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Reasons For Persistent and Emerging Posttreatment Endodontic Disease
Reasons For Persistent and Emerging Posttreatment Endodontic Disease
This article is a critical review of the reasons for persistent and emerging post-treatment endodontic disease
(PTED). While there is a strong consensus that micro-organisms, mainly bacteria, are practically the only cause of
primary apical periodontitis, the reasons for persistent apical periodontitis lesions have been more a matter of
debate. The authors of this review focus on the role of micro-organisms in PTED, and while secondary
developments such as cholesterol crystals or foreign material in the periapical area of a tooth with apical
periodontitis may contribute to additional irritation and/or an inflammatory reaction, a detailed analysis of the
available data suggests that evidence supporting a primary role for such secondary factors without the continued
presence of bacteria is lacking. Therefore, even in PTED, elimination of micro-organisms residing within the tooth
structure, root surface, or periapical tissues remains the goal of treatment and the key to long-term success.
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Haapasalo et al.
Fig. 2. A new periapical lesion has developed in a mandibular molar many years after root canal treatment. (a) The tooth
after root canal treatment; the root canal space seems densely filled but may be 1–2 mm short in mesial canals.
(b) Several years later the tooth is symptomatic and a periapical lesion can be seen.
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Reasons for persistent and emerging post-treatment endodontic disease
inations (Fig. 3). Evaluation of the quality of the compared to neighboring teeth. Radiographic exam-
coronal restoration is of course important as leakage is a ination is often of key importance in determining the
potential cause for PTED. However, many of the teeth presence or absence of disease in previously root-filled
with PTED are symptom-free, perhaps with the teeth. In addition to periapical/periradicular health,
exception of a slight sensitivity to percussion as the technical quality of the root filling must be
evaluated, together with the possibility of untreated
root canals. Unfortunately, radiographs have well-
known limitations, which are related to the quality of
the radiograph, anatomy of the bone and tooth/roots,
and the size and location of the lesion (17–20).
Inflammatory lesions which are entirely in the cancel-
lous bone and do not engage the cortex are usually not
or only faintly perceptible on conventional radiographs
(Fig. 4) (21–24). A common cause for post-treatment
endodontic disease, untreated MB2 canals of maxillary
first and second molars, are often 1–2 mm shorter than
the MB1 canal, and the lesion from this missed canal
may be superimposed (‘‘concealed’’) by the longer
buccal tip of the mesio-buccal root (Fig. 5).
PTED is often asymptomatic and therefore it is of
utmost importance to be careful when making a
Fig. 3. A sinus tract in a previously root-filled tooth is a
diagnosis in the case of a root-filled tooth with a
sign of PTED. A gutta-percha point introduced into
an open sinus tract close to the previously root-filled radiographic periapical lesion. When a gutta-percha
mandibular premolar teeth. point placed in a sinus tract traces the source to the
Fig. 4. Conventional periapical radiograph indicates normal bone structure surrounding the mesial root tip of a
mandibular first molar (pictures in upper row). However, CBCT image reveals inflammatory bone loss around apex
(pictures in lower row). Courtesy of Dr. Mahmoud Ektefaie.
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Haapasalo et al.
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Reasons for persistent and emerging post-treatment endodontic disease
Fig. 6. (a) A large periapical lesion around the apex of tooth #12. Histological analysis verified the diagnosis as a
radicular cyst. (b) Follow-up radiograph taken 11 years after root canal treatment and apicoectomy shows healing
partially by scar tissue. The radiolucent area appears to be separated from the resected root apex by a layer of bone. The
original lesion perforated both buccal and palatal cortical lamellae.
of the apical periodontal ligament space of a tooth, review gives a summary and critical review of the
microbes are the only etiological factor in primary proposed reasons for persistent and emerging post-
apical periodontitis. treatment disease based on the most recent literature.
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Haapasalo et al.
