Ballistic Atmospheric Entry

• State equations
• Standard atmospheres
• Orbital decay due to drag
• Straight-line (no gravity) ballistic entry based on
density and altitude
• Planetary entries (at least a start)
• Basic equations of planar motion

© 2020 David L. Akin - All rights reserved

http://spacecraft.ssl.umd.edu
UNIVERSITY OF Ballistic Entry
MARYLAND 1 ENAE 791 - Launch and Entry Vehicle Design
Free-Body Diagram with Spherical Planet
v
!

g
r

UNIVERSITY OF Ballistic Entry

MARYLAND 2 ENAE 791 - Launch and Entry Vehicle Design
Orbital Planar State Equations
Inertial angular velocity
v
! != ˙ ✓˙
Sum of accelerations
normal to velocity vector
g
g cos = !v
r
Sum of accelerations
✓ perpendicular to velocity vector
g sin = v̇
UNIVERSITY OF Ballistic Entry
MARYLAND 3 ENAE 791 - Launch and Entry Vehicle Design
Orbital Planar State Equations (2)
ṙ = v sin
r✓˙ = v cos
˙ v
!= ˙ ✓= ˙ cos
r
⇣ v ⌘
g cos = ˙ cos v
✓ ◆ r
v2
g cos = ˙ v
r
✓ 2
◆
v
1 g cos = ˙ v
rg
UNIVERSITY OF Ballistic Entry
MARYLAND 4 ENAE 791 - Launch and Entry Vehicle Design
Canonical Orbital Planar State Equations
✓ 2
◆
1 v
˙ = 1 g cos
v vc2

v̇ = g sin

ṙ = v sin
˙✓ = v cos
r
Coupled first-order
⇣ r ⌘2 ODEs
o
g = go
r
UNIVERSITY OF Ballistic Entry
MARYLAND 5 ENAE 791 - Launch and Entry Vehicle Design
Numerical Integration - 4th Order R-K
Given a series of equations ȳ˙ = f¯(t, x̄)
k¯1 = t f¯ (tn , y¯n )
✓ ¯ ◆
¯ ¯ t k1
k 2 = t f tn + , y¯n +
2 2
✓ ¯2 ◆
t k
k¯3 = t f¯ tn + , y¯n +
2 2
k¯4 = t f¯ tn + t, y¯n + k¯3
k¯1 k¯2 k¯3 k¯4
yn+1
¯ = y¯n + + + + + O( t5 )
6 3 3 6
UNIVERSITY OF Ballistic Entry
MARYLAND 6 ENAE 791 - Launch and Entry Vehicle Design
Atmospheric Density with Altitude
Pressure=the integral of the atmospheric density in
the column above the reference area

Z 1 Z 1 h i1
h h
Po = ⇢gdh = ⇢o g e hs dh = ⇢o ghs e hs
= f (h) o o o

= ⇢o ghs [0 1]

Po = ⇢o ghs
kg
Earth: o = 1.226 3 ; hs = 7524m;
m
Po (calc) = 90, 400 P a; Po (act) = 101, 300 P a

o , Po
UNIVERSITY OF Ballistic Entry
MARYLAND 7 ENAE 791 - Launch and Entry Vehicle Design
Atmospheric Density with Altitude

Ref: V. L. Pisacane and R. C. Moore, Fundamentals of Space Systems Oxford University Press, 1994
UNIVERSITY OF Ballistic Entry
MARYLAND 8 ENAE 791 - Launch and Entry Vehicle Design
Energy Loss Due to Atmospheric Drag
1 2
Drag D v AcD
2
D v 2 AcD
Drag acceleration ad = =
m 2 m
m
⌘ <== Ballistic Coefficient
cD A
⇥v 2
ad =
2 µ
orbital energy ⇥ E =
2a
dE µ da
= 2
dt 2a dt
UNIVERSITY OF Ballistic Entry
MARYLAND 9 ENAE 791 - Launch and Entry Vehicle Design
Energy Loss Due to Atmospheric Drag
Since drag is highest at perigee, the first effect of atmospheric drag
is to circularize the orbit (high perigee drag lowers apogee)

dEdrag
= ad v
dt

µ dEdrag ⇤v 2 µ
2
vcirc = =
a dt 2 a

dEdrag µ ⇤ µ ⇥ 3
µ 2 ⇤
= =
dt a2 a a 2
UNIVERSITY OF Ballistic Entry
MARYLAND 10 ENAE 791 - Launch and Entry Vehicle Design
Derivation of Orbital Decay Due to Drag
Set orbital energy variation equal to energy lost by drag
µ da ⇤ ⇥
µ 23

