscosity, cp ρr ratio of slurry density to fluid density
µo oil viscosity, cp ρrock rock density, lbm/ft3, g/cm3
µr viscosity ratio ρs slurry density, lbm/ft3, g/cm3
µr viscosity of reservoir fluid, cp ρsol solid particle density, lbm/ft3, g/cm3
µr relative viscosity, cp σ stress, psi, bar, Pa
µslurry slurry viscosity, cp σ′ effective stress, psi, bar, Pa
µsp specific viscosity, cp σa axial stress, psi, bar, Pa
µw water viscosity, cp σBL stress acting on a bounding layer, psi, bar, Pa
µ0 zero-shear viscosity, cp σc uniaxial compressive strength, psi, bar, Pa
µ100 viscosity at 100°F [40°C], cp σc closure pressure or stress, psi, bar, Pa
µ∞ high-shear-limiting viscosity, cp σc′ effective confining stress, psi, bar, Pa
ν Poisson’s ratio σf normal stress across a fissure, psi, bar, Pa
ν stoichiometric ratio of reactants to products σfailure′ effective ultimate strength, psi, bar, Pa
νCaCO3 stoichiometric coefficient of CaCO3 σh minimum horizontal stress, psi, bar, Pa
νdyn dynamic Poisson’s ratio σh′ minimum effective horizontal stress, psi, bar,
Pa
νHCl stoichiometric coefficient of hydrochloric acid
σH maximum horizontal stress, psi, bar, Pa
νu undrained Poisson’s ratio
σH,max maximum horizontal stress, psi, bar, Pa
ξ fluid-loss term
σh,min minimum horizontal stress, psi, bar, Pa
ξ dimensionless area or position
σm mean stress, psi, bar, Pa
ξf forward rate constant
σmin minimum stress or minimum principal stress,
ξr reverse rate constant
psi, bar, Pa
ρ density, lbm/ft3, g/cm3
σn normal stress component, psi, bar, Pa
ρa mass of diverter cake per unit area of avail-
σn′ effective normal stress, psi, bar, Pa
able sandface, g/cm3
σo equal-stress constant, psi, bar, Pa
ρA density of reactant, g/cm3
σpay stress of the pay zone, psi, bar, Pa
ρb bulk density, lbm/ft3, g/cm3
σPZ stress acting on the pay zone, psi, bar, Pa
ρbrine brine density, lbm/ft3, g/cm3
σr radial stress, psi, bar, Pa
ρC density of acid solution
σref constant state of stress, psi, bar, Pa
ρCaCO3 density of calcium carbonate, lbm/ft3, g/cm3
σrθ shear stress, psi, bar, Pa
ρdiv density of diverter particles, kg/m3
σv vertical stress, psi, bar, Pa
ρf fluid density, lbm/ft3, g/cm3
σv′ effective vertical stress, psi, bar, Pa
ρl liquid density, lbm/ft3, g/cm3
σ1 maximum principal stress, psi, bar, Pa
ρma density of matrix components, lbm/ft3, g/cm3
σ1′ maximum principal effective stress, psi, bar,
ρo oil density, lbm/ft3, g/cm3
Pa
ρp proppant or particle density, lbm/ft3, g/cm3

N-14 Nomenclature
σ2 intermediate principal stress, psi, bar, Pa φcake diverter cake porosity, fraction
σ2′ intermediate principal effective stress, psi, bar, φD porosity from density, fraction
Pa
φeff effective porosity, fraction
σ3 minimum principal stress, psi, bar, Pa
φf fracture porosity, fraction
σ3′ minimum principal effective stress, psi, bar, Pa
φi initial porosity, fraction
σθ tangential stress, psi, bar, Pa
φN porosity from neutron, fraction
σθθ circumferential stress, psi, bar, Pa
φp proppant pack porosity, fraction
τ shear stress, psi, bar, Pa
φS porosity from sonic, fraction
τ time of fracture opening
φtotal total porosity, fraction
τ dimensionless slurry time
ϕ angle, degree
τc characteristic time for fracture propagation,
Φ channel flow function
dimensionless
ψ change of angle, degree
τo foam yield stress, lbf/ft2, bar, Pa
Ψ dimensionless hydrofluoric acid concentration
τoct octahedral shear stress, psi, bar, Pa
Ψ dimensionless rock dissolution rate
τw wall shear stress, lbf/ft2, bar, Pa
ω angular velocity, rad/s, rpm
τyp yield point, lbf/ft2, bar, Pa
ω storativity ratio
φ porosity, fraction
Ω stoichiometric coefficient
φ angle of internal friction, degree

Reservoir Stimulation N-15