Fig. 7. (a) A radiograph showing a large apical lesion in a root-filled mandibular canine. (b) Histological section
(modified Brown and Brenn staining) passing approximately at the center of the apical root canal. Overview shows an
anticipated foramen. Dark material in the middle is the root filling. (c-d) Higher magnification images from (b)
demonstrating (the biofilm) bacterial aggregates (dark blue) intermixed with necrotic debris in the apical root canal wall
and in a cross-cut apical ramification, respectively. Reprinted modified with permission from Ricucci D. Patologia e
Clinica Endodontica. 2009; Edizioni Martina, Bologna, Italy.
speculation and discussion. The strong dominance of First, E. faecalis is de facto the most common finding in
Enterococcus faecalis in PTED has lead to an abundance PTED. Second, it is more resistant to harsh environ-
of studies on the role in infection and sensitivity to mental conditions and to many medicaments, e.g.
disinfecting agents of this facultative Gram-positive calcium hydroxide, than most other bacteria (49, 50);
coccus (39–45). One should remember, however, that see disinfection of the root canal in PTED by Zehnder
the classical studies by Bergenholtz (29), Sundqvist & Paqué in the next volume (51). Therefore, the
(46), Möller et al. (47), and Fabricius et al. (48) clearly rationale for using E. faecalis as the test organism has
indicated that apparently any species or rather combi- been partially based on the assumption that methods
nation of species which are able to establish themselves and chemicals which are effective in eliminating this
in the necrotic root canal and survive the special resistant and tolerant species are likely to be effective
ecological environment are capable of causing apical against most other microbes as well. Until shown
periodontitis. The reason for using E. faecalis as a otherwise, the possibility that E. faecalis is in fact one
model organism in many of the studies should of the microbes that play a key role in many cases of
probably be seen from the following two perspectives. PTED cannot be ignored.
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Reasons for persistent and emerging post-treatment endodontic disease
Fig. 8. (a) Persisting apical periodontitis in a root-filled mandibular incisor. A histological section of the apical canal
demonstrates bacteria/biofilm on irregularities of the apical root canal wall, untouched by instruments (b) and
penetration of bacteria into dentinal tubules (c). Black particles in (b) represent root filling material. Reprinted modified
with permission from Ricucci D. Patologia e Clinica Endodontica. 2009; Edizioni Martina, Bologna, Italy.
Localization of the resident microbes in the filled root from the main root canal is an important factor in the
canal is probably much more important to the outcome development of PTED.
of the root canal re-treatment than the composition of In addition to the location of the microbes in various
the flora. As indicated by the classical studies, most if parts of the canal system and in relation to the apical
not all bacteria have the ability to cause apical perio- foramen/foramina, the fact that microbes are organized
dontitis if they can survive in the root canal. Therefore, into complex structures referred to as biofilms (Figs. 9a
the ability of the residual flora to communicate with the and b) plays a major role in the development and
periapical or periradicular host tissue is what determines resistance to treatment of endodontic infections. Biofilms
the progression of the disease. When the residual are structured microbial communities embedded in a
bacteria are completely entombed by the root filling, highly hydrated matrix of extracellular polymeric sub-
blocking all communication with the tissues, healing stances produced by the microbial cells (59). The
will occur and the bacteria are expected to either die or polymeric substances are partially responsible for impor-
survive but cause no harm, depending on the survival tant biofilm functions including cellular cohesion, surface
capability of each species. However, when residual adhesion, and nutrient dynamics (60). Generally, bacteria
bacteria or new invaders are located in areas with a in biofilms are responsible for a variety of persistent
connection to the tissue of the host, development or infections (61). The difficulty in eradicating such in-
continuation of periapical inflammation is likely to fections is caused by several factors including reduced
result. The main root canal, especially the most apical susceptibility of micro-organisms in biofilms to anti-
part of it, and the apical delta (apical lateral canals) are microbial agents (62, 63). Due to the central role of the
the most common sites for bacteria to remain and cause biofilm in endodontic infections, it has been suggested
PTED (Fig. 7). Bacteria also reside in dentinal tubules that both primary apical periodontitis and PTED should
(Fig. 8) in most teeth which have apical periodontitis be regarded as biofilm-induced diseases (64).
(52–54). However, the role of microbes that have The role of lateral canals in endodontic infections has
invaded deeper into the dentin has been questioned been a controversial subject. The fact that lateral canals
(55, 56). Nevertheless, when root surface cementum can contain bacteria/bacterial biofilm which cause
has been resorbed, as often happens around the apical lateral lesions is not a matter of debate (Fig. 10).
foramen in apical periodontitis, bacteria may more Differences in opinion are related to the treatment:
easily invade the entire thickness of the root via dentinal whether it is necessary to clean (even if possible) and fill
tubules (Fig. 9) and develop a biofilm on the external the lateral canals to secure healing of the lateral lesion. A
root surface (57, 58). In such teeth there is a strongly recent report by Ricucci & Siqueira (56) based on
increased possibility that invasion of dentin by microbes extensive clinical material indicated that eradication of
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Haapasalo et al.