=
2a dt
2 2 a
da ⇤⇥
= µa
dt
h da dh
= oe
hs a = h + rE = =
dt dt
dh µ (h + rE ) h
= ⇤o e hs
dt
UNIVERSITY OF Ballistic Entry
MARYLAND 11 ENAE 791 - Launch and Entry Vehicle Design
Derivation of Orbital Decay (2)
This is a separable differential equation...
⇥
1 h µ
⇥ e hs dh = ⇤o dt
rE + h
⇥
h
1 h µ t
⇥ e hs dh = ⇤o dt
ho rE + h to
⇤
Assume rE + h rE for rE ⇥ h
⇥
1 h
h µ
⇥ e hs dh = ⇤o (t to )
rE ho
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MARYLAND 12 ENAE 791 - Launch and Entry Vehicle Design
Derivation of Orbital Decay (3)
⇥ ⇥
hs h ho µ
⇥ e hs e hs = ⇤o (t to )
rE
⇥
h ho µrE
e hs e hs = ⇤o (t to )
hs
⇥ ⇥
ho µrE
h(t) = hs ln e hs ⇤o (t to )
hs
Note that some variables typically use km, and others are
in meters - you have to make sure unit conversions are
done properly to make this work out correctly!
UNIVERSITY OF Ballistic Entry
MARYLAND 13 ENAE 791 - Launch and Entry Vehicle Design
 Orbit Decay from Atmospheric Drag
250

200
Altitude (km)

150
β=500
β=1500
100
β=5000

50

0
0 10000 20000 30000 40000
Time (sec)
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MARYLAND 14 ENAE 791 - Launch and Entry Vehicle Design
Time Until Orbital Decay
⇥
h ho µrE
e hs e hs = ⇤o (t to )
hs
To find the time remaining (to=0) until the orbit reaches
any given “critical” altitude, some algebra gives
hs ⇣ ho hcrit
⌘
t(hcrit ) = p e hs e hs
µrE ⇢o

t(hcrit ) /
UNIVERSITY OF Ballistic Entry
MARYLAND 15 ENAE 791 - Launch and Entry Vehicle Design
Decay Time to r=120 km
600

500
Altitude (km)

400

300 β=500
β=1500
200 β=5000

100

0
0 20 40 60 80 100

Decay Time (yrs)

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MARYLAND 16 ENAE 791 - Launch and Entry Vehicle Design
Ballistic Entry (no lift)
s = distance along the flight path v, s
dv D
= g sin horizontal
dt m D
dv dv ds dv 1 d(v 2 ) mg
= =V =
dt ds dt ds 2 ds
1 d(v 2 ) D 1 2
= g sin Drag D v AcD
2 ds m 2
1 d(v 2 ) ⇥v 2 ds dh
= g sin AcD
2 ds 2m dh
ds =
sin d(v 2 ) ⇥v 2 sin
= g sin AcD
2 dh 2m
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MARYLAND 17 ENAE 791 - Launch and Entry Vehicle Design
Ballistic Entry (2)
h
Exponential atmosphere = oe
hs

⇥ h ⇥ ⇥
d h dh oe
hs dh dh
=e hs = =
o hs o hs o hs
hs
dh = d
sin d(v 2 ) ⇥v 2
= g sin AcD
2 dh 2m
⇥
sin d(v )2
⇥ ⇥v 2 AcD
= g sin
2 d⇥ hs 2 m
d(v 2 ) 2ghs hs v 2 AcD
= +
d⇥ ⇥ sin m
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MARYLAND 18 ENAE 791 - Launch and Entry Vehicle Design
Ballistic Entry (3)
m
Let ⇥ Ballistic Coefficient
cD A
d(v 2 ) hs 2ghs
v =
2
d⇤ sin ⇥ ⇤
Assume mg D to get homogeneous ODE

d(v 2 ) hs d(v 2 ) hs
v2 = 0 = d⇤
d⇤ sin ⇥ v 2 sin ⇥
⇥
Use v as integration variable
2

v
d(v 2 ) hs
= d⇤ ve = velocity at entry
ve v 2 sin ⇥ 0

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MARYLAND 19 ENAE 791 - Launch and Entry Vehicle Design
Ballistic Entry (4)
Note that the effect of ignoring gravity is that there is no
force perpendicular to velocity vector ⇒ constant flight
path angle γ ⇒ straight line trajectories

v2 v hs ⇤
ln 2 = 2 ln =
ve ve sin ⇥
⇥
v hs ⇤
= exp
ve 2 sin ⇥
⇥ ⇥
kg
v h s ⇤o ⇤ mm 3
= exp Check units:
ve 2 sin ⇥ ⇤o kg
m2

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MARYLAND 20 ENAE 791 - Launch and Entry Vehicle Design
Earth Entry, γ=-60°
v/ve 1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
/ o
Beta=100 kg/m^3 300 1000 3000 10000

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MARYLAND 21 ENAE 791 - Launch and Entry Vehicle Design
What About Peak Deceleration?
dv ⇥v 2
n⇥ =
dt 2
⇥
d dv d2 v
To find nmax , set = 2 =0
dt dt dt
⇥
2
d v 1 dv 2 d⇥
= 2⇥v +v =0
dt 2 2 dt dt
⇥
2
d v 1 2⇥ v
2 3
2 d⇥
= +v =0
dt 2 2 2 dt
⇥2 v 3 2 d⇥ d⇥
=v ⇥ v=
2
dt dt
UNIVERSITY OF Ballistic Entry
MARYLAND 22 ENAE 791 - Launch and Entry Vehicle Design
Peak Deceleration (2)
From exponential atmosphere,
d h dh dh
=
o
e hs =
dt hs dt hs dt
dh
From geometry, = v sin
dt
d⇥ ⇥v d⇥
= sin ⇥ v=
2
dt hs dt
⇥
⇤v
⇤ v=
2
sin ⇥
hs
Remember that this refers to the conditions at max deceleration
⇤nmax = sin ⇥
hs
UNIVERSITY OF Ballistic Entry
MARYLAND 23 ENAE 791 - Launch and Entry Vehicle Design
Critical β for Deceleration Before Impact
At surface, = o

=
⇤o h s Value of at which vehicle hits
crit
sin ⇥ ground at point of maximum deceleration
How large is maximum deceleration?
dv ⇥v 2 dv ⇥nmax v 2
= =
dt 2 dt max 2
2
⇥ ⇤
dv v 1 v2
= sin ⇥ = sin
dt max 2 hs 2 hs

Note that this value of v is actually vnmax

UNIVERSITY OF Ballistic Entry

MARYLAND 24 ENAE 791 - Launch and Entry Vehicle Design
Peak Deceleration (3)
From page 14,
⇥
v hs ⇤
= exp
ve 2 sin ⇥
⇤ ⇥⌅
vnmax hs 1
= exp sin ⇥ =e 2
ve 2 sin ⇥ hs
⇥ 1
⇤2
dv 1 ve e 2 ve2 sin
= sin =
dt max 2 hs 2hs e
Note that the velocity at which maximum deceleration occurs is always a fixed fraction
of the entry velocity - it doesn’t depend on ballistic coefficient, flight path angle, or
anything else! Also, the magnitude of the maximum deceleration is not a function of
ballistic coefficient - it is dependent on the entry trajectory (ve and γ) but not spacecraft
parameters (i.e., ballistic coefficient).
UNIVERSITY OF Ballistic Entry
MARYLAND 25 ENAE 791 - Launch and Entry Vehicle Design
Terminal Velocity
Full form of ODE -
⇥
d v 2
hs 2ghs
v =
2
d⇤ sin ⇥ ⇤
At terminal velocity, v = constant vT

hs 2ghs
vT =
2
sin ⇥ ⇤

2g sin ⇥
vT2 =
⇤

UNIVERSITY OF Ballistic Entry

MARYLAND 26 ENAE 791 - Launch and Entry Vehicle Design
“Cannon Ball” γ=-90° Ballistic Entry
6.75” diameter sphere, cD=0.2, VE=6000 m/sec
Iron Aluminum Balsa Wood
Weight 40 lb 15.6 lb 14.5 oz
β (kg/m2) 3938 1532 89
ρmd (kg/m3) 0.555 0.216 0.0125
hmd (m) 5600 12,300 32,500
Vimpact (m/s) 1998 355 0*
Vterm (m/sec) 251 156 38
*Artifact of assumption that D mg
UNIVERSITY OF Ballistic Entry
MARYLAND 27 ENAE 791 - Launch and Entry Vehicle Design
Nondimensional Ballistic Coefficient
⇥ ✓ ◆
v h s ⇤o ⇤ Po ⇢
= exp = exp
ve 2 sin ⇥ ⇤o 2 g sin ⇢o
b g
Let ⌘ = (Nondimensional form of ballistic coefficient)
⇢o hs Po
Note that we are using the estimated value of Po = ⇢o ghs ,
not the actual surface pressure.
⇥
v 1 ⇤
= exp
ve 2 ⇤ sin ⇥ ⇤o