Extraradicular microbes
While intracanal microbes remain the main cause of
PTED, extraradicular bacteria have also been claimed
to be present in some infections (41, 65–71).
Conventional root canal treatment, including instru-
mentation, disinfection, and root filling, can only affect
those microbes which are within the confines of the
root canal system. In acute apical periodontitis with an
abscess or an open sinus tract, bacteria are regularly
found in the tissue (31, 72, 73). This is not problematic
because the host defense system is expected to
eliminate these microbes quickly and effectively with
no negative impact on the long-term prognosis.
However, bacteria (or yeasts) which have succeeded
in establishing a colony/biofilm on the root surface or
in the periapical tissue are beyond the direct reach of
conservative (non-surgical) treatment methods. A
Fig. 9. (a) Histological specimen of the root tip area of the special variation of root surface biofilm is calcified root
patient in Figure 8; section not passing through the apical surface biofilm. Precipitation of minerals in E. faecalis
canal. (b) Higher magnification of the area indicated by biofilm on dentin in vitro has been described by Kishen
the arrow in (a). A biofilm is present on the external root et al. (74), and there are some reports where calculus-
surface showing a dense network of bacteria embedded in
extracellular substance, EPS (modified Brown and Brenn like deposits on the apical external root apex were
staining). Reprinted modified with permission from responsible for root canal treatment failure (75). Figure
Ricucci D. Patologia e Clinica Endodontica. 2009; 11 shows calcified biofilm on apical root surfaces.
Edizioni Martina, Bologna, Italy. Traditionally, Actinomyces spp., and A. israelii in
particular, have been isolated from periapical specimens
bacteria/biofilm from the lateral canals remains a of some persistent infections identified as periapical
challenge even though the canals may seem to be filled actinomycosis (Fig. 12). During the last 10–15 years, a
with sealer or other root filling material as judged from number of studies have indicated that bacteria other
the radiographs. However, histological sections of than Actinomyces spp. can also create actinomycosis-like
extracted teeth revealed that lateral canals were never colonies in the periapical tissue (68–70, 76, 77). While
completely cleaned and, when filled with a root filling there is no disagreement on the presence of biofilm
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Reasons for persistent and emerging post-treatment endodontic disease
Fig. 10. (a) A histological section of a tooth shows bacterial presence (dark blue staining) in the main canal and in a large
lateral canal. (b) A higher magnification image of bacteria in the lateral canal. (c) A further magnification shows
microbial biofilm in the center of the lateral canal as well as attached to the dentin wall (modified Brown and Brenn
staining).
colonies in the periapical tissues of some persistent Periapical biofilm colonies, like biofilms in general,
infections, their independence or dependence on are assumed to be resistant to systemic antibiotic
intracanal infection remains a matter of debate (78). treatment (62, 63). In addition to such biofilms inside
Although it has been suggested that apical actinomycosis the periapical tissue, there are several reports of bacteria
represents the most typical example of extraradicular growing in biofilms on the root surface close to the
infection independent of the intraradicular infection, apex (75, 79–81). There are probably two main routes
there is no strong evidence supporting this statement. of infection resulting in root surface biofilms: one is
The vast majority of studies and case reports have continuous expansion of microbial growth through the
examined only apical periodontitis specimens taken after apical foramen or through lateral canals, and the
periradicular surgery or extraction, but the correlation second alternative is through dentinal tubules in an
with the bacteriological conditions of the associated root area where root surface cementum has been resorbed
canal has not been investigated. While the prognosis of away (57, 58). The presence of a long-standing sinus
treatment following surgical removal of the infected tract may also play a role in allowing bacterial
periapical tissue in periapical actinomycosis is excellent, it penetration from the oral cavity (75, 81). Irrespective
should be recognized that the procedure routinely also of the pathway of infection, when actinomycosis-like
includes the removal of the root tip and placement of an colonies in the tissue or root surface biofilm have
apical root-end filling. Therefore, the existence of apical developed, surgical treatment including apicoectomy
actinomycosis as a pathological entity independent of and removal of the infected hard and soft tissue has
the root canal infection and its involvement as the been shown to be effective with an excellent long-term
exclusive cause of treatment failure remains to be proven. prognosis (65, 82–84).
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Haapasalo et al.