⇤o h s 1
crit = crit =
sin ⇥ sin ⇥

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MARYLAND 28 ENAE 791 - Launch and Entry Vehicle Design
Entry Velocity Trends, γ=-90°
Velocity Ratio
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
Density Ratio

0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1

0.03 0.1 0.3 1 3

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MARYLAND 29 ENAE 791 - Launch and Entry Vehicle Design
Ballistic Entry, Again
s = distance along the flight path v, s
dv D
= g sin horizontal
dt m D
Again assuming D g, mg
dv D 1 2
= Drag D v AcD
dt m 2
dv cD A 2
= v
dt 2m
Separating the variables,
dv ⇥
= dt
v 2 2

UNIVERSITY OF Ballistic Entry

MARYLAND 30 ENAE 791 - Launch and Entry Vehicle Design
Calculating the Entry Velocity Profile
dh dh
= v sin dt =
dt v sin
dv ⇤ dv ⇤
= dh ⇥ = dh
v 2 2 v sin ⇥ v 2 sin ⇥
dv ⇤o h
= e hs dh
v 2 sin ⇥
v h
dv ⇤o h
= e hs dh
ve v 2 sin ⇥ he

v ⇤o hs h
⇥h 1 ⇥ h he
⇤
ln = e hs = e hs e hs
ve 2 sin ⇥ he 2 sin ⇥
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MARYLAND 31 ENAE 791 - Launch and Entry Vehicle Design
Deriving the Entry Velocity Function
he e
Remember that e hs = 0
o
⇥
v 1 h
= exp e hs
ve ⇤
2 sin ⇥
We have a parametric entry equation in terms of nondimensional velocity
ratios, ballistic coefficient, and altitude. To bound the nondimensional altitude
variable between 0 and 1, rewrite as
⇥
v 1 h he
= exp e he hs
ve ⇤
2 sin ⇥
he
and are the only variables that relate to a specific planet
hs

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MARYLAND 32 ENAE 791 - Launch and Entry Vehicle Design
Earth Entry, γ=-90°
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
Altitude Ratio

0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Velocity Ratio

0.03 0.1 0.3 1 3

UNIVERSITY OF Ballistic Entry

MARYLAND 33 ENAE 791 - Launch and Entry Vehicle Design
Deceleration as a Function of Altitude
Start with
⇥
v 1 h he 1
= exp e he hs Let B
ve 2 ⇤ sin ⇥ 2 sin ⇥
v h
⇥
= exp Be hs
ve
⇤ ⌅ ⇥ d ⇥
d v h h
= exp Be hs Be hs
dt ve dt

dv h
⇥ B h
⇥ dh
= ve exp Be hs e hs
dt hs dt
dh h
= v sin = ve sin exp Be hs
dt
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MARYLAND 34 ENAE 791 - Launch and Entry Vehicle Design
Parametric Deceleration
dv h
⇥ B h
⇥ h
⇥
= ve exp Be hs e hs ve sin exp Be hs
dt hs
dv Bve2 h
⇥ h
⇥
= sin e hs exp 2Be hs
dt hs
⇥ ⇤ ⌅
dv ve2 h 1 h
= e hs exp e hs
dt 2hs ⇧ ⇧ sin ⇥
ve2 dv/dt he
Let nref , ,⇥
hs nref hs
⇥ ⇤ ⌅
1 h 1 h
⇤= e he exp e he

2 ⇧ ⇧ sin ⇥

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MARYLAND 35 ENAE 791 - Launch and Entry Vehicle Design
Nondimensional Deceleration, γ=-90°
1
0.9
0.8
Altitude Ratio h/he

0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2
Deceleratio

0.03 0.1 0.3 1 3

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MARYLAND 36 ENAE 791 - Launch and Entry Vehicle Design
Deceleration Equations
Nondimensional Form ⇤ ⌅
1 h
⇥ 1 h
⇤= e he exp e he

2⇧ ⇧ sin ⇥
Dimensional Form
⇥ ⇤ ⌅
⇤o Ve2 h ⇤o h s h
n= e hs exp e hs
2 sin ⇥

Note that these equations result in values <0 (reflecting deceleration) - graphs
are absolute values of deceleration for clarity.