Fig. 11. (a) Apical section of an extracted tooth stained with modified Brown and Brenn staining reveals bacteria (dark
blue) in the root canal as well as on the apical root surface. (b) A high magnification image of the root surface shows
bacteria embedded in calculus-like structure. The tooth had no deep periodontal pockets.
Fig. 12. (a) Actinomyces-like colony (biofilm) close to the root surface in a tooth with (persistent apical lesion) primary
apical periodontitis. The bacteria are surrounded by a dense accumulation of inflammatory cells. (b) A high
magnification of Figure 12a shows several Gram-positive filamentous bacteria in the periapical biofilm.
From the point of view of treatment planning and examined throughout the lesion. It is the opinion of
prevention, it would be useful to know the frequency of the authors that studies where only culturing or DNA
extraradicular periapical infections as well as the details methods have been used may not always reflect the true
of the pathogenesis of periapical actinomycosis. Un- nature of the periapical condition/infection, and even a
fortunately there is no reliable data about either. Study temporary presence of bacteria in the tissue may be
populations have usually been poorly described in confused with true extraradicular infection. The
reports of extraradicular infections. In addition, reli- possibility of true positive findings is supposed to be
able diagnosis should be based on histological exam- higher and false positive findings lower when the
ination where sections have been prepared and presence of the biofilm structure in tissue can be
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Reasons for persistent and emerging post-treatment endodontic disease
visualized in the sections. In a recent study, Ricucci & ment and the healing of radicular cysts remains unclear.
Siqueira (64) evaluated the prevalence of bacterial Simon (86) and later Nair (7, 71) suggested that there
biofilms in untreated and treated root canals of teeth are two main types of radicular cysts, bay cysts
with apical periodontitis. Extraradicular bacterial bio- (periapical pocket cysts) and true cysts, and presented
films were observed in six out of 100 specimens (6%), the view that bay cysts have the better chance of healing
four from teeth with untreated canals and two from when only conservative root canal treatment is used.
teeth with treated canals. On the contrary, in true cysts the epithelial lining is not
As previously mentioned, the development of root connected to the tooth and there is no communication
surface biofilm supposedly occurs by growth of the between the interior of the cyst and the root canal.
root canal microflora via apical foramen/foramina or Therefore, it has been suggested that true cysts are
through the whole width of the infected root dentin likely to require surgical removal to ensure healing of
when root surface cementum has been resorbed. the area (7). However, the hypothesis regarding the
Contrary to this, the pathogenesis of periapical requirements for healing of true cysts is a matter of
actinomycosis or actinomycosis-like extraradicular in- debate. Ricucci et al. (75) suggested that although the
fection is less obvious. Many of the species, including use of serial sections may disclose a true cyst with no
Actinomyces spp., are non-motile bacteria, and yet they apparent communication with the root canal, these
are found as separate islands in the tissue. Furthermore, lesions cannot be regarded as a separate disease entity.
how can bacteria travel in tissue and survive the host Lin et al. (87) argued that large cyst-like apical
defense before the protective biofilm is formed? periodontitis lesions or apical true cysts are formed
Individually, most if not all bacteria isolated so far within an area of apical periodontitis and cannot form
from periapical actinomycosis and other extraradicular by themselves. Therefore, both large cyst-like apical
microbial lesions are sensitive to phagocytic ingestion periodontitis lesions and apical true cysts are of
and killing. Although not known with certainty, one inflammatory and not of neoplastic origin. According
possibility that cannot be ignored is that ready-formed to Lin et al. (87), lesions of apical periodontitis,
mature biofilms are transferred from the root canal into regardless of the histological type (granuloma, abscess,
the periapical area. This would help the bacteria avoid cyst), that do not heal after conservative root canal
the dangers of host defense as the biofilm is first formed treatment persist for one reason: the presence of an
in the shelter of the necrotic root canal. Later, when in intraradicular and/or extraradicular infection. There
the tissues, the biofilm provides the necessary protec- are no studies in the literature showing the absence of
tion. Kishen (85), based on measurements of liquid microbes in the apical root canal, on the root surface, or
movement in the apical root canal caused by occlusal outside the tooth in cases of persisting radicular cysts. If
activity, suggested that this may allow transfer of the microbial presence is terminated by the treatment,
bacteria from the canal to the apical tissues. Another the cystic lesions may regress by apoptosis, similar to
possibility is that root canal biofilms are pushed into the the resolution of inflammatory apical pocket cysts.