UNIVERSITY OF Ballistic Entry

MARYLAND 37 ENAE 791 - Launch and Entry Vehicle Design
Dimensional Deceleration, γ=-90°
120
Altitude(km)

100

80

60

40

20

m ⇥
0 500 1000 1500 2000
⇥ Deceleration
kg sec2
277 922 2767 9224 27673
m2
UNIVERSITY OF Ballistic Entry
MARYLAND 38 ENAE 791 - Launch and Entry Vehicle Design
Altitude of Maximum Deceleration
Returning to shorthand notation for deceleration
h
⇥ h
⇥
⇥ = B sin e hs exp 2Be hs
h
Let
⇥ ⇥ hs
⇥= B sin e exp 2Be
⇤ ⌅
d⇤ d ⇥ ⇥ ⇥ d ⇥
= B sin e exp 2Be + e exp 2Be
d⇥ d⇥ d⇥
d⇤ ⇤ ⇥ ⇥ ⇥ ⇥ ⇥⌅
= B sin e exp 2Be + e 2Be exp 2Be
d⇥
d⇤ ⇥⇤ ⇥⌅
= B sin e exp 2Be 1 + 2Be =0
d⇥

UNIVERSITY OF Ballistic Entry

MARYLAND 39 ENAE 791 - Launch and Entry Vehicle Design
Altitude of Maximum Deceleration
⇥
1 + 2Be =0 ⇥e = 2B

nmax = ln ( 2B)
⇥
1
⇤nmax = ln
⇤ sin ⇥
Converting from parametric to dimensional form gives
⇥
⇤o h s
hnmax = hs ln
sin ⇥
Altitude of maximum deceleration is independent of entry velocity!

UNIVERSITY OF Ballistic Entry

MARYLAND 40 ENAE 791 - Launch and Entry Vehicle Design
Altitude of Maximum Deceleration
12
Altitude of Max Decel h/hs

10

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Ballistic Coefficient

-15 -30 -45 -60 -90

UNIVERSITY OF Ballistic Entry

MARYLAND 41 ENAE 791 - Launch and Entry Vehicle Design
Magnitude of Maximum Deceleration
Start with the equation for acceleration -
⇥
1 1
⇤= e exp e
2⇤ ⇤ sin ⇥
and insert the value of at the point of maximum deceleration
⇥
1
⇤nmax = ln ⇥e = sin ⇥
⇤ sin ⇥
⇤ ⌅
1 ⇥ ⇧ sin ⇥ sin
⇤nmax = ⇧ sin ⇥ exp ⇥nmax =
2 ⇧ ⇧ sin ⇥ 2e

ve2 sin
nmax =
hs 2e
Maximum deceleration is not a function of ballistic coefficient!
UNIVERSITY OF Ballistic Entry
MARYLAND 42 ENAE 791 - Launch and Entry Vehicle Design
Peak Ballistic Deceleration for Earth Entry
6000
Peak Deceleration (m/sec^2)

5000

4000

3000

2000

1000

0
0 5 10 15
Entry Velocity (km/sec)

-15 -30 -45 -60 -90

UNIVERSITY OF Ballistic Entry

MARYLAND 43 ENAE 791 - Launch and Entry Vehicle Design
Velocity at Maximum Deceleration
Start with the equation for velocity
⇥
v 1
= exp e
ve 2 ⇤ sin ⇥
and insert the value of at the point of maximum deceleration
⇥
1
⇤nmax = ln ⇥e = sin ⇥
⇤ sin ⇥
⇥
v ⇤ sin ⇥ ve
= exp ⇥ vnmax = ⇤ = 0.606ve
ve 2 ⇤ sin ⇥ e

Velocity at maximum deceleration is independent of everything except ve

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MARYLAND 44 ENAE 791 - Launch and Entry Vehicle Design
Planetary Entry - Physical Data
Radius
 µ
 o

 hs
 vesc

(km) (km3/sec2) (kg/m3) (km) (km/sec)

Earth 6378 398,604 1.225 7.524 11.18

Mars 3393 42,840 0.0993 27.7 5.025

Venus 6052 325,600 16.02 6.227 10.37

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MARYLAND 45 ENAE 791 - Launch and Entry Vehicle Design
Comparison of Planetary Atmospheres
100
1
Atmospheric Density (kg/m3)

0.01 0 50 100 150 200 250 300

1E-04
1E-06
1E-08
1E-10
1E-12
1E-14
1E-16
1E-18
1E-20
Altitude (km)

Earth Mars Venus

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MARYLAND 46 ENAE 791 - Launch and Entry Vehicle Design
Planetary Entry Profiles

= 15o kg
= 300 2
km m
ve = 10
sec

V
Ve

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MARYLAND 47 ENAE 791 - Launch and Entry Vehicle Design
Planetary Entry Deceleration Comparison

= 15o
km
ve = 10
sec
kg
= 300 2
m

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MARYLAND 48 ENAE 791 - Launch and Entry Vehicle Design
Check on Approximation Formulas

= 15o
km
ve = 10
sec
kg
= 300 2
m

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MARYLAND 49 ENAE 791 - Launch and Entry Vehicle Design