periapical tissue during instrumentation of the necrotic However, the clinical reality is that, mostly for
root canal during the course of root canal treatment. anatomical reasons, complete elimination of the
microflora cannot be obtained in all cases by con-
servative treatment. In situations where surgery is
Radicular cyst
performed to remove the cyst, it is important to
A radicular cyst develops subsequent to apical perio- eliminate the areas of the tooth apex which are likely to
dontitis. Therefore, it can be classified under micro- harbor the residual infection (87). Since clinicians are
biological reasons, even though the cyst itself usually unable to establish beforehand whether or not there is a
does not contain bacteria. First, apical periodontitis cyst (true or pocket) (54, 88), the effect of treatment
develops as a result of bacterial presence in the root cannot be established in retrospect regardless of the
canal. Then, in some cases, epithelial cells in the methods (conservative or surgical treatment) used.
periapical area start to multiply, which may result in the The estimates of the frequency of radicular cysts
formation of a radicular cyst. While apical periodontitis accompanying apical periodontitis show wide variation
can in most cases heal by conservative root canal between 6 and 55%; for review, see Nair (89). Nair et al.
treatment, the relationship between root canal treat- (90) reported that, in a histological study of 256 apical
41
Haapasalo et al.
periodontitis lesions, 52% contained epithelial growth graphically, except for the possibility of pain. Later a
but serial sectioning through the whole lesion revealed narrow pocket develops all the way to the apex of the
that in fact only 15% were radicular cysts. The authors tooth, which can be incorrectly diagnosed as a
suggested that histological analysis of only part of the ‘‘regular’’ deep periodontal pocket or endodontic sinus
lesion may easily lead to overdiagnosis of radicular cysts tract which mimics a pocket. The infection is caused by
if the mere presence of epithelium is used as the bacteria residing in the fracture line, escaping from the
criterion (90). It should be noted that, in most studies, host defense. There is no treatment for VRF other than
lesions which are surgically removed and examined extraction; therefore it is important to make an early
histologically do not represent random lesions of diagnosis in order to avoid unnecessary treatment.
primary apical periodontitis as, in the great majority
of primary cases, there is no need for surgery.
Crack tooth and split tooth
Vertical root fracture Crack tooth is another type of longitudinal tooth
fracture (95). Unlike VRF, it starts in the crown, it is
Vertical root fracture (VRF) can be regarded as a special
mesio-distal, and occurs only in premolars and molars
type of PTED (91–94). VRF can occur in teeth that
(Fig. 14). Similar to VRF, it is not a true endodontic
have not been endodontically treated, but it is most
infection. However, it often causes symptoms that can
common in roots which have a root filling (with or
be confused with PTED. A common consequence of
without a post). Although VRF is not true apical
infection caused by a crack is a narrow mesial or distal
periodontitis, it causes signs and symptoms which are
pocket. The crack itself is always invisible radio-
often misinterpreted as persistent or emerging apical
graphically but the bone loss caused by the infection
periodontitis (Fig. 13). Vertical root fracture can occur
can often be seen. Clinically, the pocket may be difficult
in any tooth (incisor, canine, premolar, or molar) and it
to locate without careful probing. Another site of tissue
is always bucco-lingual. It starts in the root and is often
destruction caused by a crack is at the furcation, if a
invisible at the beginning, both clinically and radio-
deep crack extends through the pulp chamber floor. As
in VRF, bacteria remain in the crack and cannot be
eliminated without removing the dental hard tissue
surrounding the crack. In deep cracks this is not
possible and the tooth must be extracted. Split tooth is
42
Reasons for persistent and emerging post-treatment endodontic disease
Fig. 15. (a-b) Split tooth. A previous crack in a mandibular molar developed further, splitting the tooth into two halves.
(c) A histological section of the distal mid-root verifies the mesio-distal direction of the fracture line. (d) Higher
magnification reveals microbial biofilm (stained blue) in the dentin wall of the fracture line. Reprinted modified with
permission from Ricucci D. Patologia e Clinica Endodontica. 2009; Edizioni Martina, Bologna, Italy.
a continuation of a crack tooth; in split tooth there are without protection by the coronal restoration in the
always two separate tooth fragments (Fig. 15). Split oral cavity for different time periods and then followed
tooth is therefore easy to diagnose; the only available for long-term prognosis after finishing the coronal seal.
treatment option is extraction.
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Haapasalo et al.
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Reasons for persistent and emerging post-treatment endodontic disease
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Haapasalo et al.
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